SECTION 3
Measurement
The information presented in this section provides sufficient
information for determining flow quantities with a reasonable
degree of accuracy, but not necessarily to the accuracy desired
for custody transfer. Agreement of acceptable accuracy for cus-
FIG. 3-1
Nomenclature
a = maximum transverse dimension of a straightening
vane passage
A = cross sectional area of any passage within an
assembled straightening vane
b = Equation factor in Reynolds number calculation
= ratio of the orifice or throat diameter to the internal
diameter of the meter run, dimensionless
C = Pitot tube flow coefficient
C = the product of multiplying all orifice correction
factors
CNT = volume indicated by the number of pulses or
counts
Cpl = liquid pressure correction factor. Correction for
the change in volume resulting from application
of pressure. Proportional to the liquid compressi-
bility factor, which depends upon both relative
density and temperature.
Cps = correction factor for effect of pressure on steel.
See API Manual of Petroleum Measurement
Standards, Chapter 12, Section 2
Cg = gravity correction factor for orifice well tester to
change from a gas specific gravity of 0.6
Ctl = liquid temperature correction factor. Proportional
to the thermal coefficient which varies with den-
sity and temperature
Cts = correction factor for effect of temperature on steel
d = orifice diameter, in.
D = internal pipe diameter of orifice meter
run or prover section, in.
Dp = The difference between the flowing pressure and
the equilibrium vapor pressure of the liquid.
= Flowing fluid density, lb/ft3
e = orifice edge thickness, in.
E = orifice plate thickness, in.
Em = modulus of elasticity for steel [(30)(106)] psi
F = liquid compressibility factor
Fa = orifice thermal expansion factor. Corrects for the
metallic expansion or contraction of the orifice
plate. Generally ignored between 0 and 120F
Fb = basic orifice factor
Fg = specific gravity factor applied to change from a
specific gravity of 1.0 (air) to the specific gravity
of the flowing gas
Fgt = gravity-temperature factor for liquids
3-1
tody transfer should be between the parties involved, and sup-
plemental information and procedures may be required, such
as Chapter 14, Section 3 of the API Manual of Petroleum Meas-
urement Standards.
Fna = units conversion factor for pitot tubes
Fpb = pressure base factor applied to change the base
pressure from 14.73 psia
Fpm = pressure factor applied to meter volumes to cor-
rect to standard pressure. See API Manual of
Petroleum Measurement Standards, Chapter 12,
Section 2
Fpv = supercompressibility factor required to correct
for deviation from the ideal gas laws =
1/Z
Fr = Reynolds number factor. To correct the calculated
basic orifice factor to the actual flowing Reynolds
number
Fs = steam factor
Ftb = temperature base factor. To change the tempera-
ture base from 60F to another desired base
Ftf = flowing temperature factor to change from the
assumed flowing temperature of 60F to the ac-
tual flowing temperature
Ftm = temperature correction factor applied to displace-
ment meter volumes to correct to standard tem-
perature. See API Manual of Petroleum
Measurement Standards, Chapter 12, Section 2
G,G1 = specific gravity at 60F
Gf = specific gravity at flowing temperature
H = pressure, inches of mercury
hm = differential pressure measured across the orifice
plate in inches of mercury at 60F
hw = differential pressure measured across the orifice
plate in inches of water at 60F
hwPf = pressure extension. The square root of the differen-
tial pressure times the square root of the abso-
lute static pressure
k = ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure to
the specific heat at constant volume
K = a numerical constant. Pulses generated per unit
volume through a turbine or positive displace-
ment meter
L = length of straightening vane element
MF = meter factor, a number obtained by dividing the
actual volume of liquid passed through the meter
during proving by the volume registered by the
meter
P = pressure, psia
Pb = base pressure, psia
 FIG. 3-1 (Contd)
Pf1, Pf2 = static pressure at either the upstream(1) or down- S = square of supercompressibility
stream(2) pressure tap, psia Tb = base temperature, F
Pp = operating or observed pressure, psig. Tf = flowing temperature, F
Ps = pressure at which the base volume of a meter Tmeas = reference temperature of the orifice plate
prover was determined, usually 0 psig.
bore, F
P1/P2 = pressure ratio
Q = gas flow rate, cu ft/day Y = expansion factor to compensate for the change in
Qh = rate of flow, usually in std. cu ft/hr or gal./hr density as the fluid passes through an orifice
Rh = maximum differential range, in. of water YCR = critical flow constant
Rp = maximum pressure range of pressure spring, psi Z = compressibility factor

The American Petroleum Institute Manual of Petroleum FLOW CALCULATION GUIDE

Measurement Standards is the source of a large portion of the
information presented in this Section. The information most The Flow Calculation Guide (Fig. 3-2) is the suggested start-
used in the Gas Processing Industry has been extracted and ing point for any fluid measuring determination. This chart
reprinted. Copies of the complete API Manual of Petroleum identifies the necessary data to determine flows of gas, liquid,
Measurement Standards or specific chapters and sections can and steam using mechanical meters or differential pressure
be ordered from: devices. The equations to determine either volumetric or mass
quantities are shown in Fig. 3-3.
American Petroleum Institute
Publications and Distribution Section
1220 L Street Northwest GAS MEASUREMENT
Washington, D.C. 20005
Orifice-Meter Measurement
CHAPTER TITLE The most commonly used differential measurement device,
1 Vocabulary the orifice meter, is widely accepted for use in measuring vol-
2 Tank Calibration umes of liquids or vapors. A correctly installed and maintained
3 Tank Gauging orifice may provide an overall accuracy within plus or minus
4 Proving Systems 2%.
5 Metering The procedures presented in this chapter for calculating
6 Metering Assemblies flow by use of an orifice meter are designed to provide approxi-
7 Temperature Determination mate solutions using a hand calculator or equivalent, and do
8 Sampling not include the rigorous, iterative solution procedures re-
9 Density quired when using the Reader-Harris/Gallagher flow equation
10 Sediment and Water recommended for accurate, custody transfer calculations with
11 Physical Properties computing equipment. The procedures for applying the
12 Calculation of Petroleum Quantities Reader-Harris/Gallagher equation can be found in Chapter
13 Statistical Aspects of Measuring and Sampling 14.3 of the API Manual of Petroleum Measurement Standards
14 Natural Gas Fluids Measurement published after 1994.
15 Metrication
16 Petroleum Measurement by Weight The orifice meter consists of static pressure and differential-
17 Marine Accountability pressure recording gauges connected to an orifice flange or
orifice fitting. The orifice meter tube (meter run) consists of
Chapter 14 is of particular interest to Gas Processors be- upstream and downstream sections of pipe for which size and
cause it applies specifically to the measurement of gas and tolerance have been determined through calculation and
liquefied gas products. Chapter 14 is further divided as fol- which conform to specifications set forth in ANSI/API 2530
lows: (GPA 8185).
The orifice plate is held perpendicular to flow by flanges or
a fitting. Bore, circumference, edge sharpness, and other tol-
SECTION TITLE erances must meet specifications as set forth in ANSI/API
14.3 Concentric, Square-Edged Orifice Meters 2530 (GPA 8185).
(ANSI/API 2530) (GPA 8185), (AGA Report No. 3)
14.4 Converting Mass of Natural Gas Liquids and Orifice Flanges (Fig. 3-4a) When slip-on or screwed
Vapors to Equivalent Liquid Volumes (GPA 8173) orifice flanges are used, the end of the pipe shall extend
14.5 Calculation of Gross Heating Value, Specific through the flanges so that there is no recess greater than 1/4"
Gravity, and Compressibility of Natural Gas between the end of the pipe and the orifice plate. It is preferred
Mixtures from Compositional Analysis (GPA 2172)
that no recess exist.
14.6 Installing and Proving Density Meters
14.7 Mass Measurement of Natural Gas Liquids (GPA- When weldneck flanges or weldend orifice fittings are used,
8182) the average inside diameter of the section of pipe connected to
14.8 Liquefied Petroleum Gas Measurement the inlet side of the fitting or flange should equal the inside

3-2
 FIG. 3-2
Flow Calculation Guide

Gas Liquid Steam

Turbine or Orifice Orifice Turbine or Orifice

Displacement Displacement

Factors Units Mass Vol Mass Vol Mass Vol Mass Vol Mass Fig.
Units of Measurement lb/hr scf/hr lb/hr scf/hr lb/hr gph lb/hr gph lb/hr
#

Square Root of Differential (in. H2O)

hw
Square Root of Static Pressure (psia)
Pf
Basic Orifice Factor Fb 3-16
Pressure Base Factor Fpb 3-3
Flowing Temperature Factor Ftf 3-3
Temperature Factor Ftm 3-1
Temp Correction Factor (Liquids) Ctl 3-22
Pressure Correction Factor (Liquids) Cpl 3-3
Pressure Factor Fpm 3-1
Supercompressibility Factor Fpv 23-3
Square of Supercompressibility Factor S 3-1
Density 3-1
Square Root of Density
3-1
Specific Gravity Factor Gas Fg 3-3
Gravity-Temperature Factor Liquid Fgt 3-3
Meter Factor MF 3-1
Count (Volume) CNT 3-1
Constant 1.0618 1.0618
Steam Factor Fs 3-19/20
Reynolds Number Factor Fr 3-17
Expansion Factor Y 3-18
Temperature Base Factor Ftb 3-3
Orifice Thermal Expansion Factor Fa 3-3

Notes:
1. This guide is intended for use in obtaining approximate flows when used in conjunction with data contained in this section as
referenced in the far right hand column.
2. To obtain flow, substitute areas containing dots with known numbers and multiply top to bottom.
3. The number of factors used may vary depending on method of calculation in specific application, content of flowing stream, and
individual contractual agreements.
4. Factors appearing in shaded areas are not generally necessary for calculating approximate flows.
5. The factors Fpv, S, Ctl, Cpl, Fr, Y, and Fa must be obtained for the specific substance being measured.

3-3
 FIG. 3-3
Flow Calculation Guide Equations

MASS lb/hr = r MF CNT Eq. 3-1

TURBINE OF
DISPLACEMENT
VOLUME scf/hr = Fpb Ftm Fr m S MF CNT Ftb Eq. 3-2
GAS
MASS lb/hr = hw Fb r 1.0618 Fg Fa Y Eq. 3-3
ORIFICE
VOLUME scf/hr = hw Pf Fph Ftf Fpv Fg Fr Y Fth Fa Eq. 3-4

MASS lb/hr. = r MF CNT Eq. 3-1

TURBINE OR
DISPLACEMENT
VOLUME gph = Ctl Cpl MF CNT Eq. 3-5

LIQUID
MASS lb/hr = hw Fb r 1.0618 Fg Fa Eq. 3-6

ORIFICE
Eq. 3-7
VOLUME gph = hw Fb Fgt Fr Fa

Eq. 3-8
STEAM ORIFICE MASS lb/hr = hw Fb r f Fb Fs Fr Y Fa

Other Equations

Fpb= 14.73 Q = C' hw *Pf

Pb

Ftb = 460 + Tb C' = Fb Fpb Ftf Fpv Fg Fr Y Ftb Fa

520

520
Ftf = Fa = 1 + [0.0000185(Tf - Tmeas)] for 304/316 Stainless Steel
460 + Tf

1.0057 Gf 1
1.0000 Cpl = 1 -(F Dp)
Fg = Fgt =
G G1 G1

(See Fig. 23-12 and 23-13 for Gf/Gl conversions.)

3-4
 FIG. 3-4
Orifice Plate Holders

Orifice
Plate Differential
Pressure
Taps
Cover
Plate

Jack
Bolts

Standard Orifice Flange

(a)

Single
Single Chamber
Chamber Orifice
(Junior)Fitting
Orifice Fitting
(b)
(b)

Cover
Plate

Chamber
Differential Valve
Pressure Taps

Senior Orifice
Fitting
Flanged Senior
(c) Side Sectional View

3-5
diameter of the fitting or flange within the tolerance given in
Fig. 3-7.
When flanged orifice fittings are used they should be aligned
with the inside diameter of the flange on the meter tube so
that there are no sharp edges or offsets at the flange connec-
tion. In order to prevent slipping at the flange joint after align-
ment, it is suggested that dowel pins or other alignment
methods be used. Where separable gaskets are used to seal an
orifice plate in an orifice holder, care must be taken to assure
proper alignment and prevent gasket extension into the flow-
ing stream.
Orifice flanges require that the line be shut down and de-
pressured in order to inspect or change the orifice plate. The
flange bolts are loosened and removed. The flanges are spread
by use of "jack" bolts, and the plate is removed.
Single Chamber Orifice Fitting (Fig. 3-4b) This
fitting also requires that the line be shut down and depres-
sured in order to inspect or change the orifice plate. However,
this fitting does not require breaking apart the flanges.
Instead, the bolts are loosened on the cover plate and the cover
plate removed. The orifice plate holder and orifice plate are
then removed from the fitting. These fittings provide precise
alignment of the orifice plate.
Senior Orifice Fitting (Fig. 3-4c) This fitting al-
lows the removal and inspection of an orifice plate while the
line remains under pressure. It allows the orifice plate holder
and orifice plate to be raised into the upper cavity of the fitting
by the use of a crank handle. A valve is then closed to separate
the upper cavity from the lower cavity of the fitting. The upper
cavity is then depressured, the top cover plate removed, and
the orifice plate cranked out.
Orifice Plates The thickness of the orifice plate for
2 in. through 10 in. nominal diameter pipe shall be at least
0.115 in., while that for 12 in. pipe shall be at least 0.175 in.
As shown in the Fig. 3-5, the maximum thickness varies from
0.130 to 0.398 in. as pipe size is increased from 2 to 12 in.
These values are abstracted from ANSI/API 2530 (GPA 8185),
and that standard should be consulted if more detail is de-
sired.
The thickness of the orifice plate at the orifice edge shall not
exceed the smaller of:
a. 1/50 of the pipe diameter, D
b. 1/8 of the orifice diameter, d
If the thickness of the orifice plate must be greater than
permitted by these limitations, the downstream edge shall be
cut away (beveled or recessed) at an angle of 45 or less to the
face of the plate, leaving the thickness of the orifice edge
within these requirements. All orifice plates which are beveled
should have the square-edge side (i.e., the side opposite the
beveling) stamped "inlet" or the beveled side stamped "outlet".
The upstream face of the orifice plate shall be flat and per-
pendicular to the axis of the meter tube, when in position be-
tween the orifice flanges or in the orifice fitting. Any plate that
does not depart from flatness along any diameter by more than
0.010 inch per inch of the dam height, (D-d)/2, shall be consid-
ered flat.
The upstream edge of the orifice shall be square and sharp
so that it will not show a beam of light when checked with an
orifice edge gauge, or alternately will not reflect a beam of light
3-6
when viewed without magnification. The orifice shall not have
a burred or feathered edge. It shall be maintained in this con-
dition at all times. Moreover, the orifice plate shall be kept
clean at all times and free from accumulation of dirt, ice, and
other extraneous material. Orifice plates with small nicks in
the edge can be expected to increase the flow measurement
uncertainty.
In centering orifice plates, the orifice must be concentric
with the inside of the meter tube or orifice fitting. The concen-
tricity shall be maintained within 3% of the inside diameter
of both the upstream and downstream sections of the orifice
meter tube or fitting along all diameters. This restriction is
more critical in small diameter tubes, in meter tubes with
large beta ratio orifice plates, and when the orifice is offset
toward the pressure taps.
The measured orifice diameter is defined as the arithmetic
average of four or more inside diameter measurements evenly
spaced. The measured orifice diameter shall not differ from
the orifice diameter used in computing the basic orifice factor,
or from any diameter, by an amount greater than the toler-
ances shown in Fig. 3-6.
The measured orifice diameter should be used in the coeffi-
cient equations for the calculation of the flow coefficient with
minimum uncertainty. The orifice plate temperature at the
time of measurement and the actual diameter measurement
should be recorded for use in the calculation of the orifice ther-
mal expansion factor, Fa, when appropriate.
The orifice to meter tube diameter ratio, = d/D, should be
limited as follows:
With meters using flange taps, shall be between 0.15
and 0.70
With meters using pipe taps, shall be between 0.20 and
0.67
When using the above beta ratios, the tolerance of the orifice
coefficient (Fb factors) is plus or minus 0.5% for flange taps
and plus or minus 0.75% for pipe taps. Beta ratios down to
0.10 and up to 0.75 may be used for flange taps but the coeffi-
cient tolerance increases. Beta ratios down to 0.10 and up to
0.70 may be used with pipe taps but the coefficient tolerance
increases.
Meter Tubes The term "meter tube" shall mean the
straight upstream pipe of the same diameter (of length A and
A on Figs. 3-8 to 3-13) between the orifice flanges or fittings,
and the similar downstream pipe (length B on Figs. 3-8 to
3-13) beyond the orifice.
The sections of pipe to which the orifice flanges are attached
or the sections adjacent to the orifice flange or fitting shall
comply with the following:
Seamless pipe or cold drawn seamless tubing may be
used. The pipe walls may be honed, machined, or ground.
The wall finish should simulate that of new smooth pipe
or cold drawn tubing.
Grooves, scoring, pits, raised ridges resulting from seams,
distortion caused by welding, offsets, etc. (regardless of
the size of such irregularities) which affect the inside di-
ameter at such points by more than the tolerance given
in Fig. 3-7 shall not be permitted. When these measure-
ments are exceeded, the roughness may be corrected by
filling in or grinding or filing off, so as to obtain smooth-
ness within the tolerance.
 FIG. 3-5
Orifice Plate Dimensions

MAX 45 Mark Outlet

MIN 30 On Orifice Fitting
E e Plates

d Mark Inlet
ACTUAL PIPE INSIDE DIAMETER On Paddle
Type Plates
D

Nominal Inside Diameter, In Inches

2 3 4 6 8 10 12 16 20 24 30
Published 1.687 2.624 3.152 9.562 18.812
Inside 1.939 2.900 3.438 4.897 5.761 7.981 10.020 11.938 15.000 19.000 23.000 29.000
Diameter 2.067 2.300 3.068 3.826 4.026 5.187 6.065 7.625 8.071 10.136 11.374 12.090 14.688 15.250 19.250 22.624 23.250 28.750 29.250
Office Plate Thickness, E, In Inches
Minimum 0.115 0.115 0.115 0.115 0.115 0.115 0.115 0.115 0.115 0.115 0.175 0.175 0.175 0.175 0.240 0.240 0.240 0.370 0.370
Maximum 0.130 0.130 0.130 0.130 0.130 0.163 0.192 0.254 0.319 0.319 0.379 0.398 0.490 0.500 0.505 0.505 0.562 0.562 0.578
Recommended 0.125 0.125 0.125 0.125 0.125 0.125 0.125 0.125 0.125 0.250 0.250 0.250 0.375 0.375 0.375 0.375 0.375 0.500 0.500
Orifice
Diameter e d/8 Maximum Orifice Edge Thickness, e, In Inches
d
0.250* 1/32 x 1/32 x 1/32 1/32 1/32 1/32
0.375* 3/64 x 3/64 3/64 3/64
0.500 1/16 x 1/16 1/16 1/16 1/16
0.625 5/64 x 5/64 5/64 5/64
0.750 3/32 x 3/32 3/32
0.875 7/64 x 7/64 7/64 7/64
1.000 1/8 1/8 1/8 1/8
1.125 9/64 x 9/64 9/64 9/64
1.250 5/32 x 5/32 5/32 5/32 5/32
1.375 11/64 11/64 11/64 11/64
1.500 3/16 x3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16
1.625 13/64 13/64 13/64 13/64 13/64
1.750 7/32 x 7/32 7/32 7/32 7/32
1.875 15/64 x15/64 15/64 15/64
2.000 1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4
2.250 9/32 x 9/32 9/32 9/32
2.375 19/64 x19/64 19/64 19/64 19/64
2.500 5/16 5/16 5/16 5/16
2.750 11/32 11/32 11/32 11/32
2.875 23/64 23/64 23/64 23/64 23/64 23/64
3.000 3/8 x 3/8 3/8 3/8 3/8 3/8
3.250 13/32 13/32 13/32 13/32 13/32
3.500 7/16 x 7/16 7/16 7/16 7/16
3.625 29/64 x29/64 29/64 29/64
3.750 15/32 15/32 15/32
4.000 1/2 1/2 1/2
4.250 17/32 17/32 17/32
4.500 9/16 x 9/16 9/16
4.625 37/64 x37/64
4.750 19/32
5.000 5/8

Notes:
1. The maximum edge thickness is defined by e D/50 or e d/8, whichever is smaller.
2. Orifice edge thickness marked with x in this table is the maximum for that particular meter tube diameter and is applicable to all larger orifice diameters for that meter tube
diameter.
3. Orifice diameters smaller than those marked x are defined by e d/8.
4. Orifice plates of which the edge thickness meets the value e D/30 need not be rebeveled unless reconditioning is required for other reasons.
5. All dimensions are in inches. For ease in machining, the next smaller value of e in even multiples of 1/16 or 1/32 inch may be used where e is given in 1/64ths.
6. Orifices used to measure dual directional flows must not be beveled. Where e exceeds the above limits, the flow constant Fb may be subject to higher uncertainty.
7. Use of diameters marked with an asterisk (*) may result in CD uncertantities larger than those specified in API 2530 (GPA 8185) 14.3, Part 1.

3-7
 FIG. 3-6 FIG. 3-9
Practical Tolerance for Orifice Diameters (inches) Less Than Ten Pipe Diameters (D) Between Two Ells in
Same Plane Upstream of Meter Tube
Orifice Size "d" Tolerance
plus or minus
0.250 0.0003 A
METER TUBE
B
0.375 0.0004 LESS
THAN 10 D
0.500 0.0005 ORIFICE

METER TUBE
0.625 0.0005 A B
0.750 0.0005
0.875 0.0005 STRAIGHTENING
VANES
ORIFICE

LESS C C
1.000 0.0005 THAN 10 D

Over 1.000 0.0005d

FIG. 3-10
FIG. 3-7
Two Ells Not in Same Plane Upstream of Meter Tube
Maximum Pipe Diameter Tolerance

METER TUBE
A B
LESS
THAN 10 D

ORIFICE
METER TUBE
A B
STRAIGHTENING VANES

LESS ORIFICE
THAN 10 D
C C

FIG. 3-11
Reducer or Expander Upstream of Meter Tube

METER TUBE METER TUBE

A B A B

ORIFICE
ORIFICE
AS REQUIRED BY AS REQUIRED BY
PRECEDING FITTING PRECEDING FITTING
FIG. 3-8
Greater Than Ten Pipe Diameters (D) Between Two Ells in
the Same Plane Upstream of Meter Tube
FIG. 3-12
Partly Closed Valve Upstream of Meter Tube
METER TUBE
A B METER TUBE

A B
ORIFICE

ORIFICE
10 D OR MORE
REGULATOR OR
PARTIALLY CLOSED
VALVE METER TUBE

A B
C C

STRAIGHTENING VANES ORIFICE

3-8
 Abrupt changes in diameter (shoulders, offsets, ridges,
FIG. 3-13
and so forth) shall not exist in meter tubes.
Minimum Meter Tube Lengths in Terms of Pipe Diameters The meter tube diameter must agree with the published
and Beta () Ratio Use For All Pipe Sizes* inside diameters within the tolerance allowed by Fig. 3-7.
The absolute value of any diameter measurement in the
Installation Ratio downstream section shall not vary from the published
Dimension
Figure 0.5 0.6 0.67 0.7 0.75 diameter of the meter tube by more than the tolerance
Fig. 3-8 A 6.9 9.3 12.5 13.9 16.7 allowed by Fig. 3-7. The following equation may be used
B
to calculate the variance of the downstream section of the
3.8 4.0 4.2 4.3 4.5
meter tube:
Fig. 3-9 A 10.0 13.8 17.4 19.0 22.0
A 9.0 10.3 11.7 12.3 13.8 Any Dia D
C 5.0 5.5 6.2 6.5 7.1 (100) percent tolerance Eq 3-10
D
C 4.0 4.8 5.5 5.8 6.7
in Fig. 37
B 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.3 4.5 Note use of absolute value in Eq 3-10.
Fig. 3-10 A 20.8 25.0 28.8 31.0 35.2
Application of this equation doubles the tolerance of the
A 10.0 11.4 12.8 13.5 15.0 downstream section of the meter tube.
C 5.0 5.5 6.2 6.5 7.2
The temperature at which the meter tube measurements
C 5.0 5.9 6.6 7.0 7.8
are made should be recorded for possible correction to
B 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.3 4.5 operating conditions. Within a temperature range of 0F
Fig. 3-11 A 7.5 9.7 11.8 12.1 13.6 to 120F, however, this deviation is ordinarily no greater
B 3.8 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.5 than the tolerances allowed and such correction is not
Fig. 3-12 A 25.0 30.0 36.0 38.6 43.5 required.
A 10.2 12.2 14.2 15.3 17.5 Length of Pipe Preceding and Following an
C 5.0 5.5 6.2 6.4 7.0 Orifice Figs. 3-8 through 3-12 show common types of me-
C 5.2 6.7 8.0 8.9 10.5 ter tube installations. Fig. 3-13 lists the minimum length at
B 3.8 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.5 various beta ratios for flange tap meter tubes in terms of pipe
diameters for each of the figures.
*Based on flange taps. For pipe taps add 2 diameters to A, A, and C and
8 pipe diameters to B.
The lengths in Fig. 3-13 are based on flange taps. For pipe
taps, add two pipe diameters of length upstream and eight
The mean inside diameter of the meter tube shall be deter- pipe diameters downstream. Do not install any connection
mined as follows: other than pipe taps in the upstream or downstream tube
minimum length.
Measurements are to be made on at least four diameters
equally spaced in a plane one inch upstream from the If the meter tube installation under consideration is not ex-
upstream face of the orifice plate. The mean (arithmetic plicitly covered in the installations presented in Figs. 3-8
average) of these four or more measurements is (defined through 3-12 or if there are other fittings close to the first
as the measured meter tube diameter) to be used in the fitting on the inlet of the meter tube which could cause flow
calculation of the flow coefficient when minimum uncer- disturbances, use dimensions for Fig. 3-12.
tainty of this variable is desired.
Check measurements of the upstream meter tube inside Straightening Vanes The purpose of straightening
diameter shall be made at two or more additional cross- vanes is to eliminate swirls and cross currents set up by the
sections. The actual locations of the check measurements pipe fittings and valves upstream of the meter tube. The speci-
of the diameter, circumferentially and axially along the fications which follow apply particularly to the type of vanes
tube, are not specified. These checks should be taken at shown in Fig. 3-14.
points that will indicate the maximum and minimum of
diameter that exists, covering at least two pipe diame- In the construction of vanes, the maximum transverse di-
ters from the face of the orifice plate, or past the flange mension "a," Fig. 3-14, of any passage through the vanes shall
or fitting weld, whichever is the greater distance. Check not exceed one-fourth (1/4) the inside diameter, "D," of the
measurements are used to verify the uniformity of the pipe. Also, the cross-sectional area, "A," of any passage within
upstream meter tube but do not become a part of the the assembled vanes shall not exceed one-sixteenth (1/16) of
measured meter tube diameter. the cross-sectional area of the containing pipe. It is not neces-
sary that all the vane passages be of the same size, but their
The tolerance for the measurements of meter tubes is: arrangement should be symmetrical. The length "L" of the
vanes shall be at least ten (10) times the largest inside "a"
The difference between the maximum measured diame- dimension.
ter and the minimum measured diameter on the inlet
section shall not exceed the tolerance allowed by Fig. 3-7 The vanes may be built of standard weight pipe or thin-wall
as a percent of the published diameter. Equation 3-9 may tubing. Round, square, or other shape tubing may be used. The
be used to calculate the variance of the upstream section vane tubes should be securely welded together at each tangent
of the meter tube: point and can be built with or without a supporting band at
each end. All weld metal should be ground off smooth so as not
Max Dia Min Dia to cause disturbances to the flow. Vanes should be securely
(100) percent tolerance Eq 3-9 anchored in the meter tube by use of a flange ring or set screws.
D in Fig. 3-7

3-9
 FIG. 3-14
Flow Straightening Vanes

FIG. 3-15
Typical Test Set-Up for Measuring Gas from a Separator Vent

ORIFICE

FIELD

NOT LESS THAN 8 D

SEPARATOR PRESSURE
CONNECTION IN
D FLANGE OR WITHIN
THREE DIAMETERS
OF ORIFICE

FLOW
BACK PRESSURE
REGULATOR

ORIFICE
INSTALLATION

PORTABLE
RECORDER

Gas Orifice Calculations To determine the approximate orifice size required, the cor-
responding Fb is calculated using appropriate terms of Eq 3-4;
Orifice Sizing A simple calculation is often needed to
properly size an orifice plate for new or changing flow rates Qh = Fb Ftf Fg

hw Pf from Eq 3-4
through existing meter tubes. The procedure uses an existing
or assumed flow quantity, a desired differential pressure at a Rearranging,
specific static pressure, an estimated flowing temperature, Qh
and a determined or assumed specific gravity. The basic orifice Fb = Eq 3-11
coefficient is calculated from the gas flow equation. This cal- Ftf Fg

hw Pf
culated value is then compared to the Fb table, Fig. 3-16, and
14,200
the next larger size is usually selected. Fb =
0.9636 (1.1952)

50 75
Example 3-1 Size an orifice plate in gas service.
Given Data: Fb = 201.342
Line Size, D = 4.026 in. Referring to the Fb (Fig. 3-16) for a 4.026 line with flange
Flange Taps taps, access the Fb value which approximates the calculated
Specific Gravity = 0.700 Fb. A 1.000 in. orifice size would be selected which has a
Flowing Temperature = 100F 201.99 Fb value. More precise calculations would include other
Flowing Pressure = 75 psia corrections.
Flow Rate = 14,200 cu ft/hr Orifice Flow Rate The following example illustrates
Desired Differential = 50 in. of water a calculation of flow rate through an orifice.

3-10
 FIG. 3-16
Flange Taps, Basic Orifice Factors, Fb

3-11
 FIG. 3-16 (Contd)
Flange Taps, Basic Orifice Factors, Fb

3-12
 FIG. 3-17
"b" Values for Reynolds Number Factor, Fr Flange Taps

3-13
 FIG. 3-17 (Contd)
"b" Values for Reynolds Number Factor, Fr Flange Taps

3-14
 FIG. 3-18
Expansion Factors Flange Taps, Y2 (static downstream)

3-15
 FIG. 3-19
Steam Coefficient Factors, Saturated Steam

1.0618
Fs = , For BellowsType Meters

Pfv

Pressure, Steam Quality, Per Cent

psig 100 99 98 97 96 95 94 93 92 91 90

1 .0534 .0537 .0539 .0542 .0545 .0548 .0551 .0554 .0557 .0560 .0563
5 .0530 .0533 .0535 .0538 .0541 .0544 .0547 .0550 .0553 .0556 .0559
10 .0526 .0529 .0531 .0534 .0537 .0540 .0543 .0546 .0549 .0552 .0555
15 .0523 .0526 .0528 .0531 .0534 .0537 .0539 .0542 .0545 .0548 .0551
20 .0520 .0523 .0526 .0528 .0531 .0534 .0537 .0540 .0543 .0546 .0549
25 .0518 .0521 .0524 .0526 .0529 .0532 .0535 .0537 .0540 .0543 .0546
50 .0511 .0513 .0516 .0518 .0521 .0524 .0527 .0529 .0532 .0535 .0538
75 .0506 .0508 .0511 .0514 .0516 .0519 .0522 .0525 .0527 .0530 .0533
100 .0503 .0505 .0508 .0510 .0513 .0516 .0518 .0521 .0524 .0527 .0530
125 .0500 .0503 .0505 .0508 .0510 .0513 .0516 .0519 .0521 .0524 .0527
150 .0498 .0501 .0503 .0506 .0509 .0511 .0514 .0517 .0519 .0522 .0525
175 .0497 .0499 .0502 .0504 .0507 .0510 .0512 .0515 .0518 .0521 .0524
200 .0496 .0498 .0501 .0503 .0506 .0509 .0511 .0514 .0517 .0520 .0522
250 .0494 .0497 .0499 .0502 .0504 .0507 .0510 .0512 .0515 .0518 .0521
300 .0493 .0496 .0498 .0501 .0503 .0506 .0509 .0511 .0514 .0517 .0520
350 .0493 .0495 .0498 .0500 .0503 .0505 .0508 .0511 .0513 .0516 .0519
400 .0493 .0495 .0498 .0500 .0503 .0505 .0508 .0511 .0513 .0516 .0519
450 .0493 .0495 .0498 .0500 .0503 .0505 .0508 .0511 .0513 .0516 .0519
500 .0493 .0496 .0498 .0501 .0503 .0506 .0508 .0511 .0514 .0516 .0519
550 .0494 .0496 .0499 .0501 .0504 .0506 .0509 .0511 .0514 .0517 .0520
600 .0494 .0497 .0499 .0502 .0504 .0507 .0509 .0512 .0515 .0517 .0520

FIG. 3-20
Steam Coefficient Factors, Superheated Steam

1.0618
Fs = , For BellowsType Meters

Pf v

Pressure, Total Steam Temperture, F

psig 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 700 800 1000 1200
25 .0505 .0488 .0472 .0459 .0446 .0435 .0424 .0405 .0388 .0360 .0338
50 .0510 .0491 .0475 .0460 .0447 .0436 .0425 .0405 .0389 .0361 .0338
75 .0494 .0477 .0462 .0449 .0437 .0426 .0406 .0389 .0361 .0338
100 .0498 .0479 .0464 .0450 .0438 .0426 .0407 .0389 .0361 .0338
125 .0501 .0482 .0466 .0451 .0439 .0427 .0407 .0390 .0361 .0338
150 .0485 .0468 .0453 .0440 .0428 .0408 .0390 .0361 .0338
175 .0488 .0470 .0454 .0441 0429 .0408 .0391 .0362 .0339
200 .0491 .0472 .0456 .0442 .0430 .0409 .0391 .0362 .0339
250 .0476 .0459 .0444 .0432 .0410 .0392 .0362 .0339
300 .0481 .0462 .0447 .0434 .0411 .0393 .0363 .0339
350 .0486 .0466 .0449 .0436 .0412 .0393 .0363 .0339
400 .0492 .0470 .0452 .0438 .0414 .0394 .0364 .0340
450 .0474 .0455 .0440 .0415 .0395 .0364 .0340
500 .0478 .0458 .0442 .0416 .0396 .0364 .0340
600 .0488 .0465 .0446 .0419 .0398 .0365 .0341
.
700 .0472 0451 .0422 .0400 .0366 .0341
800 .0480 .0457 .0425 .0401 .0367 .0341
900 .0489 .0463 .0428 .0403 .0368 .0342
1000 .0500 .0469 .0431 .0405 .0369 .0342
1100 .0477 .0435 .0407 .0370 .0343
1200 .0485 .0438 .0409 .0371 .0343
1300 .0494 .0442 .0412 .0372 .0344
1400 .0505 .0446 .0414 .0372 .0344
1500 .0518 .0450 .0416 .0373 .0345

3-16
Example 3-2 Calculate an approximate flow rate for the ori- timated. Critical flow occurs when the downstream pressure
fice using appropriate terms from Eq 3-4. is less than approximately 50% of the source pressure, P. The
following equation approximates a critical flow volume:
Given Data:
Line Size, D = 6.065 in.

1
Orifice Size, d = 3.500 in. Q = 578,400 d2 YCR P Eq 3-15
Flange Taps Tf (G)
Flowing Temperature = 70F
Flowing Pressure = 90 psia (where Tf is R)
Differential = 60 in. of water k+1
1/2
Specific Gravity = 0.750 k1
k 2
YCR = Eq 3-16
From Fig. 3-3, Z k+1

Qh = Fb Ftf Fg
f
hw P from Eq 3-4
Example 3-4 Find the loss from a 6 inch pipeline transport-
Qh = 2655.0 (0.9905) (1.1547)

60 90 ing methane, with a 1 inch (circular equivalent area) hole.
Qh = 223,144 cu ft/hr P = 500 psia G = 0.55 Z = 0.95
More precise calculations would include Fpb and Fpv corrections. Tf = 100F = 560R k = 1.32
2.32
Orifice Well Test 1.32 2 0.32
1/2

Often it is necessary to determine an approximate flow YCR = = 0.69

quantity from a well head or field separator vent to the atmos- 0.95 2.32
phere for test purposes. The use of a "well head tester" has

been a common practice since the early days of the oil and gas 1
Q = 578,400 (1)2 (0.69) (500)
industry. An orifice is installed between a pair of flanges, at 560 0.55
the outlet of a pipe nipple which is at least eight pipe diameters
long. The square edge of the orifice faces the flow. The diame- = 11,370,000 std cu ft per day
ter of the pipe nipple should not be greater than the preceding
fittings. The pressure connection may be made in the up- For subsonic or subcritical flow, first estimate an equivalent
stream flange or at any point in the pipe nipple within three circular area for the hole in the pipeline and then calculate a
diameters from the orifice. The pressure differential across the flow based on the orifice equation.
orifice is the difference between the upstream pressure and
atmospheric pressure.
LIQUID MEASUREMENT
An approximate flow rate may be calculated from:
Orifice Meters
Q = 16,330 (1 + 4) (d2) H (29.32 + 0.3H)
Ftf Cg
The rate of flow in liquid-meter measurement is determined
Eq 3-12 from the equation given in Fig. 3-3. When measurement of
For conditions other than 60F (flowing) and G of 0.6, cor- hydrocarbon liquids at high pressure is undertaken, it may be
rection factors must be applied. necessary to apply a compressibility factor. This factor should
NOT be confused with Fpv for gases. Fig. 3-21 supplies liquid

520 hydrocarbon compressibility, F, and Fig. 3-22 the temperature
Ftf = Eq 3-13 correction factors, Ctl.
460 + Tf
Orifice Sizing An orifice plate can be sized for a par-
ticular liquid flow rate if the line size and fluid characteristics

0.60 are known. All physical orifice requirements defined for gas
Cg = Eq 3-14 measurement are also required for liquid orifice measure-
G
ment. The liquid orifice equation from Fig. 3-3 is used to solve
for Fb, the basic coefficient. After finding Fb, Fig. 3-16 is en-
Example 3-3 Calculate the daily gas flow through a 1-inch
tered at the proper line size. The next largest Fb would then
orifice in a nominal 3-inch pipe. The gas gravity is 0.70, the
relate to a specific orifice size that would be the initial selec-
flowing temperature is 60F, and the pressure upstream of the
tion. For an initial estimated size, only the Fgt correction is
orifice is 5 inches Hg. The published ID of a 3-inch pipe is
used in the equation. For more precise calculations the entire
3.068 in.
Fig. 3-3 equation can be used with all the correction factors.
4
1.0 Example 3-5 Calculate an approximate orifice size for the
Q = 16,330 1 + (1.0)
2

5 [29.32 + (0.3) (5)]
given flow rate and line size.
3.068 Line Size, D = 3.068 in.
1.000 0.9258 = 190,000 std cu ft per day Flange Taps
Specific Gravity at 60F = 0.690
Pipe (Tube) Rupture Gas Flowing Temperature = 40F
The volume of gas that escapes through a pipeline rupture Flow Rate = 3400 gal. per hr
or hole caused by corrosion or mechanical damage can be es- Desired Differential = 50 in. of water

3-17
 FIG. 3-21 To determine the approximate orifice size required, the cor-
Liquid Compressibility, F responding Fb is calculated using appropriate terms of Eq 3-7.
Paraffinic Hydrocarbon Mixtures Qh = Fb Fgt

hw

Qh
NOTE: All factors in this table must have 0.0000 placed in front of the or Fb = From Eq 3-7
numbers listed
Fgt

hw
Liquid Temperature of Flowing Oil, F 3400
Specific
Degrees
API at
= = 394.35
Gravity
at 60F
60F 20 40 60 80 100 125 1.2193

50
0.50 151.5 356 396 442 497 564 656 Referring to the Fb values (Fig. 3-16) for a 3.068 line with
0.51 145.9 322 356 396 446 507 596 flange taps, access the Fb value listed which approximates the
0.52 140.6 290 322 358 403 455 537 calculated Fb. A 1.375 orifice diameter would be selected,
0.53 135.5 266 293 325 364 412 486
0.54 130.5 242 267 295 330 375 439
which has a 393.09 Fb value.
0.55 125.8 221 244 269 301 342 400 Orifice Flow Rate The liquid flow rate through an
0.56 121.2 200 221 247 277 314 370 orifice is calculated using the appropriate equation in Fig. 3-3.
0.57 116.7 182 201 224 252 287 345
The initial calculation can be completed using only the Fb and
0.58 112.5 167 185 206 231 263 318
0.59 108.3 156 170 189 213 242 294
the Fgt correction factors to solve for Qh since those factors are
most significant.
0.60 104.3 145 158 176 197 225 274
0.61 100.5 138 149 164 184 209 252 Example 3-6 Calculate a liquid flowrate for the given orifice
0.62 96.7 126 138 151 169 191 232
setting.
0.63 93.1 119 130 143 158 178 216
0.64 89.6 112 122 134 148 167 202 Line Size, D = 8.071 in.
0.65 86.2 105 114 125 139 157 189 Orifice Size, d = 4.000 in.
0.66 82.9 099 108 118 129 146 178 Flange Taps
0.67 79.7 093 101 110 122 137 167 Specific Gravity at 60F = 0.630
0.68 76.6 088 096 104 114 129 158
Flowing Temperature = 80F
0.69 73.6 083 090 099 108 121 149
Differential = 36 in. of water
0.70 70.6 079 085 093 102 114 141
0.71 67.8 075 081 089 097 109 134 To determine the flowrate from Fig. 3-3,
0.72 65.0 071 077 084 091 103 127
0.73 62.3 067 073 079 087 098 120 Qh = Fb Fgt

hw From Eq 3-7
0.74 59.7 064 070 076 082 093 113
0.75 57.2 061 066 072 078 088 108 The value of Fb from Fig. 3-16 is 3362.9 for an 8.071 in. line
0.76 54.7 059 063 069 075 084 103 with a 4.0 in. orifice. The value of Fgt is calculated from the
0.77 52.3 056 060 065 071 081 098 Fig. 3-3 equation.
0.78 49.9 053 058 063 068 077 094
0.79 47.6 052 056 060 065 074 090
Therefore,
0.80 45.4 049 053 057 062 070 086
0.81 43.2 047 051 055 060 067 082 Q = 3362.9 1.2560 36 = 25,343 gal. hr

0.82 41.1 046 049 053 057 065 079
0.83 39.0 044 048 051 055 063 076 More precise calculations would include Fr and compressi-
0.84 36.9 043 046 050 053 060 073 bility corrections.
0.85 35.0 042 044 048 052 058 070
0.86 33.0 040 043 046 050 056 067 Refer to Chapter 14.8 of the API Manual of Petroleum Meas-
0.87 31.1 039 041 044 048 054 065 urement Standards for calculation of Fr.
0.88 29.3 037 040 043 046 051 063
0.89 27.5 037 039 042 045 050 060 Turbine Meters
0.90 25.7 036 038 041 044 049 059
Turbine meters are velocity-sensing devices. The direction
0.91 24.0 034 037 039 042 047 056
0.92 22.3 033 036 038 041 046 054
of flow through the meter is parallel to a turbines rotary axis
0.93 20.7 033 035 037 040 045 053 and the speed of rotation of the rotor is proportional to the rate
0.94 19.0 031 034 036 039 043 051 of flow.
0.95 17.5 031 033 036 038 043 050 The turbine meter normally consists of one moving part; an
0.96 15.9 030 032 034 037 041 048
0.97 14.4 029 031 033 036 040 047
impeller held in place by high pressure, low drag bearings. A
0.98 12.9 029 030 033 035 039 046 magnetic transducer mounted in the meter body is used to
0.99 11.4 028 029 032 034 038 044 count revolutions as the flow passes. The pulses from the
Ref: API "Petroleum Measurement Standards," Chapter 4
transducer are determined for a known volume passing
1 through the meter to develop a factor in pulses per gallon, or
Note: Liquid Compressibility =
Bulk Modulus other desired unit volume. Turbine meter components are
shown in Fig. 3-23.
Expected accuracies of plus or minus 0.25% can be attained
by certain turbine meters where proper stream conditions are
maintained and the meter is properly installed.

3-18
 FIG. 3-22
Volume Correction Factors for Temperature, Ctl
Paraffinic Hydrocarbon Mixtures

Liquid Specific Degrees A.P.I. Temperature of flowing fluid, F

Gravity at 60F at 60F 0 20 40 60 80 100 125 150 200 250 300

0.50 151.5 1.092 1.064 1.033 1.000 0.965 0.927 0.876

0.51 145.9 1.088 1.061 1.031 1.000 0.967 0.932 0.884
0.52 140.6 1.084 1.058 1.029 1.000 0.969 0.936 0.890
0.53 135.5 1.080 1.054 1.028 1.000 0.971 0.940 0.898
0.54 130.5 1.076 1.051 1.026 1.000 0.972 0.943 0.903
0.55 125.8 1.073 1.049 1.025 1.000 0.974 0.946 0.909
0.56 121.2 1.069 1.046 1.024 1.000 0.975 0.949 0.916
0.57 116.7 1.066 1.044 1.023 1.000 0.977 0.952 0.920
0.58 112.5 1.063 1.042 1.021 1.000 0.978 0.954 0.925
0.59 108.3 1.061 1.040 1.020 1.000 0.979 0.958 0.930
0.60 104.3 1.0573 1.0384 1.0193 1.0000 0.9805 0.9609 0.9361 0.9111
0.61 100.5 1.0551 1.0369 1.0185 1.0000 0.9813 0.9624 0.9386 0.9146
0.62 96.7 1.0524 1.0351 1.0176 1.0000 0.9822 0.9641 0.9413 0.9184 0.8721
0.63 93.1 1.0508 1.0340 1.0171 1.0000 0.9827 0.9653 0.9432 0.9210 0.8762
0.64 89.6 1.0492 1.0330 1.0166 1.0000 0.9832 0.9663 0.9450 0.9234 0.8801
0.65 86.2 1.0478 1.0320 1.0161 1.0000 0.9838 0.9674 0.9467 0.9258 0.8838
0.66 82.9 1.0464 1.0311 1.0156 1.0000 0.9842 0.9683 0.9483 0.9281 0.8873
0.67 79.7 1.0450 1.0301 1.0151 1.0000 0.9847 0.9693 0.9498 0.9303 0.8908
0.68 76.6 1.0437 1.0293 1.0147 1.0000 0.9852 0.9702 0.9513 0.9323 0.8940
0.69 73.6 1.0424 1.0284 1.0143 1.0000 0.9856 0.9711 0.9527 0.9343 0.8971
0.70 70.6 1.0412 1.0276 1.0139 1.0000 0.9860 0.9719 0.9541 0.9362 0.9001
0.71 67.8 1.0401 1.0269 1.0135 1.0000 0.9864 0.9727 0.9554 0.9380 0.9029
0.72 65.0 1.0390 1.0261 1.0131 1.0000 0.9868 0.9734 0.9567 0.9398 0.9057
0.73 62.3 1.0380 1.0255 1.0128 1.0000 0.9871 0.9742 0.9579 0.9414 0.9083
0.74 59.7 1.0370 1.0247 1.0124 1.0000 0.9875 0.9749 0.9590 0.9430 0.9108
0.75 57.2 1.0360 1.0241 1.0121 1.0000 0.9878 0.9755 0.9600 0.9445 0.9131
0.76 54.7 1.0351 1.0235 1.0118 1.0000 0.9881 0.9762 0.9611 0.9460 0.9154
0.77 52.3 1.0342 1.0229 1.0115 1.0000 0.9884 0.9768 0.9621 0.9474 0.9177
0.78 49.9 1.0334 1.0223 1.0112 1.0000 0.9887 0.9774 0.9631 0.9488 0.9198 0.8906
0.79 47.6 1.0325 1.0217 1.0109 1.0000 0.9890 0.9780 0.9641 0.9500 0.9219 0.8935
0.80 45.4 1.0318 1.0212 1.0107 1.0000 0.9893 0.9785 0.9649 0.9513 0.9238 0.8960
0.81 43.2 1.0310 1.0207 1.0104 1.0000 0.9896 0.9791 0.9658 0.9525 0.9257 0.8987
0.82 41.1 1.0302 1.0202 1.0101 1.0000 0.9898 0.9796 0.9667 0.9536 0.9275 0.9012
0.83 39.0 1.0295 1.0197 1.0099 1.0000 0.9900 0.9800 0.9675 0.9548 0.9293 0.9036 0.8777
0.84 36.9 1.0288 1.0193 1.0097 1.0000 0.9903 0.9805 0.9682 0.9559 0.9311 0.9060 0.8807
0.85 35.0 1.0281 1.0188 1.0094 1.0000 0.9905 0.9810 0.9690 0.9569 0.9326 0.9081 0.8835
0.86 33.0 1.0275 1.0184 1.0092 1.0000 0.9907 0.9814 0.9697 0.9580 0.9342 0.9104 0.8863
0.87 31.1 1.0268 1.0179 1.0090 1.0000 0.9910 0.9819 0.9705 0.9589 0.9358 0.9125 0.8890
0.88 29.3 1.0263 1.0176 1.0088 1.0000 0.9911 0.9822 0.9711 0.9598 0.9372 0.9144 0.8915
0.89 27.5 1.0257 1.0172 1.0086 1.0000 0.9913 0.9827 0.9717 0.9607 0.9386 0.9163 0.8938
0.90 25.7 1.0251 1.0167 1.0084 1.0000 0.9916 0.9831 0.9724 0.9616 0.9400 0.9183 0.8963
0.91 24.0 1.0246 1.0164 1.0082 1.0000 0.9917 0.9834 0.9730 0.9625 0.9413 0.9200 0.8986
0.92 22.3 1.0240 1.0161 1.0081 1.0000 0.9919 0.9837 0.9736 0.9633 0.9427 0.9218 0.9008
0.93 20.7 1.0235 1.0157 1.0079 1.0000 0.9921 0.9841 0.9741 0.9641 0.9438 0.9234 0.9029
0.94 19.0 1.0230 1.0154 1.0077 1.0000 0.9923 0.9845 0.9747 0.9649 0.9451 0.9252 0.9051
0.95 17.5 1.0226 1.0151 1.0076 1.0000 0.9924 0.9848 0.9752 0.9656 0.9462 0.9267 0.9070
0.96 15.9 1.0221 1.0148 1.0074 1.0000 0.9926 0.9851 0.9757 0.9663 0.9474 0.9283 0.9090
0.97 14.4 1.0217 1.0145 1.0073 1.0000 0.9927 0.9854 0.9762 0.9670 0.9485 0.9297 0.9109
0.98 12.9 1.0212 1.0142 1.0071 1.0000 0.9929 0.9857 0.9767 0.9677 0.9494 0.9312 0.9128
0.99 11.4 1.0208 1.0139 1.0070 1.0000 0.9930 0.9860 0.9772 0.9683 0.9506 0.9326 0.9146
1.00 10.0 1.0204 1.0136 1.0068 1.0000 0.9932 0.9863 0.9776 0.9690 0.9515 0.9340 0.9163
1.01 8.6 1.0199 1.0133 1.0067 1.0000 0.9933 0.9866 0.9781 0.9696 0.9525 0.9353 0.9180
1.02 7.2 1.0196 1.0130 1.0065 1.0000 0.9934 0.9869 0.9785 0.9702 0.9535 0.9366 0.9197
1.03 5.9 1.0192 1.0129 1.0064 1.0000 0.9935 0.9870 0.9789 0.9707 0.9544 0.9378 0.9211
1.04 4.6 1.0188 1.0126 1.0063 1.0000 0.9937 0.9873 0.9794 0.9713 0.9552 0.9390 0.9227
1.05 3.3 1.0185 1.0124 1.0062 1.0000 0.9938 0.9875 0.9797 0.9719 0.9561 0.9402 0.9241
1.06 2.0 1.0181 1.0121 1.0061 1.0000 0.9939 0.9878 0.9801 0.9724 0.9569 0.9413 0.9256
1.07 0.7 1.0178 1.0119 1.0059 1.0000 0.9940 0.9881 0.9805 0.9729 0.9578 0.9424 0.9271

Ref: API Manual of Petroleum Measurement Standards, Chapter 11 (API 2540, ASTM D-1250, ANSI Z11-83, IP 200, ISO R91).

3-19
 FIG. 3-23 ing point. The sum of these operations is an indication of the
amount of liquid which is moved over a period of time.
Typical Turbine Meter Components
An expected accuracy of 0.25% for a positive displacement
Rotor Assembly (PD) meter can be attained under proper conditions. Applica-
U/S Bearing tion is normally limited to those fluids that exhibit some lu-
Spring Clip bricating properties because of the multiple moving parts of a
Assembly Cone
Thrust positive displacement meter. Typical applications are butane
Washer
and heavier products since ethane and propane have minimal
lubricating properties. Fig. 3-26 shows some internal details
D/S Cone of a positive displacement meter.
Thrust Washer
Coil Journal Meter Selection and Performance
Coil Bosses
Nut Washer Turbine and positive displacement meter installations
Flow should include the following considerations:
Application to proper flow ranges
Upstream strainers to protect meter internals from for-
Housing
eign material
Pulsation and vibration
Proper upstream flow conditioning
Fig. 3-24 is a sizing guide for liquid turbine meters. An ex-
Significant rate changes
ample of a turbine meter installation schematic for mass
Changes in flow temperature, pressure, and density
measurement is shown in Fig. 3-25.
Back pressure (2 times P across meter plus 1.25 times
equilibrium vapor pressure is minimum recommended)
Positive Displacement Meters
Connections to prove the meter
Displacement meters take a physically enclosed volume of The normally acceptable performance of a turbine or posi-
fluid and move it from upstream to downstream of the meter- tive displacement meter will result in a change in the pulse

FIG. 3-24
Sizing Guide for Typical Turbine Meters

10

5
Max Extended Flow
4
3 Max Linear Flow
"
Min Linear Flow 24
"
20
"

2
"
"

"
1"

1 1/2

"
6"
3"

"
8"
2"

4"

18
10
2 1/2

16
12

1
Pressure Drop, psi

e
Siz
ter

0.5
Me

0.3
0.2

0.1

0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02

0.01
10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000

Flow Rate, Gallons per Minute

Courtesy of Daniels Industries, Inc.

3-20
 FIG. 3-25
Example Turbine Meter Installation

3-21
 FIG. 3-26 Volume of liquid in the prover
Example Positive Displacement Meter correc ted to standard conditions
MF = Eq 3-17
Change in meter reading corrected
to standard conditions

Standard conditions in liquid measurement are 60F and

the equilibrium vapor pressure of the liquid at 60F (or
atmospheric pressure for liquids with a vapor pressure of less
than 0 psig).

Meter Proving Systems Meter proving systems

should include the following considerations:
All proving vessels should be calibrated by qualified per-
sonnel using test measures certified by the U.S. Bureau
of Standards and be issued a "Certificate of Calibration".
All meter proving systems should be equipped with a
thermometer and pressure gauge located near the meter.
Proving vessels shall have pressure gauges and ther-
mometers on the inlet and outlet. Gauges and thermome-
ters should be checked periodically against a deadweight
Vertical Double Case Meter tester and certified thermometer to verify accuracy.
All valves in the proving systems which affect the accu-
CAM racy of the proving should provide for observation of
OUTER MEASURING valve integrity, e.g., double block and bleed valves.
HOUSING CHAMBER
STATIC INNER Proving conditions should approximate operating condi-
LIQUID UNIT
HOUSING tions.
BLADES
BLADE Additional information concerning meter proving can be
PATH BEARING
OF BLADES found in Chapter 4 of the API Manual of Petroleum Measure-
FLOWING ment Standards.
LIQUID ROTOR

Meter Proving Reports A meter proving report is

PLAN VIEW
count of less than 0.05% between meter prover runs, and less
than 0.25% between provings. If the factor changes more than
0.25% between provings, meter maintenance may be required.
More details about turbine and positive displacement meter
installations, operation, and proving are available in Chapters
4, 5, 6, and 12 of the API Manual of Petroleum Measurement
Standards.
Meter Proving
The purpose of proving a turbine or PD meter is to establish
a factor which, when multiplied by the meter pulses and divided
by the nominal K-factor, will give an accurate, corrected metered
volume. Compensation for meter factors can be accomplished ex-
ternal to the meter through either mathematical or electronic
means. The meter factor may be defined as a number which cor-
rects meter registration to actual volume. A meter factor is appli-
cable to only one set of operating conditions. To establish a meter
factor, the meter must be compared to a known prover volume.
By applying the necessary temperature and pressure factors to
the prover volume and by dividing by the change in the meter
reading, a meter factor is established.
the record of a meter proving and must be completed to calcu-
late the net volume being measured by the meter being
proven. A meter proving report may contain considerable in-
formation but the following information is usually considered
the minimum necessary to identify the proving and allow cal-
culation of net volumes: proving report number, date and
time, meter owner, company of person responsible for proving,
fluid used, fluid specific gravity, fluid vapor pressure (at oper-
ating temperature), meter size, totalizer pulses, prover size,
pulses per unit volume, uncorrected prover volume, tempera-
ture of fluid at meter and prover, pressure of fluid at meter
and prover, and operators name and signature. If the proving
is being done on a meter used for custody transfer, it is cus-
tomary for a representative of each custodial company to wit-
ness the proving and sign the report if it is satisfactory. The
parties involved in the proving should agree on what consti-
tutes an acceptable proving, and if it is not acceptable, what
must be done to correct the problem.
Example 3-7 The following information was taken from a
meter proving report. Calculate a meter factor with which to
correct the routine meter recorded volumes.
Given Data:
Product = Propane-Butane Mix
Specific Gravity = 0.544
Totalizer Pulses Per Barrel = 13188
Uncorrected Prover Volume = 2.0734 bbl
Vapor Pressure = 115 psig
Prover Size = 12 in. pipe with 0.375 in. wall

3-22
 FIG. 3-27
Meter Proving Report

Cts

Cps

Ctl

Cpl

Cts Cps Ctl Cpl

Ctl

Cpl

Cpl

Source: API MPMS Ch. 12.2

3-23
 FIG. 3-28
Example Bidirectional Pipe Prover

3-24
 FIG. 3-29 FIG. 3-31
Small Volume Prover Temperature Correction Factors for Mild Steel, Cts

Cts for mild steel having a cubical coefficient of expansion of 1.86

x 105 per F
Actuator Optical Switches
Cylinder
Poppet Valve Observed Cts Value Observed Cts Value
(Open) Temperature, F Temperature, F
Pneumatic Pis (7.2) - (1.9) 0.9988 73.5 - 78.8 1.0003
Spring ton
Chamber (1.8) - 3.5 0.9989 78.9 - 84.1 1.0004
Pneumatic 3.6 - 8.9 0.9990 84.2 - 89.5 1.0005
Spring 9.0 - 14.3 0.9991 89.6 - 94.9 1.0006
Hydraulic Plenum
14.4 - 19.6 0.9992 95.0 - 100.3 1.0007
Fluid
(full) 19.7 - 25.0 0.9993 100.4 - 105.6 1.0008
25.1 - 30.4 0.9994 105.7 - 111.0 1.0009
30.5 - 35.8 0.9995 111.1 - 116.4 1.0010
Hydraulic 35.9 - 41.1 0.9996 116.5 - 121.8 1.0011
Motor and
Pump 41.2 - 46.5 0.9997 121.9 - 127.2 1.0012
46.6 - 51.9 0.9998 127.3 - 132.5 1.0013
Hydraulic
Reservoir 52.0 - 57.3 0.9999 132.6 - 137.9 1.0014
57.4 - 62.6 1.0000 138.0 - 143.3 1.0015
62.7 - 68.0 1.0001 143.4 - 148.7 1.0016
68.1 - 73.4 1.0002 148.8 - 154.0 1.0017

FIG. 3-30
Note: This table is suitable for application in meter proving; in
Multiple Meter Installation prover calibration use the formulas. For the formula used to de-
rive the tabulated values and to calculate values, see Section 12
of the API Manual.

FIG. 3-32
Temperature Correction Factors for Stainless Steel, Cts

Cts for stainless steel having a cubical coefficient of expansion of

2.65 x 105 per F
Prover
Observed Cts Value Observed Cts Value
Temperature, F Temperature, F
(9.8) - (6.1) 0.9982 73.3 - 76.9 1.0004
(6.0) - (2.3) 0.9983 77.0 - 80.7 1.0005
(2.2) - 1.5 0.9984 80.8 - 84.5 1.0006
1.6 - 5.2 0.9985 84.6 - 88.3 1.0007
5.3 - 9.0 0.9986 88.4 - 92.0 1.0008
9.1 - 12.8 0.9987 92.1 - 95.9 1.0009
12.9 - 16.6 0.9988 95.9 - 99.6 1.0010
16.7 - 20.3 0.9989 99.7 - 103.3 1.0011
20.4 - 24.1 0.9990 103.4 - 107.1 1.0012
24.2 - 27.9 0.9991 107.2 - 110.9 1.0013
28.0 - 31.6 0.9992 111.0 - 118.4 1.0014
31.7 - 35.4 0.9993 118.5 - 122.2 1.0015
35.5 - 39.2 0.9994 122.3 - 126.0 1.0016
Meters 39.3 - 43.0 0.9995 126.1 - 129.8 1.0017
43.1 - 46.7 0.9996 129.9 - 133.5 1.0018
46.8 - 50.5 0.9997 133.6 - 137.3 1.0019
50.6 - 54.3 0.9998 137.4 - 141.1 1.0020
M 54.4 - 58.1 0.9999 141.2 - 144.9 1.0021
58.2 - 61.8 1.0000 145.0 - 148.6 1.0022
61.9 - 65.6 1.0001 148.7 - 152.4 1.0023
65.7 - 69.4 1.0002 152.5 - 156.2 1.0024
M 69.5 - 73.2 1.0003 1.0025

Note: This table is suitable for application in meter proving; in

prover calibration use the formulas. For the formula used to de-
M rive the tabulated values and to calculate values, see Section 12
of the API Manual.

3-25
 FIG. 3-33
Pressure Correction Factors for Steel, Cps

(All measurements are in pounds per square inch gauge.)

Prover Dimensions
10-in. 10-in. 12-in. 14-in.
6-in. Pipe 6-in. Pipe 8-in. Pipe 8-in. Pipe 14-in.Pipe
Pipe Pipe Pipe Pipe
Factor Cps 0.25-in. 0.280-in. 0.322-in. 0.375-in.
0.365-in. 0.375-in. 0.375-in. 0.312-in.
0.375-in. Factor Cps
Wall Wall Wall Wall Wall
Wall Wall Wall Wall

1.0000 061 069 060 071 054 056 046 034 042 1.0000
1.0001 62183 70207 61181 72214 55163 57168 47140 35104 43127 1.0001
1.0002 184306 208346 182302 215357 164273 169281 141234 105174 128212 1.0002
1.0003 307428 347484 303423 358499 274382 282393 235328 175244 213297 1.0003
1.0004 429551 485623 424544 500642 383491 394506 329421 245314 298382 1.0004

1.0005 552673 624761 545665 643785 492601 507618 422515 315384 383466 1.0005
1.0006 674795 762900 666786 786928 602701 619731 516609 385454 467551 1.0006
1.0007 796918 9011038 787907 9291071 711819 732843 610703 455524 552636 1.0007
1.0008 9191040 9081028 820928 844956 704796 525594 637721 1.0008
1.0009 9291038 9571068 797890 595664 722806 1.0009

1.0010 891984 665734 807891 1.0010

1.0011 9851078 735804 892976 1.0011
1.0012 805874 9771061 1.0012
1.0013 875944 1.0013
1.0014 9451014 1.0014

1.0015 1.0015
1.0016 1.0016
1.0017 1.0017
1.0018 1.0018
1.0019 1.0019

1.0020 1.0020
1.0021 1.0021
1.0022 1.0022
1.0023 1.0023
1.0024 1.0024

Prover Dimensions
16-in. Pipe 18-in. Pipe 20-in. Pipe 24-in. Pipe 26-in. Pipe 26-in. Pipe 30-in. Pipe 30-in. Pipe
Factor Cps 0.375-in. 0.375-in. 0.375-in. 0.375-in. 0.375-in. 0.500-in. 0.500-in. 0.500-in. Factor Cps
Wall Wall Wall Wall Wall Wall Wall Wall

1.0000 036 032 029 024 022 030 025 021 1.0000
1.0001 37110 3397 3087 2572 2366 3189 2677 2264 1.0001
1.0002 111184 98163 88146 73120 67111 90150 78129 65107 1.0002
1.0003 185258 164228 147204 121169 112155 151209 130181 108149 1.0003
1.0004 259331 229293 205262 170217 156200 210270 182232 150192 1.0004
.
1.0005 332405 294358 263321 218266 201245 271329 233284 193235 1.0005
1.0006 406479 359423 322379 267314 246289 330390 285336 236278 1.0006
1.0007 480553 424489 380438 315362 290334 391449 337387 279321 1.0007
1.0008 554627 490554 439496 363411 335378 450510 388439 322364 1.0008
1.0009 628700 555619 497555 412459 379423 511569 440491 365407 1.0009

1.0010 701774 620684 556613 460508 424467 570630 492543 408450 1.0010
1.0011 775848 685749 614672 509556 468512 631689 544594 451492 1.0011
1.0012 849922 750815 673730 557604 513556 690750 595646 493535 1.0012
1.0013 923995 816880 731788 605653 557601 751809 647698 536578 1.0013
1.0014 9961069 881945 789847 654701 602646 810870 699750 579621 1.0014

1.0015 9461010 848905 702749 647690 871929 751801 622664 1.0015

1.0016 906964 750798 691735 930990 802853 665707 1.0016
1.0017 9651022 799846 736779 9911049 854905 708749 1.0017
1.0018 847895 780824 906956 750792 1.0018
1.0019 896943 825868 9571008 793835 1.0019

1.0020 944991 869913 836878 1.0020

1.0021 9921040 914957 879921 1.0021
1.0022 9581022 922964 1.0022
1.0023 9651007 1.0023
1.0024 1.0024

Pp Ps D
Notes: 1. This table is based on the following equation: Cps = 1 +
Em

3-26
Proving results: Metered fluid corrections:
(2)
Temperature, F Pressure, psig Pulse 1. Uncorrected metered volume
Run Count/Round
No. Prover Meter Prover Meter Trip Total meter pulses recorded
=
1 76.6 76.0 385 395 28629 manufacturers pulses per barrel
2 76.8 76.8 385 395 28626 28631
3 76.8 76.0 385 395 28635 = = 2.1710 bbl
13188
4 77.6 77.0 385 395 28634
5 77.0 77.2 385 395 28633
2. The correction for the effect of
temperature on the metered volume,
6 77.0 76.6 385 395 28631 Ctl (Fig. 3-22) = 0.9789
Average 77.0 76.6 385 395 28631.3
Average 3. The correction for the effect of
(rounded) 77.0 76.5(1) 385 395 28631(3) pressure on the metered volume, Cpl
(Reference No. 2) = 1.0080
NOTES: 4. Corrected metered volume
1. Average temperatures are rounded to the nearest 0.5F. = Ctl Cpl 2.1710 = 2.1421 bbl
2. Pressures are read to the nearest scale division. 5. Meter factor
3. Pulse count is rounded to the nearest count. corrected prover volume
=
The volume of a steel prover must first be determined then corrected metered volume
the characteristics of the fluid are used to correct the fluid to 2.0450
standard conditions using the corrected prover volume. = = 0.9547
2.1421
Prover Corrections:
1. Uncorrected prover volume = 2.0734 bbl Fig. 3-27 is an example meter proving report. The uncor-
rected prover volume is that volume of the prover tube be-
2. The correction for steel expansion at tween the switches, Fig. 3-28.
77.0F, Cts (Fig. 3-31) = 1.0003
3. The correction for the pressure effect Several meters can utilize one prover if piping manifolds
on the steel prover, Cps (Fig. 3-33) = 1.0004 exist. If more than one product is proven by the same prover,
precautions must be taken to prevent contamination. Double
4. The correction for the effect of block-and-bleed valves are commonly used to isolate specifi-
temperature on the prover fluid, Ctl cation products.
(Fig. 3-22) = 0.9780
5. The correction for the effect of Additional information on meter proving can be found in
pressure on the prover fluid, Chapter 4 of the API Manual of Petroleum Measurement
Cpl (Reference No. 2) = 1.0078 Standards.
6. Combined prover corrections = Mass Measurement
Cts Cps Ctl Cpl = 0.9863
Mass measurement of a flowing fluid is advantageous where
7. Corrected prover volume the physical properties of the fluid are not well defined or
= 0.9863 2.0734 bbl = 2.0450 bbl available. Mass measurement is especially important in meas-

FIG. 3-34
Example Calculation Converting Stream Mass to Component Gallons

Total Pounds of Stream = Metered Gallons (Meter Factor) (Recorded Actual Flowing Density lb/gal.) (Density Factor)
= 65,994 (1.004) (4.227) (1.002)
= 280,633 Pounds

Component Analysis Molecular lb/mol of Weight % Pounds per lb/gal. Component

Mol % Weight* Mixture Component (wt. in vacuum)* Gallons
Carbon Dioxide 4.40 44.010 1.936 4.34 12,180 6.8199 1,786
Methane 1.10 16.043 .176 .39 1,094 2.5 438
Ethane 41.57 30.070 12.500 28.00 78,577 2.9696 26,460
Propane 28.31 44.097 12.484 27.97 78,493 4.2268 18,570
Isobutane 8.01 58.123 4.656 10.43 29,270 4.6927 6,237
Normal Butane 5.93 58.123 3.447 7.72 21,665 4.8690 4,450
Pentanes Plus 10.68 88.394 9.440 21.15 59,354 5.548 10,698
Totals 100.00 100.00 280,633 68,639
*From Fig. 23-2

3-27
uring streams containing ethane and methane because of sub-
stantial solution mixing effects.
Mass measurement is accomplished by multiplying the vol-
ume of fluid flowing, over a defined period of time, by the
density of the fluid at flowing conditions. This procedure elimi-
nates the requirement to provide correction factors for the me-
tered volume. The total stream mass can be converted into
pure components by using a weight analysis of the fluid. An
example of converting stream mass to pure components is il-
lustrated in Fig. 3-34.
measurement. Proving mass flow meters may involve a com-
plicated arrangement of flow and density measuring equip-
ment, or access to an alternate proving station, or use of a
master mass meter comparison.
Densitometers A densitometer measures density
(mass/unit volume) of a fluid. In a vibrating densitometer (Fig.
3-35), a drive coil forces a tube to vibrate at some natural fre-
quency which is a function of the tubes mass per unit length.
As a fluid flows through the tube, the resonant frequency var-
ies with the density of the fluid.

Mass Flow Meters
Several different techniques and processes have been devel-
oped to directly measure the mass of a flowing fluid. The de-
vices utilize the principle that angular momentum of a mass
is directly proportional to the mass velocity. The resistance of
a mass to change direction is measured by different types of
devices using combinations of sensitive mechanical and elec-
trical sensors and transmitters that can result in a variety of
electronic signals.
Mass flow meter installations may not require upstream
and downstream piping usually associated with other types of
Buoyant force densitometers (Fig. 3-36) operate on the prin-
ciple that buoyant forces acting on a floating body are a func-
tion of the fluid surrounding the body. A float surrounded by
fluid is attached to a beam suspended on a pivot. As the density
of the fluid changes, the buoyant force provides an angular
displacement around the pivot point which is proportional to
the density change. The displacement is picked up and trans-
mitted electronically.
Densitometers installed to record flowing density should be
installed close to the pipeline and all connections and parts
FIG. 3-37

FIG. 3-35 Basic Operating PrincipleMultiple Averaging Pitot

Vibrating Tube Densitometer

hv (Velocity Head)
hb (Blockage)
hw (P)
hs (Suction K Corrects
Saddle Mounted Amplifier Case
hh Pressure) For:
(Hi Pressure 1. Blockage
Signal) 2. Suction
Cable Entry hp hL
(Lo Pressure
(Pipe Static Signal)
Pressure)

Vibrating Tube Drive Coils

ho
(REF: No Pressure)
Flow Profile

Velocity Average Rear Lo Pressure Port

Interpolating Tube Pressure Impact Ports
FIG. 3-36
Buoyant Force Densitometer
FIG. 3-38

15 7 6 4 16 5 17 3 2 1 12 Vortex Shedding Phenomenon

High Velocity Fluid

Meter
Sensor Bore
Diaphragm
8 9 10 14 18 11 13 Strain
Detector
Flow
1 Float 6 Sensing Coil 11 Balance Beam
2 Pivot 7 Sensing Slug 12 Float Shield
Quiet
3 Counterweight 8 Calibration Plug 13 Barrel Chamber Fluid Alternate
4 Restoring Magnet 9 Zero Calibration Weight 14 Terminal Strip Zone Vortices
5 Restoring Coil 10 Knurled Sleeve 15 Vent
Shear Layer
16 Coil Cover
17 Closure Pin
*18 Plug-in Circuit Board

* Not Shown

3-28
 FIG. 3-39 insulated. Densitometers in flowing service can be proven
with an auxiliary pycnometer. Refer to Chapter 14.6 of the API
Vortex Flowmeter Components Manual of Petroleum Measurement Standards for more de-
tails on installation and calibration of density meters.

End Cover Electronics Housing STEAM MEASUREMENT

(Without Indicator) (Output Module End)

The steam flow equation (Fig. 3-3, Eq. 3-8) can be used to
Output Module calculate steam flow rate by applying a steam factor, Fs, found
Assembly (Two
Versions Available in Fig. 3-19 for saturated steam and Fig. 3-20 for superheated
With Three Outputs) steam. The Fs factor makes corrections for volume and density
at the pressure and temperature conditions of the steam.

MISCELLANEOUS MEASUREMENT
DEVICES
End Cover
Pitot A pitot tube is a cylindrical probe installed in a flowing
Coax Connector fluid which senses the impact pressure created by the velocity of
Sensor Assembly
a flowing fluid. The probe senses the impact pressure by a hole
in the upstream face of the tube, and the static pressure on the
Detector side or downstream face of the tube. The use of a pitot tube is
severely limited by its sensitivity to velocity profile.
The multiport averaging pitot (Fig. 3-37) attempts to over-
Flowmeter Body come the velocity profile sensitivity by providing several ports
Mechanical Connector to sense the varying impact pressures across the diameter of
the pipe. The pressures are averaged and the differential pres-
Vortex Shedding Element
Pin sure between this average and the static pressure detected on
Flow Dam the downstream side of the probe, or from the line itself, is
Cap Screw used to determine flow.
The flow formula for the pitot tube is very similar to that for
an orifice. Fna is a units conversion factor and C is a flow coef-
ficient for this type installation.

FIG. 3-40
Fb = (Fna) (C) D2 Eq 3-19

Venturi Meter Installation requirements include precise alignment of the

tube and upstream flow conditioning which provides a
symmetrical velocity profile. Use of the averaging pitot in a
Cylindrical Inlet Throat Divergent Cone pipe with a diameter or wall thickness other than design will
Convergent Cone cause erroneous results.
Vortex Shedding Flowmeters A vortex meter (Fig.
D 3-39) consists of a flow tube, a shedding element, and a detec-
tor. The shedding element is a non-streamlined object placed
in the fluid flow path. As the fluid passes the obstruction, vor-
Upstream Tap Downstream Tap tices are shed on alternating sides with a frequency that is
linearly proportional to the velocity of the fluid (Fig. 3-38) . A
sensor detects vortices from which a pulse is generated. Each
pulse generated represents a shed vortex and the discrete vol-
FIG. 3-41 ume of fluid associated with that vortex. The K factor
(pulses/unit volume) of a particular meter is the same for
Flow Nozzle Assembly gases, liquids, or steam.
Vortex meters may be installed horizontally or vertically.
DOWNSTREAM TAP
Upstream flow conditioning comparable to that required for
UPSTREAM TAP P1 P2 turbine meters is required. Vortex meters should be installed
with proving connections and can be proved with a master
meter or meter prover.
FLOW
Venturis The venturi is a tube which combines a short
constricted portion between two tapered sections (Fig. 3-40) .
The difference in pressure between the inlet and the throat of
NOZZLE FLANGES NOZZLE the device is used to calculate flow rate.
Venturis require less upstream pipe than other differential
pressure meters and have the lowest pressure loss.

3-29
 FIG. 3-42
Gas Sampler
Timing
System
Inlet
Probe
The ASME Fluid Meters Reference Book gives some gener-
alized coefficients for calculation; however, since there are
many variations of venturis, it is recommended they be flow
calibrated for most accurate measurement. The manufacturer
is the best source for installation and calculation procedures.
Flow Nozzles The flow nozzle (Fig. 3-41) is an ellipti-
cally shaped, velocity-increasing device inserted in a flow line.
Pressure taps are taken at designated points, indicating the
pressure drop between the entrance and the throat of the noz-
zle. The flow follows a smooth curve leading into a minimum-
throat section that controls the contraction of the jet of fluid
to the same diameter as the throat.
There are several shapes that are commercially available
based on standards of the International Standards Organization.
Reference should be made to the appropriate standard for in-
stallation and calculation procedures.
Critical flow nozzles, sometimes called sonic nozzles, have
been used many years to prove gas metering, air flows, and
steam generators. A pressure drop sufficient to create a critical
velocity must be maintained across the nozzle, whereby its
performance is completely independent of downstream condi-
tions, and relatively unaffected by variations in upstream con-
ditions, providing a stable, accurate flow rate determination
with which to prove other metering devices. The rate of dis-
charge of a gas will increase for a decrease in the absolute
pressure ratio, p1/p2, until the linear velocity in the throat
reaches the speed of sound in the gas, and will remain constant
with further increase in pressure drop.
Auxiliary Equipment and Common Terms
Differential Measuring Devices Differential
measuring devices are necessary to determine the pressure
differential across an orifice fitting or other type of primary
measuring device that produces a pressure drop that is pro-
portional to the flow rate. Usually this device causes an exter-
nal movement that can be directly recorded, or can be
transmitted pneumatically or electronically to a location re-
mote to the primary measuring device. Section 4, Instrumen-
3-30
Sample
Pump
Speed Sample
Loop Container
Discharge
tation, should be consulted for more details of recorders and
differential transmitters.
Differential measuring devices in gas service should be
mounted above the pipeline in which the primary device is
located. Connecting tubing should be sloped toward the pri-
mary device. Differential measuring devices in liquid service
should be mounted below the pipeline.
The differential pressure range should be compatible with
the expected differential measurement. For example a pri-
mary device expected to have an average output signal of
70 inches of water differential pressure could be equipped
with a 0-100 inches of water measuring device. However, if the
primary device will produce an output differential pressure of
15 inches of water, a 0-20 inches of water measuring range
should be specified. Differential measuring devices are usu-
ally available in scales ranging from vacuum to 1,000 or more
inches of water differential pressure.
Flow Recorders Recorders may be connected directly
to differential measuring devices and record the differential
pressure through mechanical linkages. Recorders can also be
located remote from the primary differential measuring device
and receive a pneumatic or electronic signal of the differential
pressure for recording.
Two basic configurations of recorders are available, circular
and strip. A circular chart recorder has a round chart, driven
mechanically, electrically or pneumatically to complete a revo-
lution in a specified period of time, e.g., 24 hours, 8 days, etc.,
upon which the value is recorded by an inking pen or other
marking device. The static pressure is usually recorded on the
same chart. The temperature can also be recorded, using a
three-pen recorder.
A strip chart recorder uses rolls of narrow paper driven me-
chanically, electrically, or pneumatically, upon which the re-
ceived signal is marked. Strip chart recorders are available in
many chart speeds, or combinations of chart speeds.
 FIG. 3-43
Liquid Sampler
Sample Gauge
Floating Piston
Fill
Valve
Bursting
Relief Sample
"Roots" or "Roots of Flow" Many times an operator
will refer to "roots of flow." This expression is used to define
a differential flow measurement when every variable is rela-
tively constant except the differential pressure across an ori-
fice plate. The expression is mostly used in processing
operations where the static pressure is controlled or varies
only a small amount, and the stream composition is constant.
Of course the orifice and line size are constant, leaving only
the flow rate to vary, which, in turn, changes the differential
pressure recording. Since the differential pressure is a square
root function in the basic orifice equation, the "flow rate per
root" is constant on a square root (0-100") chart recorder and
the operator usually has a simple reference chart of "roots"
versus the flow rate in cubic feet per hour, cubic feet per day,
barrels per hour, or gallons per minute, etc.
If a differential recorder with a span of something other than
0-100" is used, a 0-10 square root chart is more difficult to calcu-
late. For example, if a 0-200" differential meter is used, the "10"
on a square root chart will actually be the square root of 200"
rather than the square root of 100", or 14.142. Each "root" would
be 1.4142 times the calculated flow rate for an actual square root.
For a 0-50" recorder, the factor would be 0.707 times the actual
square root of the inches of differential.
Gas Sampling Sample taking requires considerable
care, utilizing specific techniques in order to obtain a repre-
sentative sample. A sample should be taken from a section of line
where good velocity and minimum turbulence are maintained.
Headers and manifolds should be avoided. Elbows, tees, valves,
fittings, etc., all cause turbulence resulting in generation of aero-
sols which ruin the integrity of the sample. Gas samples should
be collected from the top of a line, through a probe extending down
to the center third of the line. The probe is essential to avoid a
concentration of heavy ends which travel along the pipe wall from
reaching the sample container and skewing the results. Sample
lines should be as short as possible and sloped downward from
the sample container to the sample source, allowing any liquids
to drain back to the source. When entrained liquids are present,
a liquid separator should be installed. Sampling valves should be
of the full-opening type with soft seats to allow positive shutoff.
Use of stainless steel sample containers is recommended in order
to minimize surface adsorption of heavy hydrocarbons and to
minimize reactions with corrosive compounds. All parts of the
sampling system must be designed with adequate working pres-
sures. Any leakage in the system will result in a non-repre-
sentative sample. Sample containers must be transported in
accordance with DOT regulations.5
Inert Gas
Preload Gauge
Inert Gas
Preload Valve
Mixer Inert Gas
Extreme care must be exercised in both cleaning the sample
container and sample taking. GPA 2166 describes proper meth-
ods which, when followed, will ensure representative spot sam-
ples.
Continuous samplers accumulate a composite sample over
a specific time period. A continuous sampler consists of a
probe, a sample valve, a timing device, and a sample container.
A stream with a relatively constant analysis can be sampled
with a timed sampler; however, if the stream composition var-
ies, a proportional-to-flow sampler is required to obtain a rep-
resentative sample. Provisions should be made to stop
sampling under no-flow conditions. The same considerations
discussed in spot sampling are applicable to continuous sam-
pling. In addition, no filters, regulators, or drips should be
placed between the probe and the sampler; and short lines
with small diameter tubing should be used. The system must
be checked to ensure against leaks; and care must be taken to
purge the system lines carefully. Continuous flowing sample
loops (speed loops) are recommended to ensure the most cur-
rent sample is always added to the sample container. See
Fig. 3-42 for an example gas sampling application.
Liquid Sampling Liquid sampling requires special
precautions to accumulate and transfer representative sam-
ples. Pressure in the sample cylinder must remain above the
vapor pressure of the product, and a method to break up strati-
fication must be provided prior to laboratory analysis. Both of
these requirements can be satisfied by using floating piston
sample cylinders with mixers (Fig. 3-43). The floating piston
cylinders are pre-charged on one end with an inert gas at a
pressure above product vapor pressure. This prevents sample
vaporization, which could result in an erroneous analysis, and
provides a compressible gas cushion to allow for thermal ex-
pansion of the liquid. A pressure relief valve is needed, but
should it discharge, the integrity of the sample will be lost.
Samples are acquired through a probe with a beveled edge
facing upstream, securing product from the center third of the
pipe. The probe should be located on the top or side of the line.
Continuous samplers should use a continuous flowing sample
loop (speed loop) driven by an orifice, differential pump, or
available pressure drop, and be timed on a proportional-to-
flow basis unless flow rate is constant. Loop lines may require
insulation. The product must be thoroughly mixed before be-
ing transferred to another container or before being analyzed.
Details for obtaining liquid samples are found in GPA 2174.
3-31
 This NPSHA result is adequate when compared to the 9 ft. frequently lower than equivalent horizontal pumps because
of NPSHR in the curve shown in Fig. 12-5. they require smaller foundations and simpler piping systems.
Calculation of Hydraulic Power Vertical can pumps are often used for liquids at their bub-
ble-point temperature because the first stage impeller is lo-
Q H sp gr
hyd hp = (from Fig. 12-2) cated below ground level and therefore requires less net
3960 positive suction head at the suction flange. The vertical dis-
tance from the suction flange down to the inlet of the first
(360) (322) (0.485)
hyd hp = = 14.2 hp stage impeller provides additional NPSHA.
3960
Centrifugal Pump Theory
Calculation of Actual Horsepower Centrifugal pumps increase the pressure of the pumped
fluid by action of centrifugal force on the fluid. Since the total
hyd hp head produced by a centrifugal pump is independent of the
bhp = (from Fig. 12-2)
e density of the pumped fluid, it is customary to express the
pressure increase produced by centrifugal pumps in feet of
Fig. 12-5 is the performance curve of the selected pump. The
head of fluid pumped.
efficiency at rated capacity and required head is 62%, with a
brake horsepower calculated as follows: Operating characteristics of centrifugal pumps are ex-
pressed in a pump curve similar to Fig. 12-5. Depending on
14.2 hp
bhp = = 22.9 bhp impeller design, pump curves may be "drooping," "flat," or
0.62 "steep." Fig. 12-10 shows these curves graphically. Pumps
with drooping curves tend to have the highest efficiency but
Motor Sizing The maximum flow is 500 gpm with a may be undesirable because it is possible for them to operate
head of 240 feet for this particular pump impeller size, which at either of two flow rates at the same head. The influence of
results in a brake horsepower requirement of 26.2 bhp at run- impeller design on pump curves is discussed in detail in Hy-
out (i.e., end of head curve). Therefore a 30 hp motor is se- draulic Institute Standards.5
lected for the pump driver to provide "full curve" protection.
Affinity Laws for Centrifugal Pumps The rela-
tionships between rotational speeds, impeller diameter, capac-
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS ity, head, power, and NPSHR for any particular pump are
defined by the affinity laws (See Fig. 12-2 for affinity laws).
Figs. 12-6a/b, 12c/d and 12-6e are cross-sectional drawings These equations are to predict new curves for changes in im-
showing typical configurations for five types of centrifugal peller diameter and speed.
pumps. A guide to selecting centrifugal pumps is shown in
Fig. 12-7. Horizontal centrifugal pumps are more common; The capacity of a centrifugal pump is directly proportional
however, vertical pumps are often used because they are more to its speed of rotation and its impeller diameter. The total
compact and, in cold climates, may need less winterizing than pump head developed is proportional to the square of its speed
horizontal pumps. The total installed cost of vertical pumps is and its impeller diameter. The power consumed is propor-
tional to the cube of its speed and its impeller diameter. The
FIG. 12-11 NPSHR is proportional to the square of its speed.
Example Combined Pump-System Curves These equations apply in any consistent set of units but only
apply exactly if there is no change of efficiency when the rota-
tional speed is changed. This is usually a good approximation
if the change in rotational speed is small.
A different impeller may be installed or the existing modi-
The operating point of the pump
PUM
P HE
AD-C is determined graphically by the fied. The modified impeller may not be geometrically similar
APACIT
Y intersection of the pump head-
capacity and the system head-capacity
to the original. An approximation may be found if it is as-
curve. sumed that the change in diameter changes the discharge pe-
HB-PUMP
ripheral velocity without affecting the efficiency. Therefore, at
equal efficiencies and rotational speed, for small variations in
HA impeller diameter, changes may be calculated using the affin-
ity laws.
HB-SYSTEM
-CAPAC
ITY SYSTEM FRICTION HEAD These equations do not apply to geometrically similar but
STEM HEAD
TOTAL SY different size pumps. In that case dimensional analysis should
be applied.
TOTAL HEAD

SYSTEM ELEVATION AND PRESSURE HEAD

The affinity equations apply to pumps with radial flow im-
pellers, that is, in the centrifugal range of specific speeds, be-
B A
low 4200. For axial or mixed flow pumps, consult the
manufacturer. See Fig. 12-2 for specific speed equation.
CAPACITY
Viscosity
Most liquids pumped in gas processing plants have viscosi-
ties in the same range as water. Thus they are considered
"nonviscous" and no viscosity corrections are required. Occa-

12-9
 Wi m (hVD hVB) FIG. 14-3
W = = = m (hVD hVB) Eq 14-7
i i One-Stage Refrigeration System
The enthalpy at discharge is given by:
(hVD hVB)
hVD = + hVB Eq 14-7a
i
The work of compression can also be expressed as:
W
GHP = Eq 14-7b
2544.4

where 2544.4 Btu/hr = 1 hp.

(See Section 13 for a discussion on compressors.)
Condensation Step The superheated refrigerant
leaving the compressor at PA and TD (Point D in Fig. 14-2) is
cooled at nearly constant pressure to the dew point tempera-
ture, TA, and refrigerant vapors begin to condense at constant
temperature.
Two-Stage SystemSavings in the 20% range can often
During the desuperheating and condensation process, all be achieved with a two-stage refrigeration system and inter-
heat and work added to the refrigerant during the evaporation stage flash economizer. Additional savings can be realized by
and compression processes must be removed so that the cycle removing process heat at the interstage level rather than at
can be completed by reaching Point A (the starting point) on the low stage level. A typical two-stage system with an inter-
the P-H diagram, as shown in Fig. 14-2. mediate load is shown in Fig. 14-5 with data for pure propane.
By adding the refrigeration duty to the heat of compression, Three-Stage System Additional horsepower savings
we calculate the condensing duty, Qcd, from: can be achieved by using a three-stage compression system.
Qc d = m [(hVB hLA) + (hVD hVB)] As with a two-stage system, flash economization and/or an
intermediate heat load can be used. The savings, while not as
= m (hVD hLA) Eq 14-8 dramatic as the two stage versus one-stage, can still be signifi-
cant enough to justify the additional equipment. A typical
The condensing pressure of the refrigerant is a function of three stage propane system is shown in Fig. 14-6.
the cooling medium available air, cooling water, or another
refrigerant. The cooling medium is the heat sink for the refrig- FIG. 14-4
eration cycle.
Single-Stage Cooling, Chilling and Heating Curves
Because the compressor discharge vapor is superheated, the
refrigerant condensing curve is not a straight line. It is a com-
bination of desuperheating and constant temperature con-
densing. This fact must be considered for proper design of the
condenser.
System Pressure Drop Some typical values for pres-
sure drops that must be considered are:
Condenser pressure drop 3.0 to 7.0 psi

Line hydraulic losses

Evaporator to Compressor* 0.1 to 1.5 psi
Compressor to Condenser 1.0 to 2.0 psi
Condenser to Receiver 0.5 to 1.0 psi
* This is an important consideration in refrigeration services
with low suction pressure to compressor.

Refrigeration Stages
Refrigeration systems utilizing one, two, three, or four
stages of compression have been successfully operated in vari-
ous services. The number of levels of refrigeration generally
depends upon the number of compression stages required, in-
terstage heat loads, economics, and the type of compression.
One-Stage System A typical one-stage refrigeration
system is shown in Fig. 14-3 where the data are for pure pro-
pane refrigerant. Fig. 14-4 illustrates a process application of
a single level chiller and the associated cooling curve.

14-3
 FIG.
FIG. 19 19-7
-7
6
Erbar-Maddox Correlation of Stages vs. Reflux
6
Erbar-Maddox C orrelation o f S tages vs R eflux

Actual trays at 1.3 times the minimum reflux ratio K

Solution Steps C2 2.80
C3 0.93 2.067
Estimate Product Splits from Material Balance:
iC4 0.45 bubble point pressure = 280 psia
Overhead Bottoms
Estimate the bottom temperature using K-values at
Moles Mol % Moles Mol %
280 psia (bubble point calculation) assuming negligible pres-
C2 21.5 4.1 sure drop:
C3 495.4 94.9 10.2 2.0 K
iC4 5.2 1.0 99.8 19.3 C3 2.30 1.643
nC4 250.1 48.4 iC4 1.40 bubble point temperature = 250F
iC5 56.2 10.9 nC4 1.15
nC5 50.0 9.7 iC5 0.68
C6 50.4 9.7 nC5 0.62
Totals 522.1 100 516.7 100 C6 0.15
Get tower pressure at 120F (bubble point calculation). Us- avg = 1.855
ing K-values from Section 25:
Determine the minimum number of trays (Eq 19-3):

19-7