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ANA 1-6.

5
Tactical
Communications
Company

January 2008
ANA 1-6.5

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Afghan National Army


ANA 1-6.5
Tactical Communications Company

Table of Contents
Page
Preface 8
Introduction 9
Chapter 1 Organization and Mission Communication Co 10
1-1. Organization and Mission 10
1-2. Communications Principles 10
1-3. Communications 11
Platoon/Section Functions 11
1-4. Company Headquarters 11
1-5. Communications Platoon 11
1-6. Messenger Platoon 12
1-7. Communications Organization above Corps 12

Chapter 2 Command and Control System 14


2-1. Definitions 14
2-2. Commanders Leadership 14
2-3. Mission-Oriented Command and Control 15
2-4. Commanders Intent 15
2-5. Mission Orders 16
Duties and Responsibilities of Key Personnel 17
2-6. Company Commander 17
2-7. Executive Officer 17
2-8. Company Sergeant 17
2-9. Supply Sergeant 18
2-10. Platoon Leader 18
2-11. Platoon Sergeant 18
2-12. Succession of Command 18
Command and Control Process 19
2-13. Troop Leading Procedures 19
Continuous Operations 23
2-14. Sustained Operations 23
2-15. Techniques to Sustained Operations 23
2-16. Unit Sleep Plan 24

Chapter 3 Orders 25
3-1. Combat Orders 25
3-2. Mission Orders 25
3-3. Main Effort 26
3-4. Chain of Command 26

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3-5. Command Relationship 26
3-6. Support Relationships 27
3-7. Types of Orders 27
3-8. Operations Orders (OPORD) 27
3-9. Service Support Orders 27
3-10. Movement Orders 28
3-11. Warning Orders (WARNO) 28
3-12. Fragmentary Orders (FRAGO) 29
3-13. Techniques for Issuing Orders 29
3-14. Written Orders 29
3-15. Verbal Orders 29
3-16. Graphics 29
3-17. Overlays 29
3-18. Overlay Order 30

Chapter 4 Introduction to Single Channel Radio 31


Communications
4-1. Employment of Radio Communications 31
4-2. Capabilities and Limitations 31
4-3. Tactical Applications 31

Chapter 5 Practical Considerations in Operating Single 33


Channel Radios
Section I. Siting Considerations 33
5-1. Site Selection 33
5-2. Tactical Requirements 35
5-3. Signal Site Security 36
5-4. Site Defense Tasks 36
Section II. Transmitter Characteristics and 38
Operator Skills
5-5. Importance of Reliable Communications 38
5-6. Operation Frequency 38
5-7. Transmitting Antenna and Power Output 39
5-8. Transmitting Operators Skills 39
Section III. Transmission Paths 39
5-9. Characteristics of the Transmission Path 39
5-10. Conductivity of the Terrain 39
5-11. Location of the Antenna 40
5-12. Distance between Stations 40
Section IV. Receiver Characteristics and 40
Operator's Skills
5-13. Sensitivity and Selectivity of the Receiver 40
5-14. Receiving Antenna 40
5-15. Interference 40
5-16. Receiving operator's Skills 42

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Page
Chapter 6 Antennas 43
Section I. Requirement and Function 43
6-1. Necessity 43
6-2. Function 43
6-3. Gain 44
Section II. Characteristics 44
6-4. Polarization 44
6-5. Directionality 47
6-6. Ground Effects 48
6-7. Antennal Length 50
6-8. Antenna Orientation Azimuth 51
Section III. Types of Antennas 52
6-9. Tactical Considerations 52
6-10. Hertz Antenna 55
6-11. Marconi Antenna 57
6-12. Whip Antenna 57
6-13. V Antenna 59
6-14. Broadband Omni-directional Antenna 60
Section IV. Field Repair and Expedients 62
6-15. Assessment of Damage 62
6-16. Repair Techniques Whip Antennas 62
6-17. Tips on Construction and Adjustment 66
Constructing the Antenna
6-18. Field Expedient Omni-directional Antennas 66
6-19. Field Expedient Directional Antennas 72

Chapter 7 Radio Operations Under Unusual Conditions 76


Section I. Operations in Extremely Cold Areas 76
7-1. Capabilities and Limitations 76
7-2. Techniques for Better Operations in Extremely 76
Cold Areas
7-3. Maintenance Improvement in Extremely Cold 77
Areas
7-4. Power Units 77
7-5. Batteries 77
7-6. Shock Damage 77
7-7. Winterization 77
7-8. Microphones 77
7-9. Breathing and Sweating 77
7-10. Vehicular-Mounted Radios 78
Section II: Operations in Desert Areas 78
7-11. Capabilities and Limitations 78
7-12. Techniques for Better Operations in the 78
Desert
7-13. Equipment Considerations 78

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7-14. Batteries 79
7-15. Electrical Insulation 79
7-16. Condensation 79
7-17. Static Electricity 79
7-18. Maintenance Improvement in the Desert 79
Section III: Operations in Mountainous Areas 80
7-19. Capabilities and Limitations 80
Section IV. Operations in Special Environments 80
7-20. Radio Communications in Urbanized Terrain 80

Chapter 8 Wire and Messenger Operations 81


Section I. Wire Operations 81
8-1. Purpose 81
8-2. Installation 81
8-3. Recovery 81
8-4. Maintenance and Troubleshooting 82
Section II. Messenger Service 82
8-5. Messenger Service 82

Chapter 9 Offensive Operations 83


9-1. Purpose 83
9-2. Characteristics of Offensive Operations 83
9-3. Offensive Framework 84

Chapter 10 Defensive Operations 87


10-1. Purpose 87
10-2. Characteristics Of The Defense 87
10-3. Defensive Framework 88

Chapter 11 Convoy Operations 89


11-1. Definition 89
11-2. Convoy Movement Request 89
11-3. Convoy Planning 90
11-4. Convoy Organization 92
11-5. Convoy Communications 95
11-6. Convoy Identification 96
11-7. Safety Equipment and Warning Devices 98
11-8. Final Actions Before Departure 98
11-9. Convoy Execution 100
11-10. Movement Reports 101

Chapter 12 Other Combat Tasks 102


12-1. Area Damage Control 102
12-2. Risk Management 102
12-3. Risk Management Procedures 102

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12-4. Implementation Responsibilities 107
12-5. Breakdown of the Risk Management Process 108
12-6. Risk Management Command Climate 108
Health Service Support 109
12-7. Health and Hygiene 109
12-8. Soldiers Wounded in Action 109
12-9. Casualty Evacuation 110
12-10. Soldiers Killed in Action 111
Appendix A The Estimate of the Situation 113
Appendix B Examples of Orders 134
Appendix C 9-Line MEDEVAC 154
Appendix D Reports 155
Accident 155
Unexploded Ordnance 155
Enemy Contact (Internal Report to Convoy) 156
SALUTE 156
ACE 156
Appendix E Convoy Commanders Checklist 157
Appendix F Fact Sheet for select ANA Radios 160
HH7700 160
PRC-1070 162
PRC-1077 164
PRC-1099 166
RT-7000 168

Glossary 170

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ANA 1-6.5

Preface
This publication describes combat communications support by the Communications
Company of the ANA Infantry Brigade. The primary audience of this publication is the
communications company however; any communications planner/soldier should use this
manual. Planning, managing, and employing communication resources in maneuver
units, support units, and headquarters are critical combat functions. It applies specific
tactical communications to combat operations of the brigade.

This manual addresses the communications spectrum--from the squad on the battlefield
to the headquarters of the brigade controlling the battle. It presents signal support
principles and signal unit/element integration. Stated or implied quantities of available
communications equipment in this manual do not reflect actual authorizations. Changing
communications support requirements are reflected in authorization documents.

The communications company commander must understand the orders process,


commanders intent, offensive and defensive fundamentals to fully support the brigade in
the field.

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ANA 1-6.5

Introduction

Successfully supporting the commander with reliable and redundant communications is a


direct result of detailed planning. Planning signal support operations should not occur in
a vacuum or just among signalers. For communications to successfully support the
commander, several steps must occur with absolute conviction. The most critical step in
understanding what is expected from a signal leader and planner is to understand the
commanders intent. From the commanders intent, all planning can begin among
sections, staffs, units and individuals. The staff planning process per ANA 1-5 and ANA
1-6 and the wargaming process begin immediately. Warning orders and fragmentary
orders (FRAGOs) can be issued to subordinates so they can make maximum use of the
time available and execute the appropriate troop-leading procedures.

Soldiers lives hinge on our ability to plan tactical operations. Planners must successfully
synchronize and integrate the plan to support the commander. (Communications must
support the scheme of maneuver just as every other battlefield functional area (BFA)
must support in a synchronized and integrated effort to put maximum focus on a specific
objective at a specific time. This will ensure the commander accomplishes the mission.
Todays battlefield is three dimensional and signal planning must be done with the same
application of thought. Planning and coordinating operations must be done with great
detail and forethought. Soldiers and signal teams must have the opportunity to survive
based on solid plans and viable contingencies to support unstable situations.

Soldiers must understand several issues for success in a tactical environment. Leaders
must keep soldiers informed and updated on all key information. The first issue is an
understanding that a communications problem is everyones concern until it is solved.
The second issue involves signal soldiers who are highly qualified representatives of the
Signal Corps and as such are all trainers. This means when a user has a communications
problem we try our best to educate them so they become self-reliant. If we fail to
educate, then we must not only do our own work, but we must also do someone elses
work. Once in a tactical situation, specific channels for accurate and timely intelligence,
battle tracking, and environmental and situational awareness must be developed. This
information must be disseminated to the lowest levels possible. Awareness of the enemy
or threat enables the soldier to feel secure in their surroundings. As a signal leader, you
are tasked with great responsibility. Plan for success and win the information war.

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ANA 1-6.5

Chapter 1
ORGANIZATION AND MISSION

1-1. The Communications Company provides communications for the brigade in the form
of radio relay, messenger and wire. The communications company is the only organic
unit in the brigade with the mission to provide communications and they are located in
the CSS (5th) Kandak. The communications company in the Infantry Brigade consists of a
company headquarters and two platoons (See figure 1-1); one is a messenger platoon and
the second is a communications platoon. Within the messenger platoon there is a section
of radio relay teams. The company headquarters provides command and control of the
company through the chain of command. The communications company mission includes
the following:
Provide couriers for messenger service within the brigade area of responsibility
Provide radio relay teams to ensure the brigade can communicate by radio throughout
the brigade AO.
Provide wire teams to lay single strand communications wire from higher to lower in
the brigade.

HQ Messenger

Communication

Figure 1-1. Communications Company of the CSS Kandak in the Infantry


Brigade.

1-2. COMMUNICATIONS PRINCIPLES.


Guiding factors for the communications officer when developing the communications
system should be:
a. Commanders Intent.
b. Communication systems adapt and support the commander.
c. Redundancy is built in.

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ANA 1-6.5

d. Anticipate future requirements.


e. Planning is continuous.
f. Communications plan is flexible.
g. Communications doctrine dictates that communication assets and responsibility
flow from higher to lower.

1-3. COMMUNICATIONS
Tactical communications transfers information throughout the battlefield. Information is
generally divided into three categories:
Voice. Voice traffic provides real time user-to-user information flow.
User-to-user Interactive two-way traffic.
Conference Several parties conversing together.
Broadcast One-way area coverage.
Message. This is hard-copy information such as documents, charts, maps, and
photographs. Message traffic generally falls into two classifications:
Formal Passed through the record traffic system.
Informal Passed directly between users.
Electronic/Data. Any data passed by electronic means or by a storage device, using
the internet, local area network (LAN) or by disk.

PLATOON/SECTION FUNCTIONS

1-4. COMPANY HEADQUARTERS.


The company headquarters provides for both the administrative and logistics functions of
the unit. It also provides command, control, direction, and supervision of the operating
elements of the unit in the performance of their mission tasks. The headquarters is
typically organized with command and supply elements. The command element is the
center of command, direction, supervision, and control of the operational matters of the
company. Maintenance, training, support operations, and administration are key
functional areas of the company that are directed and supervised by this element. In
addition to ensuring the company's mission is accomplished, the command element has
continual concerns for the health and welfare of the soldiers of the company. The supply
element is primarily responsible for the requesting, receiving, storing, safeguarding, and
issuing of supplies and equipment for internal operations of the company. The supply
element is also concerned with the efficiency and preparedness of the unit in matters
relating to operational maintenance of all individual weapons organic to the unit.

1-5. COMMUNICATIONS PLATOON.


The communications platoon primary mission is to install wire from point to point. There
are five wire sections in the platoon with a SGT in charge of each section. They have the
capability of installing five kilometers of single strand wire (without re-supply of wire) to
be used with field phones or switchboards. Under ideal situations they would run/lay the
wire from or to the five kandaks in the brigade to the brigade command post switchboard.
After installation they would assume the mission of maintaining the wire network.

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ANA 1-6.5

1-6. MESSENGER PLATOON.


The messenger platoon is equipped to perform two missions, one is radio relay and the
other is to carry messages by courier. There are three sections in the platoon; each section
has the ability to perform radio relay and motorcycle borne courier duties.

1-7. COMMUNICATIONS ORGANIZATION ABOVE CORPS


Communications Support Element (CSE). This ANA tactical signal kandak is under
command control of the MoD/Chief of the General Staff and operational control of the
ANA G6, Chief of Communications, that has the mission of extending and/or restoring
communications from the National Military Command Center (NMCC) for up to two
Regional Commands (Corps Headquarters units) in order to maintain command and
control of the ANA. The kandak consists of an HHC and three signal companies. Each
company is identical with a strategic communications platoon, tactical radio platoon, wire
section and support section (See Figure 7-2).

Each company of the CSE when deployed can provide all communications required of a
Corps to command and control the corps and establish communication with the National
Military Command Center (NMCC). The company would require minimal life support
from the supported corps. Below is a brief synopsis of each platoon.

a. Strategic Communications Platoon. The platoon is capable of providing a Corps


TOC (tactical operations center) with computer automation, telephone switching and
satellite communications. The platoon is self contained and can deploy as a platoon or
part of the company to any location in the country when directed by the Ministry of
Defense.

b. Tactical Radio Platoon. The platoon is capable of providing a Corps TOC


(tactical operations center) with all necessary VHF/HF radio communications to
command and control the corps in a tactical environment. The platoon is self contained
and can deploy as a platoon or part of the company to any location in the country when
directed by the Ministry of Defense.

c. Wire Section. The wire section is capable of installing 120 kilometers of field
wire with 22 telephone users and two switchboards. This would allow a Corps TOC to
establish landline communications with all brigade and kandak command posts. The
platoon is self contained and can deploy as a platoon or part of the company to any
location in the country when directed by the Ministry of Defense.

d. Support Section. The section is configured to support the company with


vehicle/generator mechanics, POL and radio repairmen.

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Communications Support Element

S1 S2 S3 S4

HHC

Medical Section Strategic Com Platoon


Maintenance Platoon Tactical Radio Platoon
Support Platoon Wire Section
Support Section

Figure 1-2 CSE Organization

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Chapter 2
COMMAND AND CONTROL

The company's command and control system must be reliable, responsive, and durable. It
must withstand crises, even the loss of the commander, and still continue to function.
Although it is the most complex system in the company, the result must be clear, concise
instructions that focus the entire unit toward the company's objective. This section
describes the structure and key concepts of the command and control system.

2-1. DEFINITIONS
Success on the battlefield will require a combination of command and control. The proper
mix of command and control is determined by the situation, but commanders must
emphasize command and reduce control measures that restrict their subordinate's freedom
of action.
a. Command. Command is the process that instills the commander's will among his
subordinates. It provides focus and direction to the company. The commander's
leadership is an integral part of command.
b. Control. Control, as the counterpart of command, follows up a decision and
minimizes deviation from the commander's concept. Control provides supervision to the
operation while synchronizing all systems and activities.
c. Synchronization. Commanders must avoid depending on close control of their
units to achieve synchronization. This slows execution and limits their subordinates'
initiative. Synchronization is maintained during execution by the proper decisions of
subordinates. A clear understanding of the commander's intent and a simple effective
concept are the keys to maintaining synchronization.

2-2. COMMANDER'S LEADERSHIP


Leadership is the critical element of both combat power and the command and control
system. Through leadership the commander causes his unit to complete demanding tasks
in difficult situations. Commanders must understand the military leadership philosophy in
ANA 6-22. In addition, the following factors are key to the company commander's ability
to lead his company on the battlefield.
a. Will. Often the victor in battle is the unit that refuses to lose. Competent leaders
and tough, realistic training are the keys to developing this determination. The CO must
develop a "will to win" in his soldiers and his company.
b. Trust. The CO must earn the trust of his men. They must have confidence in his
abilities. He must also trust his soldiers and develop a command climate that allows
subordinates to make decisions.
c. Delegation. After ensuring his subordinates are well trained, the CO must delegate
the proper authority and freedoms to his men. The CO focuses his time and energy on
what is critical and delegates the remainder to his subordinates.
d. Discipline. The CO instills discipline in his soldiers. Discipline ensures proper
standards are maintained in the absence of leader supervision. The decentralized
operations, which the company routinely conducts, require selfdiscipline of every
soldier in the company.

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2-3. MISSIONORIENTED COMMAND AND CONTROL (M-OC2)


Missionoriented command and control is the Army's doctrinal approach to C2 on the
battlefield. It is a method of directing military operations that encourages and expects
subordinates to take action consistent with the intent and concept of higher headquarters.
The following principles provide the fundamentals for M-OC2.
a. Expect Uncertainty. The commander must understand the environment of
combat; the battlefield will be dynamic and nonlinear. Communications will be degraded,
and the chaos will often prevent the commander from knowing what is happening beyond
his own senses. The situation during planning will always change before execution.
b. Reduce Leader Intervention. Plan and direct operations to require the absolute
minimum intervention during execution. When soldiers expect the commander to make
the decision or initiate the action, they are reluctant to take action. When precise control
is required for synchronization, such as an on-order task, the commander should also
provide the subordinate the criteria for making the decision. Leaders must realize that
some loss of precision is better than inactivity.
c. Increase Subordinate Planning Time. The CO ensures the effective use of all
available planning time. Although the majority of the planning takes place at company
level, the squads and platoons require extra time to conduct their rehearsals and
inspections. SOPs and warning orders are key tools for using time well.
d. Give Subordinates Maximum Freedom of Action. Given the expected
battlefield conditions, leaders at every level avoid unnecessary limits on their soldiers'
freedom of action. The leader at the point of decision must have the knowledge, the
training, and the freedom to make the correct decision that supports the commander's
intent.
e. Command/Lead Well Forward. The commander locates where he can best
influence his company in mission accomplishment. This is determined by a number of
factors. His leadership is most effective face-to-face when he can see the situation and his
soldiers can see him. Since he cannot be everywhere, the CO focuses on the decisive
action that will accomplish his mission. He normally locates with his main effort to
provide his leadership and to be in a position to shift or retask company assets.

2-4. COMMANDER'S INTENT


Knowing the commander's intent enables subordinates to use their initiative during the
execution of an operation. Clear and concise terms are used to state the intent to ensure
understanding throughout the force. It must be clearly understood by all means of
communication; written, facetoface, or spoken via radio or land line.
a. Intent. Intent is defined as the result the commander expects the unit to
accomplish in a specific operation. At the lowest tactical levels, intent is normally the
purpose from the mission statement. As such, it is assigned by the commander when he
determined the brigades mission statement. This mission statement consists of the
mission essential task to be accomplished and the purpose (result) it achieves.
b. Commander's Concept. When the commander develops his concept, he
determines the mission for the unit. He first determines the purpose the unit must achieve
and then assigns the task(s) he feels will achieve that purpose. Soldiers should make
every effort to inform their commander of their actions, but they must not wait for an

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order to act. Another example of how the assigned purpose/intent guides actions could
be: During execution, the CO sees the opportunity to achieve his assigned purpose faster
or less costly by acting now. When making this decision, he must consider what his unit's
role is within his commander's concept. He must make every effort to operate within the
framework of the commander's concept because it provides the synchronization and
concentration of combat power for the operation. If he determines that his actions will not
jeopardize the unit or the mission, then in the absence of communications he must act.
c. Concept Development. To accomplish the assigned mission, the CO assigns
missions to his subordinate units. Just as the brigade commander assigned kandaks
missions, and designates his main effort, the CO does the same for the kandak. He also
ensures that his concept fits within the kandak/brigade commander's concept. This results
in a unity of effort but supports decentralized execution. At each level, the commander is
given his mission by his superior, develops a concept to accomplish the mission,
organizes his unit to fight the concept, and assigns each subordinate his responsibilities.
The vehicle for providing this information is the OPORD.
d. Main Effort. The unit with the most important task in the commander's concept is
assigned the main effort. This unit is the focus; all other units support the quick success
of the main effort. Success by the main effort should result in the accomplishment of the
commander's mission. When considering independent action, each leader makes his
decision based on his relationship to the main effort. The linkage between supporting and
main efforts must be maintained except in extraordinary cases, such as when a leader of a
supporting effort sees the chance to accomplish the purpose of the main effort. This
leader asks the question, "What would my commander do if he knew what I know?"
Since the proper response would be to shift the main effort to this leader's unit, he should
immediately retask himself and accomplish the purpose that was assigned to the main
effort. If the original main effort leader was informed or became aware of this
development, he should determine how to best support the new main effort, retask
himself, issue a FRAGO to his soldiers, and join the fight.

2-5. MISSION ORDERS


Doctrine requires the use of mission-type orders. Mission orders focus on what tasks
must be accomplished without specifying how they will be done. Whenever possible,
they are oral orders issued face-to-face on the ground where the fight will take place.
Mission orders require welltrained subordinates who understand their commanders'
intent and concepts (two levels higher).
a. Mission orders address only the required information. Avoid unnecessary detail
and redundancy; do not restate doctrine or SOPs. Develop unit SOPs that reduce the
length of orders; use clear and concise terms and graphics. ANA 1-3.1 is the doctrinal
source for terms and graphics, every leader in the unit must understand these.
b. The commander determines exactly what he wants his units to accomplish and
clearly communicates these requirements to them. If one of his leaders has not earned his
trust or has not displayed the tactical competence to operate with a mission order, then
the order must be tailored, based on the training, experience, and capability of the leader
receiving the order.

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(1) This may include nothing more than providing additional instructions,
establishing more restrictive control measures, or directing a specific use for one of his
organic assets.
(2) Or in an unusual situation, the CO may detail exactly how the leader will
employ his entire unit, clearly state the limits for using his initiative, and locate himself
or the XO with this unit. This should be only a short-term solution; leaders must be
trained to meet their responsibilities

DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF KEY PERSONNEL

2-6. COMPANY COMMANDER.


The company commander is responsible for everything the company does or fails to do.
This includes the employment, training, administration, personnel management,
maintenance, and sustainment of his company. He must know the capabilities of his men,
equipment and how to employ them.
a. The company commander exercises command through his subordinate leaders.
b. The commander employs his company to support the accomplishment of the
brigade missions. He requests additional support when required.
c. He must be the communications expert in the brigade.

2-7. EXECUTIVE OFFICER (XO).


The executive officer is second in command. His primary role is to assist the commander
in mission planning and accomplishment. He assumes command of the company as
required. The XO locates where he can maintain communications with the company
commander and influence mission accomplishment.
a. Before the operations, the XO (with the company sergeant) plans and supervises
the company's CSS. They ensure pre-combat inspections are complete. The XO plans and
coordinates logistical support with agencies outside the company while the company
sergeant does the same internally. He prepares or assists in the preparation of paragraph 4
of the company operations order (OPORD). He may also assist the company commander
in planning the mission.
b. The XO coordinates with higher, adjacent, and supporting units. He may aid in
control of certain significant steps of the operation such as a passage of lines, linkup and
any other critical phase of the operation.
c. The XO may be assigned tactical responsibilities such as
Quartering Party or Detachment Officer in Charge. The XO may be the
officer in charge (OIC) of an element consisting of representatives of various
company elements. Their purpose is to precede the company and reconnoiter,
secure, and mark an assembly area.

2-8. COMPANY SERGEANT.


The company sergeant is the senior SGT and normally the most experienced soldier in
the company. He is the commander's primary tactical advisor and the expert on individual
and SGT skills. He assists the commander in planning, coordinating, and supervising all
activities that support the unit mission. He operates where the commander directs or
where his duties require him. His specific duties include the following.

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a. He executes and supervises routine operations. This includes enforcing the tactical
standing operating procedure (TSOP), planning and coordinating training, coordinating
and reporting personnel and administrative actions, and supervising supply, maintenance,
communications, field hygiene, and medical evacuation operations.
b. He supervises, inspects, or observes matters designated by the commander.
c. He assists and coordinates with the XO and is prepared to assume the XOs duties.
d. The Company Sergeant leads task-organized elements or subunits on designated
missions, if required.

2-9. SUPPLY SERGEANT.


a. The supply sergeant requests, receives, issues, stores, maintains, and turns in
supplies and equipment for the company. He coordinates requirements with the Company
Sergeant and the kandak S4.
b. He monitors the tactical situation and anticipates logistical requirements.

2-10. PLATOON LEADER


The platoon leader is responsible to the commander for leadership, discipline, training,
and sustainment activities related to the platoon and for the platoon's success during
operations. He is also responsible for maintenance and accountability of platoon
equipment.
a. He must be technically and tactically proficient in the employment of the platoon
in support of the mission.
b. He must have a solid understanding of troop-leading procedures and develop his
ability to apply them quickly and efficiently.
c. He must know the capabilities and limitations of the platoons personnel and
equipment.

2-11. PLATOON SERGEANT


The platoon sergeant is the platoons second in command and is accountable to the
platoon leader for the leadership, discipline, training, and welfare of the platoons
soldiers.
a. He coordinates the platoons maintenance and logistical requirements and handles
the personal needs of individual soldiers.
b. He leads task-organized elements or subunits on designated missions, if required.

2-12. SUCCESSION OF COMMAND


The chain of command provides for the succession of command should leaders become
casualties. The normal succession of command in the communications company is
commander, XO, platoon leaders by seniority, Company Sergeant, and SGTs by
seniority.
a. To reestablish the chain of command, the new commander establishes
communications with all elements of the company. He informs them of the situation,
receives status reports from the company and any new orders from kandak or brigade,
and continues operations. He issues FRAGOs as required.

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b. The company tactical SOP should cover reestablishment of the chain of command.
The allocation of resources and the location at which command is reestablished should be
planned for during both static and mobile situations.

COMMAND AND CONTROL PROCESS

The leader uses the command and control process to figure out what is going on, decide
what to do about it, tell soldiers what to do, and then keep track of how well his soldiers
are doing. The troopleading procedures are the leader's tools to guide the command and
control process. These procedures provide a common framework for all echelons of
command to apply the C2 process. Two other tools that are part of the C2 process are the
estimate of the situation (see Appendix A) and METTTC analysis. The relationship of
these three tools is depicted in Figure 2-1.

2-13. TROOP-LEADING PROCEDURES


The troop-leading procedures are the dynamic process by which a commander receives a
mission, plans it, and executes it. It should be an instinctive and familiar way of thinking
for a company commander. The sequence of the individual TLPs is not rigid. It is
modified to meet the mission, situation, and available time. Some steps are done
concurrently while others may go on continuously throughout the operation. The TLPs
are time savers; as such, the leader conducts them in the order that most effectively uses
the available time.
a. Receive the Mission. A mission may be received in the form of a written or oral
warning order, operation order, or fragmentary order. At times, a leader may deduce a
change in mission, based on a change in the situation.
(1) Once an upcoming mission is identified, actions to begin preparing the unit are
conducted. The CO conducts an initial METTTC analysis to determine the requirements
for his warning order.
(2) With the information available, the commander sets his time schedule by
identifying the actions that must be done (timecritical tasks) to prepare his unit for the
operation. These preparatory actions are identified by a preliminary consideration of the
information on the mission, enemy, terrain, and own troops. An initial reconnaissance
(may be a map reconnaissance) is conducted to allow the leader to more fully understand
the time requirements for the mission. He then develops his time schedule by starting at
"mission time" and working backward to the time it is now (reverse planning). The
mission time is normally the most critical time in the operation.

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ANA 1-6.5

METT-TC

CIVIL

(3) The commander must ensure that all subordinate echelons have sufficient time
for their own planning needs. A general principle for leaders at all levels is to use no
more than one-third of the available time for planning and issuance of the OPORD. This
will leave the rest of the available time for subordinate leaders to use for their planning
and preparation. This is a tentative time schedule, which may require adjustment as the
TLP process continues. An example would be:
0600 execute mission.
0530 finalize/adjust the plan, based on the leader's reconnaissance.
0200 begin movement.
2100 conduct platoon inspections.
1900 hold rehearsals.
1800 eat meals.
1745 hold briefbacks (SLs to PL).
1630 issue platoon OPORD.
1500 hold briefbacks (PLs to CO).
1330 issue company OPORD.
1045 conduct reconnaissance.
1030 update company warning order, if required.
1000 receive kandak OPORD.
0900 receive kandak warning order; issue company warning order.

b. Issue a Warning Order. Do not wait for more information. Issue the best
warning order possible with the information at hand and update it as needed with
additional warning orders. The warning order lets units prepare as soon as possible after
being alerted of an upcoming mission. This normally involves a number of standard
actions that should be addressed by SOP. The warning order should address those items
not covered in the SOP that must be done to prepare for the mission. The specific
contents for each warning order will vary, based upon the unique tactical situation.

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ANA 1-6.5

c. Make a Tentative Plan. Tentative plans are the basis for the OPORD. The leader
uses the commander's estimate of the situation to analyze METTTC information,
develop and analyze a COA, compare courses of action, and make a decision that
produces a tentative plan.
d. Initiate Movement. This can be done by having a subordinate leader move the
unit to an assembly area or designated position. The instructions for this move can be
given in the warning order. The CO ensures that security is provided for all company
movements.
e. Conduct Reconnaissance. Reconnaissance is a continuous process during the
TLP. The tentative plan should include an R&S plan. Plan and conduct reconnaissance to
confirm or adjust the tentative plan. A thorough tentative plan helps the reconnaissance
because specific R&S guidance can be given to subordinates. In every tactical operation
the CO requires additional information. These requirements provide the focus for the
company R&S plan.
(1) Prepare the recon plan. The CO determines
What are his information requirements?
What are his security requirements?
What are the priorities for these requirements?
What assets are available to meet these requirements? (The CO may request
support from higher, adjacent, and supporting units.)
How much time is available to collect the information or establish security?
What is most critical (and thus the focus) for his personal reconnaissance?
To whom will he assign tasks to meet the R&S needs?
(2) Issue the recon plan. The CO provides additional instructions to supplement the
assigned tasks to his subordinates. The amount of detail depends on the specific situation.
A leader's reconnaissance that has several subordinate units involved requires more
specific instructions. These may include the following:
A specific tasking for selected soldiers from subordinate units, such as the 1st
Platoon's, 1st Squad leader.
A specific time schedule for the reconnaissance (report, inspection, departure,
and return times).
Specified routes and formations.
Special equipment required.
Likely contingency plans.
Withdrawal plan from the reconnaissance site.
Link up with the company.
(3) Select the technique. The leader's reconnaissance is crucial to every operation.
An effective leader reconnaissance provides the required information. The two primary
techniques for conducting the leader's reconnaissance are:
(a) Map reconnaissance. This is the least preferred method; you do not get an
appreciation of the terrain, road networks and obstacles.
(b) Route reconnaissance. Have the reconnaissance element drive the proposed
route the truck company will take and report on timing, road conditions, bridges
population centers and terrain that may hinder convoy operations.
(4) Conduct the reconnaissance. The leader's reconnaissance should be conducted
as any reconnaissance patrol; only essential personnel should take part. The smaller this

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element is, the less likely the patrol will receive unwanted attention. This should include
a leader from each of the key elements. Additional tasks during the reconnaissance may
include:
Testing communications if authorized.
Making final coordination on precise timings, signals, weapons/personnel
locations, and sub-unit responsibilities.
Establishing security/surveillance on the area if the company is going to
occupy a new assembly area (AA).
f. Complete the Plan. The CO must be prepared to adjust his tentative plan based on
the results of the reconnaissance. He may have to change COAs if the situation is not
what he expected. In this case, one of the previously analyzed and discarded COAs may
be adjusted to quickly finalize his new plan. Coordination continues with all supporting
agencies, higher headquarters, and adjacent units. This, along with his recon, gives the
leader the information he needs to expand the tentative plan into a five-paragraph
OPORD.
g. Issue the Order. Preferably issue the order while viewing the avenues of
approach/objective area. Make maximum use of visual aids (strip maps, sketches, and
terrain models) to enhance the presentation of the order. When the CO issues the tentative
plan before the leader's reconnaissance, he issues a FRAGO to finalize the plan prior to
execution.
h. Supervise. The best plan may fail if it is not managed right. Brief backs,
rehearsals, inspections, and continuous coordination of plans must be used to supervise
and refine troopleading procedures. Brief backs and rehearsals are not the same; brief
backs focus on the planning process, and rehearsals focus on execution.
(1) Inspect. During precombat inspections, check
Weapons and ammunition.
Uniforms and equipment.
Missionessential equipment.
Soldiers' knowledge and understanding of the mission and their specific
responsibilities.
Communications.
Rations and water.
Camouflage.
Vehicles
(2) Rehearse. Rehearsals are always conducted. They are essential to ensure
complete coordination and subordinate understanding. The warning order should provide
subordinate leaders sufficient detail for them to schedule and conduct rehearsals of
drills/SOPs before receiving the company OPORD. Rehearsals conducted after the
OPORD can then focus on mission specific tasks. Rehearsals are conducted as any other
training exercise except the training area should be as much like the objective area as
possible, including the same light and weather conditions. Rehearsals include holding
soldier and leader brief backs of individual tasks and using sand tables or sketches to talk
through the execution of the plan. The CO should establish the priority for rehearsals
based on the available time. The priority of rehearsals, as COA development, flows from
the decisive point of the operation.

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ANA 1-6.5

(3) Briefback. Subordinates should briefback the commander right after the
OPORD to ensure they understand their instructions. Briefbacks of the subordinates'
plans should also be conducted. These briefbacks may be given collectively at a meeting
of the orders group. Such a technique allows exchange of information, coordination
among units, and rapid distribution of changes to the initial plan.
(4) Coordinate. The commander visits his subordinates and adjacent units to
discuss their plans. The CO ensures that all necessary preparations are being made. These
may include coordination of fire support and engineer activities, maintenance, re-supply,
and other required actions.
(a) Any departures from the plan, both before and during the operation, are
coordinated with the commander and staff.
(b) During execution, the CO issues FRAGOs to modify or refine the operation
as the situation develops. He personally supervises and or leads the critical actions.

CONTINUOUS OPERATIONS
Continuous operations are combat operations that continue around the clock at a high
pace, requiring soldiers to fight/work without letup for extended periods. Opportunities
for sleep are scattered throughout the day and night.

2-14. SUSTAINED OPERATIONS


Sustained operations are when the same soldiers or small units engage in operations with
no opportunity for the unit to stand down and little time for soldiers to sleep. CSS units
must routinely plan to conduct sustained operations.

2-15. TECHNIQUES TO SUSTAIN OPERATIONS


To maintain effectiveness, adverse conditions of sustained operations must be overcome.
The following are methods the commander can use to reduce degradation, develop the
required abilities in soldiers, and prepare his unit for sustained operations.
a. Build Individual Soldier Resources. Preventive measures are often more
effective for keeping groups healthy and active. They include improving or maintaining
good physical condition, balanced nutrition, and immunizations.
b. Provide Good Leadership. Leadership is the keystone for sustained unit
performance.
c. Set High Standards. Achieving success during sustained operations demands the
highest standards of military professionalism.
d. Develop Individual Confidence. It is easier for units to withstand the adverse
conditions of sustained operations if they maintain an optimistic, confident outlook.
Confidence is the strongest safeguard against stress and performance degradation.
e. Establish Reliable Communication Channels. In combat, knowledge of the
situation and the status of both enemy and friendly units sustains soldiers.
f. Cross-train. This helps ensure that someone is always available to perform a
critical task or to help perform it. Criticality of tasks should determine the priority for
cross-training.
g. Develop Coping Skills. Coping with stress is an important combat skill in
sustained operations. Severe problems may develop after several days if leaders and

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ANA 1-6.5

soldiers do not sleep at least 4 hours every 24 hours. Ideally, the 4 hours should be
continuous.
h. Develop Good Physical Fitness. Being physically fit strengthens the ability to
recover from exhaustion. Fit soldiers withstand the stresses of sustained operations better.
i. Foster a Spirit and Attitude of Winning. In sustained operations, a genuine and
single-minded dedication often gives the extra strength needed to win.
j. Foster Cohesion, Esprit, Morale, and Commitment. Cohesion holds units
together; esprit keeps them dedicated to the mission. Unit cohesion and esprit are key
sources of strength for enduring the stresses of sustained operations.
k. Guarantee and Encourage the Free Exercise of Soldier's Faith. Since faith is
part of every day in a soldiers life, most soldiers are reassured and calmed if the
commander encourages and assists the kandak mullah in his visits to the unit.

2-16. UNIT SLEEP PLAN


The commander must ensure his unit can conduct both sustained and continuous
operations. The only way a unit can conduct continuous operations is that all soldiers and
leaders get enough rest.
a. The CO must devise and enforce a workrestsleep plan for the company. It must
include provisions for leaders as well as soldiers to sleep. Priority for sleep should go to
those whose judgment and decision-making are critical to mission accomplishment.
b. The plan should allow soldiers at least 4 to 5 hours of sleep each 24 hours; this
will sustain performance for several days. Six to 8 hours of sleep can sustain performance
indefinitely.

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ANA 1-6.5

Chapter 3
ORDERS

3-1. COMBAT ORDERS


Combat orders focus on what tasks must be accomplished without dictating in detail how
they will be done. Whenever possible, they are oral orders issued face-to-face on the
ground where the operation will take place.
a. Brevity and Clarity. Combat orders require well-trained subordinates who
understand their commanders' intent and concepts (two levels higher). Combat orders
address only the required information. They avoid unnecessary detail and redundancy and
do not restate doctrine or SOPs.
b. Tailoring. The leader determines exactly what he wants his units to accomplish
and clearly communicates these requirements to them. If one of his subordinates has not
displayed the tactical competence to operate with a combat order, then the order must be
tailored based on the training, experience, and capability of the subordinate leader
receiving the order.
(1) This tailoring may include nothing more than providing additional
instructions, establishing more restrictive control measures, or directing a specific use for
one of his organic assets.
(2) A commander may detail exactly how a leader will employ his entire platoon,
clearly state the limits for using his initiative, and locate himself or the company XO with
this unit. This should be only a short-term solution; leaders must be trained to meet their
responsibilities.

3-2. MISSION ORDERS


Doctrine requires mission tactics. This decentralization provides latitude to subordinates
to make decisions rapidly within the framework of the commanders concept and intent.
a. Mission orders address only the required information. They provide the framework
of what the commander wants donenot how it is to be done. Such orders need only
three important things. First, they must clearly state what the commander issuing the
order wants accomplished. Second, they must point out limiting factors that must be
observed for coordinating purposes. Third, they must state what resources are to be made
available to the subordinate commander and what support he can expect outside his
command.
b. Execution of mission tactics requires initiative, resourcefulness, and imagination.
Commanders must be ready to adapt to situations as they are, not as they were expected
or desired to be.
c. Subordinate leader initiative is based on mission orders and the commanders
intent, which define the limits of unit operations. They provide the opportunity for a
subordinate to take advantage of opportunities on the battlefield. The subordinate leader
is positively aggressive. He asks his commanding officer for information, resources, or
revision of plans as needed, and stands up for his position when he feels he is right.
d. Subordinate initiative and independence, though encouraged, is limited by the
requirements for unity of command, unity of effort, and the commanders intent.
Subordinates who feel they must disobey orders due to a perceived change in the
situation must accept the responsibility for their actions. The commanders intent must be

25
ANA 1-6.5

clearly stated and foremost in the minds of subordinate leaders. To win, subordinate
leaders must display initiative, but their initiative must be driven by their understanding
of the commanders intent, not by a desire for independent action. For best results, unit
actions are synchronized. If independent action is required to meet the commanders
intent for the operation, the action is takenbut subordinate leaders must carefully
balance the need for synchronized unit action with the changing tactical situation. They
must look at the big picture. Thus initiative and freedom of action are more likely used
during an exploitation or pursuit; an independent action during a delay or during a
withdrawal under enemy pressure could produce disaster for the entire force.
e. Commanders normally use mission-type orders. However, due to the requirement
for synchronization of the overall mission, they must occasionally give subordinates
specific instructions on how to accomplish a mission.

3-3. MAIN EFFORT


The unit with the most important task in the commanders concept at a particular time is
designated as the main effort. All other units support the quick success of this unit.
Subordinate commanders link their actions to the actions of those around them, but leave
room for initiative. They base their decisions about independent actions on how their unit
relates to the main effort. Success by the main effort at the decisive point should result in
the success of the commanders mission. If conditions change and success of the overall
mission can be obtained more cheaply or quickly another way, the commander shifts the
main effort to another unit. Support priorities also change to assure the success of the
newly designated main effort.

3-4. CHAIN OF COMMAND


The chain of command consists of the successive commanders and leaders through which
command actions are directed. Military operations demand strict adherence to this chain.
Under unusual conditions, a commander might bypass levels in the chain of command. If
he does so, he assumes responsibility for orders given. He must inform the intermediate
commander of the actions taken as soon as he can and must quickly reestablish the
normal chain of command. Sometimes, loss of the means of communication can prevent
orders from being issued. In this case, the subordinate is expected to base his actions on
the commanders intent. Commanders must prescribe the succession of command for all
contingencies, from temporary absences to the loss of the commander and the staff.

3-5. COMMAND RELATIONSHIPS


The command relationship refers to the way the command relates to the various units of
the brigade:
a. Organic. This refers to an essential unit listed in the table of organization and
equipment (TOE).
b. Assigned. This refers to a unit permanently operating with an organization.
c. Attached. This refers to a unit operating temporarily with an organization. Logistics
for this unit are the responsibility of the supported unit.
d. Operational Control. This refers to a unit provided to another commander for
specific missions or tasks. Logistics for this unit are the responsibility of the OPCON
unit.

26
ANA 1-6.5

3-6. SUPPORT RELATIONSHIPS


Support relationships are the specific relationships and responsibilities that exist between
supporting and supported units. The assigning commander retains both the logistical
support responsibility for and the authority to reorganize or reassign part or all of a
supporting force.
a. Direct Support. A unit in DS gives priority of support to a specific unit.
b. General Support. A unit in GS provides support to an entire force.
c. General Support Reinforcing. The main task of a general support reinforcing
unit is to support an entire force. Its secondary task is to provide reinforcing fires to a like
unit.

3-7. TYPES OF ORDERS


An order is a communication that is written, oral, or by signal, which conveys
instructions from a superior to a subordinate. In a broad sense, the terms order and
command are synonymous. However, an order implies discretion as to the details of
execution, whereas a command does not. Combat orders pertain to operations and their
service support. Combat orders include
OPORDs.
Service support orders.
Movement orders.
Warning orders (WARNOs).
Fragmentary orders (FRAGOs).

3-8. OPERATION ORDERS (OPORD)


An operation order is a directive issued by a commander to subordinate commanders for
the purpose of effecting the coordinated execution of an operation. Traditionally called
the five paragraph field order, an OPORD contains, as a minimum, descriptions of the
following (Appendix B):
Task organization.
Situation.
Mission.
Execution.
Administrative and logistic support.
Command and signal for the specified operation. OPORDs always specify an
execution date and time.

3-9. SERVICE SUPPORT ORDERS


A service support order is an order that directs the service support of operations,
including administrative movements. Service support orders form the basis for the
orders of supporting commanders to their units. They provide information on combat
service support (CSS) to supported elements. Service support orders are issued with an
OPORD. They may be issued separately, when the commander expects the CSS situation
to apply to more than one OPLAN/OPORD. At corps level, a service support order may
replace an OPORDs service support annex. In those cases, paragraph 4 of the OPORD
refers to the service support order. Staffs at brigade and lower levels may cover all

27
ANA 1-6.5

necessary CSS information in paragraph 4 of the OPORD. The service support order
follows the same format as the OPORD. It is usually in writing and may include overlays,
traces, and other annexes. The logistics officer has primary coordinating responsibility
for preparing, publishing, and distributing the service support order. Other staff officers,
both coordinating and special, prepare parts of the order concerning their functional areas
(Appendix B).

3-10. MOVEMENT ORDERS


A movement order is an order issued by a commander covering the details for a move of
the command. Movement orders usually concern administrative moves. Normally, these
movements occur in the rear area. The logistics officer has primary coordinating staff
responsibility for planning and coordinating administrative movements. This includes
preparing, publishing, and distributing movement orders. Other coordinating and special
staff officers assist the logistics officer. These may include the operations officer, provost
marshal, transportation officers, and movement control personnel (Appendix B).

When conducting ground movements in the rear area of the combat zone
where enemy interference is expected, a movement order may become an
annex to an OPORD or service support order. The operations officer plans
and coordinates these tactical movements.

3-11. WARNING ORDERS


The warning order is a preliminary notice of an order or action, which is to follow.
WARNOs help subordinate units and staffs prepare for new missions. They increase
subordinates planning time, provide details of the impending operation, and detail events
that accompany preparation and execution. The amount of detail a WARNO includes
depends on the information and time available when it is issued and the information
subordinate commanders need for proper planning and preparation. The words warning
order precede the message text. With the commanders (or chief of staffs or executive
officers) approval, a coordinating or special staff officer may issue a WARNO
(Appendix B).

a. A WARNO informs recipients of tasks they must do now or notifies them of


possible future tasks. However, a WARNO does not authorize execution other than
planning unless specifically stated. A WARNO follows the OPORD format. It may
include some or all of the following information:
Series numbers, sheet numbers and names, editions, and scales of maps
required (if changed from the current OPORD).
The enemy situation and significant intelligence events.
The higher headquarters mission.
Mission or tasks of the issuing headquarters.
The commanders intent statement.
Orders for preliminary actions, including intelligence, surveillance, and
reconnaissance (ISR) operations.
Coordinating instructions (estimated timelines, orders group meetings, and the
time to issue the OPORD).

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Service support instructions, any special equipment needed, regrouping of


transport or preliminary unit movements.

3-12. FRAGMENTARY ORDERS


A fragmentary order is an abbreviated form of an operation order (verbal or written)
usually issued on a day-to-day basis that eliminates the need for restating information
contained in a basic operation order. It may be issued in sections. It is issued after an
operation order to change or modify that order or to execute a branch or sequel to that
order. FRAGOs include all five OPORD paragraph headings. After each heading, state
either new information or no change. This ensures that recipients know they have
received the entire FRAGO. Commanders may authorize members of their staff to issue
FRAGOs in their name. FRAGOs differ from OPORDs only in the degree of detail
provided. They address only those parts of the original OPORD that have changed.
FRAGOs refer to previous orders and provide brief and specific instructions. The higher
headquarters issues a new OPORD when there is a complete change of the tactical
situation or when many changes make the current order ineffective (Appendix B).

3-13. TECHNIQUES FOR ISSUING ORDERS


There are several techniques for issuing orders: verbal, written, or electronically
produced using matrices or overlays. The five-paragraph format is the standard for
issuing combat orders. Orders may be generated and disseminated by electronic means to
reduce the amount of time needed to gather and brief the orders group. When available
preparation time or resources are constrained, commanders may use the matrix method of
issuing orders.

3-14. WRITTEN ORDERS


Written orders are usually the method that most orders are issued. They will be written
out in the five paragraph OPORD format and usually have some kind of picture or
graphic.

3-15. VERBAL ORDERS


Verbal orders are used when operating in an extremely time-constrained environment.
They offer the advantage of being passed quickly, but risk important information being
overlooked or misunderstood. Verbal orders are usually followed up by written FRAGOs.

3-16. GRAPHICS
Plans and orders generally include both text and graphics. Graphics convey information
and instructions through military symbols. They complement the written portion of a plan
or an order and promote clarity, accuracy, and brevity. The Army prefers depicting
information and instructions graphically when possible. However, the mission statement
and the commanders intent are always in writing.

3-17. OVERLAYS
An overlay graphically portrays the location, size, and activity (past, current or planned)
of depicted units more consistently and accurately than text alone. An overlay enhances a
viewers ability to analyze the relationships of units and terrain. A trained viewer can

29
ANA 1-6.5

attain a vision of a situation as well as insight into the identification of implied tasks,
relationships, and coordination requirements that the written plan or order may not list or
readily explain. Overlay graphics may be used on stand-alone overlays or overprinted
maps. The issuing headquarters is responsible for the accuracy of control measures and
for transposing graphics to and from the map scale used by subordinate headquarters.

3-18. OVERLAY ORDERS


An overlay order is a technique used to issue an order (normally a FRAGO) that has
abbreviated instructions written on an overlay. Overlay orders combine a five-
paragraph order with an operation overlay. Commanders may issue an overlay order
when planning and preparation time is severely constrained and they must get the order to
subordinate commanders as soon as possible. Commanders issue overlay orders by any
suitable graphic method. An overlay order may consist of more than one overlay. A
separate overlay or written annex can contain the service support coordination and
organizations (Appendix B).

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ANA 1-6.5

Chapter 4
INTRODUCTION TO
SINGLE-CHANNEL RADIO
COMMUNICATIONS

4-1. Employment of Radio Communications


Mobility is one of the keys to success on the modern battlefield. All communications
must be geared to support a combat force that must repeatedly move to survive and fight
the enemy. The single-channel radio is the primary means of communication for
command, fire control, and exchange of information, administration, and liaison between
and within units. The versatility of radio communications makes it readily adaptable to
rapidly changing tactical situations. Radio is essential for communications over territory
controlled by enemy forces, and terrain where the construction of wire lines is impossible
or impractical. It is also required for air assault operations.

4-2. Capabilities and Limitations


The capabilities of the single-channel radio make it flexible, securable, mobile, and
reliable. Radio communications facilities usually can be installed more quickly than wire
communications. Thus, radio can be used as a primary means of communications during
the initial stages of combat operations. Once installed in a vehicle or aircraft the
equipment is ready for use and does not require reinstallation. Wire communications
require reinstallation with each move. Radio equipment is designed to meet mobility
requirements and is used by airmobile, mechanized, and dismounted units. Radio lends
itself to many modes of operation, such as radiotelephone, visual presentation, and data.
All of the modes of operation are securable when required equipment is available.
Natural obstacles and terrain under enemy control or fire do not limit radio to the same
extent that they limit other means of communications. By using special techniques, radio
can interface with other communications means (net radio interface), be separated from
the immediate vicinity of the user (remoting), and operate over extended distances
(retransmission).

The limitations of single-channel radio must also be considered. Radio is the most
detectable means of electronic communications and is subject to intentional and
unintentional electronic interference. To be capable of operating together, radios must
have common or at least some overlapping frequencies. They must transmit and receive
the same type signal and must be located within operating range of each other with a
clear transmission path. Radio is the least secure means of communications, and it must
be assumed that interception occurs every time a transmitter is placed in operation.

4-3. Tactical Applications


The extent to which radio is used in combat operations depends on the requirements for
secrecy and surprise balanced against the urgency of communications. When surprise is
important, radio operation is limited initially to those units already in contact with the
enemy. In some instances, to increase deception and surprise, the operation of dummy
stations may be directed by higher commanders. When a unit is moving into an area just

31
ANA 1-6.5

prior to attack, it may be directed to maintain listening silence until the attack is
launched. When a unit is already occupying a sector from which it is to launch an attack,
and its radio stations are in operation, it may be directed to maintain normal radio
operations without substantial change in traffic load until the attack is launched. If a unit
is moved to another sector or is relieved by another unit, it may be required to provide
dummy radio stations to continue operations until the attack is fully underway. Once the
attack is launched, special restrictions on radio operations are generally removed.

32
ANA 1-6.5

Chapter 5
PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN OPERATING
SINGLE-CHANNEL RADIOS

Section I. Siting Considerations

5-1. Site Selection


The reliability of radio communications depends largely on the selection of a good radio
site. Since it is very difficult to select a site for a radio that satisfies all the technical,
tactical, and security requirements, we compromise and select the best site of all those
available. It is also good planning to select both a primary site and an alternate site. If, for
some reason, radio communications cannot be established and maintained at the primary
location, the radio equipment can be moved a short distance to the alternate site. Select
sites and routes using ground reconnaissance when possible. Use an aerial or map
reconnaissance when a ground reconnaissance is not possible.

Site Reconnaissance. As soon as the team knows where it will deploy, it conducts a
thorough reconnaissance. This usually includes the platoon leader, platoon sergeants,
relay team supervisor, and security. The reconnaissance must be extremely detailed as
site selection and layout are critical to success. Reconnaissance is considered complete
when the platoon leader can fill out a diagram showing-- Antenna and LOS placements
and vehicle locations. Hasty defensive sites and security plans. The LOS has first priority
of placement. The platoon leader back briefs his command on his site layout and initial
security procedures.

Location.
A radio station must be located in a position that will assure communications with all
other stations with which it is to operate and yet maintain a degree of physical and
communications security. Site must have a clear LOS path for radio systems, must be free
of obstacles that prevent transmissions, and away from interference sources such as
power lines, generators, or other antennas. Site should be accessible in all weather
conditions. Site should provide overhead cover and concealment with adequate
dispersion of assets, be defendable, have more than one exit, and not attract enemy
attention. Site should have a helicopter landing zone for emergencies or supplies. To
obtain efficiency of transmission and reception, the following factors should be
considered. Hills and mountains between stations normally limit the range of radio sets.
In mountainous or hilly terrain, select positions relatively high on the slopes (Figure 5-1).
Avoid a location at the base of a cliff or in a deep ravine or valley (Figure 5-2). For
operation at frequencies above 30 MHz, and whenever possible, select a location that will
allow line-of-sight communications. Try to avoid locations which provide the enemy with
a jamming capability, visual sighting, or easy interception.

33
ANA 1-6.5

Figure 5-1. Good Sites for Radio Communications.

Figure 5-2. Poor sites for Radio Communications.

34
ANA 1-6.5

Good sites for radio communications. Dry ground has high resistance and limits the range
of the radio set. If possible, locate the station near moist ground, which has much less
resistance. Water greatly increases the distances that can be covered. Trees with heavy
foliage absorb radio waves, and leafy trees have more of an adverse effect than
evergreens. Keep the antenna clear of all foliage and dense brush; but try to use available
trees and shrubs for cover and concealment and for screening from enemy jamming.

Man-made Obstructions.
Do not select an antenna position in a tunnel or beneath an underpass or steel bridge
(Figure 5-2). Transmission and reception under these conditions are almost impossible
because of high absorption of RF energy. Buildings located between radio stations,
particularly steel and reinforced concrete structures hinder transmission and reception.
You should, however, try to use buildings to camouflage your antenna from the enemy.
Avoid all types of pole wire lines, such as telephone, telegraph, and high-tension
powerlines, when selecting a site for a radio station. Wire lines absorb power from
radiating antennas located in their vicinity. They also introduce hum and noise
interference in receiving antennas. Avoid positions adjacent to heavily traveled roads and
highways. In addition to the noise and confusion caused by tanks and trucks, ignition
systems in these vehicles may cause electrical interference. Do not locate battery-
charging units and generators close to the radio station. Do not locate radio stations close
to each other. Locate radio stations in relatively quiet areas. The copying of weak signals
requires great concentration by the operator, and his attention should not be diverted by
outside noises.

5-2. Tactical Requirements


Local Command Requirements.
Radio stations should be located some distance from the unit headquarters or command
post that they serve. Thus, long-range enemy artillery fire, missiles, or aerial
bombardment directed at the stations as a result of enemy direction finding will not strike
the command post area.

Cover and Concealment.


The locations selected should provide the best cover and concealment possible, consistent
with good transmission and reception. Perfect cover and concealment may impair
communications. The permissible amount of impairment depends upon the range
required, the power of the transmitter, the sensitivity of the receiver, the efficiency of the
antenna system, and the nature of the terrain. When a radio is being used to communicate
over a distance that is well under the maximum range, some sacrifice of communications
efficiency can be made to permit better concealment of the radio from enemy
observation.

Practical Considerations.
Manpack sets have sufficiently long cordage to permit operation from a concealed
position (set and operator) while the antenna is mounted in the best position for
communications. Some sets can be controlled remotely from distances of 30 meters or

35
ANA 1-6.5

more. The remotely controlled set can be set up in a relatively exposed position, if
necessary, while the operator remains concealed. Antennas of all radio sets must be
mounted higher than ground level to permit normal communications. Small tactical sets
usually have whip antennas. These antennas are difficult to see from a distance,
especially if they are not silhouetted against the sky. However, they have a 360 radiation
pattern and are extremely vulnerable to enemy listening. Avoid open crests of hills and
mountains. A position protected from enemy fire just behind the crest gives better
concealment and sometimes provides better communications. All permanent and semi-
permanent positions should be properly camouflaged for protection from both aerial and
ground observation. However, the antenna should not touch trees, brush, or the
camouflage material. Use one well-sited, broadband antenna to serve several radios.

Local Communications.
At brigade level and higher, contact must be maintained between the radio station and the
message center at all times, either by local messenger or field telephone. The station
should also be readily accessible to the unit commander and to staff members.

5-3. Signal Site Security


Types of Signal Sites
Signal sites should be able to defend against sabotage, ground forces, and airborne/air
assault forces with little or no outside help. They must also be prepared to survive enemy
air and artillery attack. There are different signal sites and different considerations must
be made when planning a site defense for each. Current threat status/situation is an
important factor when planning and committing assets and personnel to defend a site. Use
mission, enemy, terrain, troops, time and civil considerations (METT-TC) and order
priorities accordingly.

Remote Sites. These are small teams located in isolated positions, usually for
relay or retransmission purposes. They cannot hope to defeat a large enemy
force. Teams should try to remain concealed and report enemy activity to
higher headquarters. Conduct risk assessment for remote sites to determine
the probability of mission success. Leaders must carefully track specific
threats and move quickly when in danger.

Collocated Sites. These are usually teams that deploy to support a unit CP,
such as an extension node. Usually, the team members are responsible for a
portion of the perimeter defense. Careful coordination must be done with the
collocating units. All defense matters for the site should be the responsibility
of one central authority.

5-4. Site Defense Tasks


The following list provides guidelines for planning a site defense and should be
prioritized according to the mission. It may require additional soldiers. Figure 5-3 is an
example of site defense diagram.
Set up a dismount point and a blackout drive line.

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ANA 1-6.5

Park vehicles at least 50 meters apart or as dictated by the tactical situation


and/or environment to allow minimum damage from indirect fire.
Camouflage tents, vehicles, and equipment.
Set up defensive positions with interlocking fields of fire.
Ensure aiming stakes are in place.
Set up personal defensive positions within the site.
Establish overhead cover.
Establish a site defense command center.
Establish listening points outside earshot of generators.
Establish a roving guard force to cover the perimeter and check on fighting
positions.
Establish external patrols to periodically sweep the immediate area outside the
perimeter.
Position and over-watch obstacles and trip wires.
Establish perimeter control.
Ensure communications exist to observation/listening posts, dismount points,
fighting positions, and casualty evacuation points.
Establish an additional line between collocating units and the signal command
center.
Establish rally points and reactionary force plan.
Coordinate a call for fire plan.
Inventory sensitive items often to provide an accurate battle statue.
Plan for medical support and evacuation.
Set up ammunition re-supply points.
Set up a sleep plan that integrates into the work/defense plan.
Control weapons employment and ensure each soldier has adequate
ammunition (with magazines).

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ANA 1-6.5

Figure 5-3, Signal site diagram.

Section II.
Transmitter Characteristics and Operator's Skills

5-5. Importance to Reliable Communications


In addition to proper siting, the reliability of radio communications also depends upon the
characteristics of the transmitted signal. The transmitter and its associated antenna form
the initial step in the transfer of energy to a distant receiver.

5-6. Operating Frequency


Ground-wave transmission is used for most field radio communications. The range of the
ground-wave becomes correspondingly shorter as the operating frequency of the
transmitter is increased through the applicable portions of the medium-frequency band

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ANA 1-6.5

(300-3000 kHz) to the high-frequency band (3-30 MHz). When the transmitter is
operating at frequencies above 30 MHz, its range is limited generally to slightly more
than line of sight. For circuits using sky-wave propagation, the frequency selected
depends on the geographic area, season, and time of day.

5-7. Transmitting Antenna and Power Output


For maximum transfer of energy, the radiating antenna must be the proper length for the
operating frequency. The local terrain determines, in part, the radiation pattern and,
therefore, affects the directivity of the antenna and the possible range of the set in the
desired direction. If possible, several variations in the physical position of the antenna
should be tried to determine the best operating position to radiate the greatest amount of
energy in the desired direction. The range of a transmitter is proportional to the power
radiated by its antenna. An increase in power output of the transmitter results in some
increase in range, and a power decrease reduces the range. Under normal operating
conditions, the transmitter should feed only enough power into the radiating antenna to
establish reliable communications with the receiving station. Transmission of a signal
more powerful than required is a breach of signal security, because the location of the
transmitter may be more easily fixed by enemy direction-finding stations. Also, the signal
may interfere with friendly stations operating on the same frequency.

CAUTION
Do not detune a transmitter to reduce power output. Operation with a detuned power
output stage can cause damage to the transmitter.

5-8. Transmitting Operator's Skills


The skill and technical abilities of the operators at the transmitter and receiver play
important parts in obtaining the maximum range possible. The transmitter, output
coupling, and antenna feeder circuits must be tuned correctly to obtain maximum power
output. In addition, both the radiating antenna and the receiving antenna have to be
constructed properly with regard to both electrical characteristics and conditions of the
local terrain. The operator is the main defense against enemy interference. The skill of the
operator can be the final determining factor in maintaining command and control
communications in the face of enemy efforts to disrupt it.

Section III. Transmission Paths

5-9. Characteristics of the Transmission Path


After the radio signal leaves the transmitting antenna, you must be concerned with the
amount of radiated energy that is lost along the transmission path. Selecting the
transmission path with the least radiation loss ensures that more energy will be
transferred to the receiving antenna.

5-10. Conductivity of the Terrain


The type of terrain between two field radio sets determines ground conductivity and
affects the ground-wave. Flat prairie country has high conductivity and there is little
absorption of the ground-wave by the earth. Large bodies of water also have high

39
ANA 1-6.5

conductivity. Mountainous, rugged, and broken country usually has low conductivity. In
areas where there are large mineral deposits, and in deep ravines and valleys, the ground-
wave may be absorbed completely by the soil.

5-11. Location of the Antenna


Large terrain obstructions between the transmitting and receiving stations reduce the
reliability of radio transmissions. When you are selecting a site location, select high
ground on which to erect the antenna.

5-12. Distance between Stations


Low-power radio transmitters of limited range must work with receivers located within
their range. Higher power transmitters with correspondingly stronger ground and sky
waves may reach receiving stations with either or both of these waves, depending upon
the distances between the transmitter and the receivers. When sky-wave propagation is
used for communications, the skip distance must be considered. At times during the day
or night on certain frequencies, the receiving station might lie within the skip zone and
will not receive a signal from the transmitter.

Section IV.
Receiver Characteristics and Operator's Skills

5-13. Sensitivity and Selectivity of the Receiver


When the transmitted signal reaches the receiver location, it arrives at a much lower
power level than when it left the transmitter. The receiver must efficiently process this
relatively weak signal to provide maximum reliability of communications. Sensitivity is a
term used to describe how well a receiver responds to a weak signal at a given frequency.
A receiver with high sensitivity is able to accept a very weak signal and amplify and
process it to provide a usable output (an output that can be fully understood or that can be
used to operate a teletypewriter or other devices). The principal factor that limits or
lowers the sensitivity of a receiver is the noise generated by its own internal circuits (for
example, tube and resistor noise). Selectivity is a term used to describe how well a
receiver is able to differentiate between a desired frequency and nearby frequencies.

5-14. Receiving Antenna


In field radio communications, the type, location, and electrical characteristics of the
receiving antenna are not as important as they are for the transmitting antenna. The
receiving antenna must be of sufficient length; be properly coupled to the input of the
receiver circuit; and, except in some cases for HF sky-wave propagation, it must have the
same polarization as the transmitting antenna.

5-15. Interference
Interference from Natural Sources.
There are four kinds of radio interference you can expect from natural sources.
Atmospheric interference from electrical storms.
Solar and cosmic interference from eruptions on the Sun and other stars.

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ANA 1-6.5

Precipitation static from charged particles (rain, sleet, snow, sand, smoke, or
dust) in the atmosphere. Dry particles produce greater charges and more
static than wet ones.
Fading from disturbances in the medium through which radio waves are
propagated. Interferences listed above, except the last, appear in electronic
equipment as disturbing noise. This noise shows up as sound in headphones
and loudspeakers and as errors in the output of other terminal equipment.
There is interference from natural sources at most frequencies, but it
diminishes considerably as the frequency is increased. At very high
frequencies these disturbances have very little effect on reception.

Man-made Interference.
Man-made interference is generated by electrical devices (such as arc welders), leakage
on high-tension lines, television sets, vehicle ignition systems, and sparking brushes on
motors and generators and other rotating machines. This interference may be intentional
or unintentional. If the interference is intense enough, it will drown out or obscure
communications. Although man-made interference is best eliminated or minimized at its
source, some improvements can be made at the receiver. The operator can often make
tuning adjustments which will enable the signal to be read through the interference. The
use of a directional receiving antenna will eliminate some of the interference if the source
is not in the same direction as the transmitting station. In addition, specially designed
antenna lead-in wire may eliminate or minimize man-made interference that would
normally be picked up on the lead-in wire. Radio noise waves coming from a man-made
source tend to be vertically polarized. Therefore, a horizontally polarized receiving
antenna will generally receive less noise than a vertically polarized antenna.

Mutual Interference.
When one communications system interferes with another, or when one particular unit
within a given system interferes with other units in the same system, there is a condition
of mutual interference. Mutual interference may appear in several forms: noise, cross
talk, and/or harmonic interactions. Some of the common conditions that cause mutual
interference are--
Spurious, undesired signals.
Spurious receiver responses.
RF arcing in transmitters.
Impedance mismatch in the antenna system.
High-voltage pulse interference.
Improper frequency assignments.
Interference originates from many local and distant sources. Frequency relationships,
geographical location, faulty adjustment of equipment, and improper operating
techniques are important factors contributing to mutual interference. Equipment and
systems that are potential generators of mutual interference are radar, radio, radio aids to
navigation, and telephones.

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ANA 1-6.5

5-16. Receiving operator's Skills


Most communications receivers have adjustable controls that, when properly used, are
designed to minimize the adverse effects of fading, noise, and interference. The proficient
use of these controls, such as the noise limiter and one of the various types of filters,
often will permit satisfactory reception of many messages that would otherwise be lost
when noise and interference become excessive. On the other hand, maladjustment of
these controls, through either ignorance or carelessness, can cause unsatisfactory
operation. Therefore, the skill and technical proficiency of the receiver operator play a
most important part in radio communications.

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ANA 1-6.5

Chapter 6
ANTENNAS

SAFETY WARNING
Be extremely careful when putting up, taking down, or moving antennas located
near high voltage or commercial power lines. Antenna contact with these could
result in electrocution or sever injury to personnel holding the antenna or the
connecting guy wires and cables.

Section I.
Requirement and Function
6-1. Necessity
All radios, whether transmitting or receiving, require some sort of antenna. Single-
channel radios normally send and receive radio signals on one antenna. This is called
one-way-reversible (OWR) or simplex operation. During duplex (DX) operation two
antennas are used, one for transmitting and the other for receiving. In either case, the
transmitter generates a radio signal. A transmission line delivers the signal from the
transmitter to the antenna. The transmitting antenna sends the radio signal into space
toward the receiving antenna. The receiving antenna intercepts the signal and sends it
through a transmission line to the receiver. The receiver processes the radio signal so that
it can either be heard or used to operate a recording device (Figure 6-1).

Figure 6-1. Simple Radio configuration network.

6-2. Function
The function of an antenna depends on whether it is transmitting or receiving. A
transmitting antenna transforms the output RF energy produced by a radio transmitter
(RF output power) into an electromagnetic field that is radiated through space. In other
words, the transmitting antenna converts energy from one form to another form. The

43
ANA 1-6.5

receiving antenna reverses this process. It transforms the electromagnetic field into RF
energy which is delivered to a radio receiver.

6-3. Gain
The gain of an antenna depends mainly on its design. Transmitting antennas are designed
for high efficiency in radiating energy, and receiving antennas are designed for high
efficiency in picking up energy. On many radio circuits, transmission is required between
a transmitter and only one receiving station. In this case, energy may be radiated in one
direction because it is useful only in that direction. Directional receiving antennas
increase the energy pickup or gain in the favored direction, and reduce the reception of
unwanted noise and signals from other directions. The general requirements for
transmitting and receiving antennas are that they have small energy losses and that they
be efficient as radiators and receptors.

Section II. Characteristics

6-4. Polarization
The polarization of a radiated wave is determined by the direction of the lines of force
making up the electric field. If the lines of electric force are at right angles to the surface
of the Earth, the wave is said to be vertically polarized (Figure 3-2). If the lines of electric
force are parallel to the surface of the Earth, the wave is said to be horizontally polarized
(Figure 3-3). When a single-wire antenna is used to extract (receive) energy from a
passing radio wave, maximum pickup results if the antenna is oriented so that it lies in
the same direction as the electric field component. Thus, a vertical antenna is used for
efficient reception of vertically polarized waves and a horizontal antenna is used for the
reception of horizontally polarized waves. In some cases, the field rotates as the waves
travel through space. Under these conditions, both horizontal and vertical components of
the field exist and the wave is said to have elliptical polarization.

44
ANA 1-6.5

Figure 6-2, Vertically polarized signal.

45
ANA 1-6.5

Figure 6-3, Horizontally polarized signals.

Polarization Requirements for Various Frequencies.


At medium and low frequencies, ground-wave transmission is used extensively and it is
necessary to use vertical polarization. Vertical lines of force are perpendicular to the
ground, and the radio wave can travel a considerable distance along the ground surface
with a minimum amount of loss. Because the Earth acts as a relatively good conductor at
low frequencies, horizontal lines of electric force are shorted out and the useful range
with the horizontal polarization is limited. At high frequencies, with sky wave
transmission, it makes little difference whether horizontal or vertical polarization is used.
The sky-wave, after being reflected by the ionosphere, arrives at the receiving antenna
elliptically polarized. Therefore, the transmitting and receiving antennas can be mounted
either horizontally or vertically. Horizontal antennas are preferred however, since they
can be made to radiate effectively at high angles and have inherent directional properties.
For frequencies in the very-high or ultra-high range, either horizontal or vertical

46
ANA 1-6.5

polarization is satisfactory. Since the radio wave travels directly from the transmitting
antenna to the receiving antenna, the original polarization produced at the transmitting
antenna is maintained as the wave travels to the receiving antenna. Therefore, if a
horizontal antenna is used for transmitting, a horizontal antenna must be used for
receiving.

Advantages of Vertical Polarization.


Simple vertical half-wave and quarter-wave antennas can be used to provide omni-
directional (in all directions) communications. This is desirable in communicating with a
moving vehicle. Its disadvantage is that it radiates equally to the enemy and friendly
forces. When antenna heights are limited to 3.05 meters (10 ft) or less over land, as in a
vehicular installation, vertical polarization provides a stronger received signal at
frequencies up to about 50 MHz. From about 50 MHz to 100 MHz, there is only a slight
improvement over horizontal polarization with antennas at the same height. Above 100
MHz, the difference in signal strength between vertical and horizontal polarization is
small. However, when antennas are located near dense forests, horizontally polarized
waves suffer lower losses than vertically polarized waves. Vertically polarized radiation
is somewhat less affected by reflections from aircraft flying over the transmission path.
With horizontal polarization, such reflections cause variations in received signal strength.
An example is the picture flutter in a television set when an aircraft interferes with the
transmission path. This factor is important in areas where aircraft traffic is heavy. When
vertical polarization is used, less interference is produced or picked up from strong VHF
and UHF transmissions (television and FM broadcasts) because they use horizontal
polarization. This factor is important when an antenna must be located in an urban area
that has television or FM broadcast stations.

Advantages of Horizontal Polarization.


A simple horizontal half-wave antenna is bidirectional. This characteristic is useful in
minimizing interference from certain directions. Horizontal antennas are less likely to
pick up man-made interference, which ordinarily is vertically polarized. When antennas
are located near dense forests, horizontally polarized waves suffer lower losses than
vertically polarized waves, especially above 100 MHz. Small changes in antenna location
do not cause large variations in the field intensity of horizontally polarized waves when
an antenna is located among trees or buildings. When vertical polarization is used, a
change of only a few meters in the antenna location may have a significant effect on the
received signal strength.

6-5. Directionality
Vertical receiving antennas accept radio signals equally from all horizontal directions,
just as vertical transmitting antennas radiate equally in all horizontal directions. Because
of this characteristic, other stations operating on the same or nearby frequencies may
interfere with the desired signal and make reception difficult or impossible. However,
reception of a desired signal can be improved by using directional antennas. Horizontal
half-wave antennas accept radio signals from all directions, with the strongest reception
being received in a line perpendicular to the antenna (that is, broadside); and, the weakest
reception being received from the direction of the ends of the antenna. Interfering signals

47
ANA 1-6.5

can be eliminated or reduced by changing the antenna installation so that either end of the
antenna points directly at the interfering station. Communications over a radio circuit is
satisfactory when the received signal is strong enough to override undesired signals and
noise. The receiver must be within range of the transmitter. Increasing the transmitting
power between two radio stations increases communications effectiveness. Also,
changing to a frequency that is not readily absorbed, or using a directional antenna aids in
communications effectiveness. Directional transmitting antennas concentrate radiation in
a given direction and minimize radiation in other directions. A directional antenna may
also be used to lessen interception by the enemy and interference with friendly stations.

6-6. Ground Effects


Since all practical antennas are erected over the Earth and not out in free space, except
for those on satellites, the presence of the ground will alter the free space radiation
patterns of antennas. The ground will also have an effect on some of the electrical
characteristics of an antenna. It has the greatest effect on those antennas that must be
mounted relatively close to the ground in terms of wavelength. For example, medium-
and high-frequency antennas, elevated above the ground by only a fraction of a
wavelength, will have radiation patterns that are quite different from the free-space
patterns.

Types of Grounds.
When grounded antennas are used, it is especially important that the ground has as high
conductivity as possible. This reduces ground losses and provides the best possible
reflecting surface for the down-going radiated energy from the antenna. At low and
medium frequencies, the ground acts as a sufficiently good conductor. Therefore, the
ground connection must be made in such a way as to introduce the least possible amount
of resistance to ground. At higher frequencies, artificial grounds constructed of large
metal surfaces are common. The ground connections take many forms, depending on the
type of installation and the loss that can be tolerated. In many simple field installations,
the ground connection is made by means of one or more metal rods driven into the soil.
Where more satisfactory arrangements cannot be made, ground leads can be connected to
existing devices which are grounded. Metal structures or underground pipe systems are
commonly used as ground connections. In an emergency, a ground connection can be
made by forcing one or more bayonets into the soil. When an antenna must be erected
over soil with low conductivity, treat the soil to reduce its resistance. The soil should be
treated with substances that are highly conductive when in solution. Some of these
substances, listed in order of preference, are sodium chloride (common salt), calcium
chloride, copper sulphate (blue vitriol), magnesium sulphate (Epsom salt, and potassium
nitrate. The amount required depends on the type of soil and its moisture content.

WARNING:
When these substances are used, it is important that they do not get into nearby
drinking water supplies.

For simple installations, a single ground rod can be fabricated in the field from pipe or
conduit. It is important that a low resistance connection be made between the ground wire

48
ANA 1-6.5

and the ground rod. The rod should be cleaned thoroughly by scraping and sandpapering
at the point where the connection is to be made, and a clean ground clamp should be
installed. A ground wire can then be soldered or joined to the clamp. This joint should be
covered with tape to prevent an increase in resistance because of oxidation.

Counterpoise.
When an actual ground connection cannot be used because of the high resistance of the
soil or because a large buried ground system is not practical, a counterpoise may be used
to replace the usual direct ground connection. The counterpoise (Figure 6-4) consists of a
device made of wire which is erected a short distance above the ground and insulated
from it. The size of the counterpoise should be at least equal to or larger than the size of
the antenna. When the antenna is mounted vertically, the counterpoise should be made
into a simple geometric pattern. Perfect symmetry is not required. The counterpoise
appears to the antenna as an artificial ground that helps to produce the required radiation
pattern. In some VHF antenna installations on vehicles, the metal roof of the vehicle (or
shelter) is used as a counterpoise for the antenna. Small counterpoises of metal mesh are
sometimes used with special VHF antennas that must be located a considerable distance
above the ground.

Figure 6-4, Wire counterpoise.

Ground Screen.
A ground screen consists of a fairly large area of metal mesh or screen that is laid on the
surface of the ground under the antenna. There are two specific advantages in using
ground screens. First, the ground screen reduces ground absorption losses that occur
when an antenna is erected over ground with poor conductivity. Second, the height of the
antenna can be set accurately. As a result of this, the radiation resistance of the antenna
can be determined more accurately.

49
ANA 1-6.5

6-7. Antenna Length


The length of an antenna must be considered in two ways. It has both a physical and an
electrical length, and the two are never the same. The reduced velocity of the wave on the
antenna and a capacitive effect (known as end effect) make the antenna seem longer
electrically than it is physically. The contributing factors are the ratio of the diameter of
the antenna to its length and the capacitive effect of terminal equipment (insulators,
clamps, etc.) used to support the antenna. To calculate the physical length of an antenna,
use a correction of 0.95 for frequencies between 3.0 and 50.0 MHz. The figures given
below are for a half-wave antenna.
Length (meters) = 150 X 0.95 / Frequency in MHz = 142.5 / Frequency in
MHz
Length (meters) = 492 X 0.95 / Frequency in Mhz = 468 / Frequency in MHz
The length of a long-wire antenna (one wavelength or longer) for harmonic
operation is calculated by using the following formula.
Length (meters) = 150(N-0.05) / Freq MHz
Length (meters) = 492 (N-0.05) / Freq MHz

Where N = number of half-wave lengths in the total length of the antenna. For example,
if the number of half-wavelengths is 3 and the frequency in MHz is 7, then:
Length (meters) =150(N-0.05) / Freq MHz
= 150(3-.05) / 7
= 150 x 2.95 / 7
= 442.50 / 7
= 63.2 meters

6-8. Antenna Orientation Azimuth.


If the azimuth of the radio path is not provided, the azimuth should be determined by the
best available means. The accuracy required in determining the azimuth of the path is
dependent upon the radiation pattern of the directional antenna. If the antenna beam
width is very wide, an error of 10 in azimuth is of little consequence. In transportable
operation, the rhombic and V antennas may have such a narrow beam as to require great
accuracy in azimuth determination. The antenna should be erected for the correct
azimuth. Great accuracy is not required in erecting broad-beam antennas. Unless a line of
known azimuth is available at the site, the direction of the path is best determined by a
magnetic compass. When the compass is held so that the needle points to the direction
indicated for the location on the map, all directions indicated by the compass will be true.

Improvement of Marginal Communications.


Under certain situations, it may not be feasible to orient directional antennas to the
correct azimuth of the desired radio path. As a result, marginal communications may
suffer. To improve marginal communications, follow the procedure presented below.
Check, tighten, and tape cable couplings and connections.
Retune all transmitters and receivers in the circuit.
Check to see that antennas are adjusted for the proper operating frequency.
Try changing the heights of antennas.

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ANA 1-6.5

Try moving the antenna a short distance away and in different locations from
its original location.
Separate transmitters from receiving equipment, if feasible.
Check minimum distance between antennas (See Table 6-1).

Frequency Separation Minimum Distance between Antennas


10 MHz 1.5 meters
7 MHz 18 meters
4 MHz 45 meters
2 MHz 122 meters
1 MHz 244 meters

Table 6-1. Minimum distance between antennas.

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ANA 1-6.5

Transmission and Reception of Strong Signals.


After an adequate site has been selected and the proper antenna orientation obtained, the
signal level at the receiver will be proportional to the strength of the transmitted signal. If
a high-gain antenna is used, a stronger signal can be obtained. Losses between the
antenna and the equipment can be reduced by using a high quality transmission line, as
short as possible, and properly matched at both ends.

WARNING:
Excessive signal strength may result in enemy intercept and interference or in your
interfering with adjacent frequencies.

Section III.
Types of Antennas
6-9. Tactical Considerations
Tactical antennas are specially designed to be rugged and permit mobility with the least
possible sacrifice of efficiency. They are also designed to take abuse. Some are mounted
on the sides of vehicles that have to move over rough terrain; others are mounted on tops
of single masts or suspended between sets of masts. The smallest antennas are mounted
on the helmets of personnel who use the radio sets. All tactical antennas must be easy to
install. Large ones must be easy to take apart and pack and they must be easy to transport.
Several types of transmitting and receiving antennas are shown in Figure 6-5.
A of the figure is a rhombic antenna.
B is a half-wave Hertz antenna.
C is an end-fed, vertical antenna, also called a whip antenna.
D is a loop antenna that receives a strong signal in directions as shown and almost
no signal in other directions.
E is an antenna group OE-254/GRC which is an omni-directional, bi-conical
antenna designed for broadband operation.
F is a long-wire antenna.
G is a vertical half-rhombic antenna.
H is a directional half-rhombic antenna.

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ANA 1-6.5

Figure 6-5. Different types of Antennas

53
ANA 1-6.5

Figure 6-5. Different types of Antennas continued.

54
ANA 1-6.5

Figure 6-5. Different types of antennas

Most practical transmitting antennas come under one of two classifications, Hertz
antennas or Marconi antennas. A Hertz antenna is operated some distance above the
ground and may be either vertical or horizontal. A Marconi antenna operates with one
end grounded (usually through the output of the transmitter or the coupling coil at the end
of the feed line). Hertz antennas are generally used at higher frequencies (above about 2
MHz) while Marconi antennas are generally used at the lower frequencies. Marconi
antennas, when used on vehicles or aircraft, operate at high frequencies. In these cases,
the aircraft or vehicle chassis becomes the effective ground for the antenna.

6-10. Hertz Antenna


The operation of the Hertz antenna is based on the fact that the wavelength to which any
wire will electrically tune depends directly upon its physical length. The basic Hertz
antenna is center fed and its total wire length is equal to approximately one half of the
wavelength of the signal to be transmitted. This type of antenna, which is also known
either as a doublet, a dipole, an ungrounded, or a half-wave antenna, can be mounted in
either a vertical, horizontal, or slanting position. Two typical military half-wave, center-
fed Hertz antennas are shown in figures 6-6 and 6-7. These antennas are used for
transmitting and receiving frequencies from 2 to 30 MHz.

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ANA 1-6.5

Figure 6-6. Center fed Hertz antenna with two upright supports.

Figure 6-7. Hertz antenna with three upright supports.

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ANA 1-6.5

6-11. Marconi Antenna


If the lower half of a vertical Hertz antenna is replaced by an extensive conducting plane,
no disturbance is caused in the propagated waves from the upper half. In other words, the
remaining quarter-wave continues to radiate much in the same way as a half-wave
antenna, providing a large conducting plane is used. The Marconi antenna is a practical
form of this kind of radiating system in which the antenna proper provides one-quarter
wavelength and the soil supplies the additional quarter-wavelength. The total effective (or
electrical) length is then one-half wavelength. The main advantage of the Marconi
antenna is that, for any given frequency, it is physically much shorter than the Hertz
antenna. This is particularly important in all field and vehicular radio installations.
Typical Marconi antennas are the inverted L, the whip, the ground plane, and the
modified ground-plane antennas.

6-12. Whip Antenna


At the lower frequencies where wavelengths are longer, it is impractical to use resonant-
length tactical antennas with portable radio equipment, especially with vehicular-
mounted radio sets. Tactical whip antennas are electrically short, vertical, baseloaded
types, fed with a nonresonant coaxial cable of about 52 ohms impedance. If the tactical
whip antenna is to attain efficiency comparable to that of a half-wave antenna, the height
of the vertical radiator should be a quarter wavelength. However, this is not always
possible, so the loaded whip is used instead. The loading increases the electrical length of
the vertical radiator to a quarter wavelength. The missing quarter-wavelength of the
antenna is supplied by the ground, a counterpoise, or any conducting surface that is big
enough.

The whip antenna supplied with military radio sets is usually 4.5 meters long for the
high-frequency tactical radio sets. The whip antenna used with the lightweight portable
FM radios is 0.9 meters long for the semi-rigid steel tape antenna and 3 meters long for
the multi-section whip antenna. It is made shorter than a quarter-wavelength to keep it a
practical length. (A quarter-wavelength antenna for 5.0 MHz would be over 14 meters
long.) An antenna tuning unit, either built into the radio set or supplied with it,
compensates for the missing length of antenna. The tuning unit varies the electrical length
of the antenna to accommodate a range of frequencies. Whip antennas are used with
tactical radio sets because they radiate equally in all directions in the horizontal plane
(Figure 6-8). Since stations in a radio net lie in random directions and change their
positions frequently, the radiation pattern is ideal for tactical communications. When a
whip antenna is mounted on a vehicle, the metal of the vehicle affects the operation of the
antenna. As a result, the direction in which the vehicle is facing may also affect
transmission and reception, particularly of distant or weak signals.

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ANA 1-6.5

Figure 6-8. Radiation pattern of a whip antenna.

Figure 6-9. Best directivity of whip antenna mounted on vehicle.

A vehicle with a whip antenna mounted on the left rear side of the vehicle transmits its
strongest signal in a line running from the antenna through the right front side of the
vehicle. Similarly, an antenna mounted on the right rear side of the vehicle radiates its
strongest signal in a direction toward the left front side (Figure 6-9). The best reception is
obtained from signals traveling in the direction shown by the dashed arrows on the figure.
In some cases, the best direction for transmission can be determined by driving the
vehicle in a small circle until the best position is located. Normally, the best direction for
receiving from a distant station is also the best direction for transmitting to that station.

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ANA 1-6.5

There are times when a whip antenna mounted on a vehicle must be left fully extended so
that it can be used instantly while the vehicle is in motion. The base mounted insulator of
the whip is fitted with a coil spring attached to a mounting bracket on the vehicle. The
spring base allows the vertical whip antenna to be tied down horizontally when the
vehicle is in motion and when driving under low bridges or obstructions. Even in the
vertical position, if the antenna hits an obstruction, the whip usually will not break
because most of the shock is absorbed by the spring base.

WARNING
When an antenna must be left fully extended while in motion, contact with overhead
powerlines must be avoided. Death or serious injury can result if a vehicular
antenna strikes a high-voltage transmission line. If the antenna is tied down, be sure
the tip protector is in place.

Some of the energy leaving a whip antenna travels downward and is reflected by the
ground with practically no loss. To obtain greater distance in transmitting and receiving,
it may be necessary to raise the whip antenna. However, when a whip antenna is raised,
its efficiency decreases because it is further from the ground.

6-13. V Antenna
The V antenna consists of two wires arranged to form a V, with their ends at the apex
(where the legs come together) attached to a transmission line (Figure 6-10). Radiation
lobes off each wire combine to increase gain in the direction of an imaginary line
bisecting the apex angle (See Figure 6-10A). The pattern is bidirectional. Adding
terminating resistors to the far end of each leg will make the pattern unidirectional (See
Figure 6-10B).

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ANA 1-6.5

Figure 6-10. Radiation pattern of a V antenna.

6-14. Broadband Omni-directional Antenna


The broadband omni-directional VHF antenna system OE-254 (Figure 6-10) is an
improved tactical antenna. The antenna permits operation in the 30 to 88 MHz frequency
range without the need to manually drop and retrieve the antenna each time the operating
frequency is changed. This omni-directional vertically polarized VHF antenna system--
Operates in the 30 to 88 MHz range without any physical adjustments.
Has input impedance of 50 ohms unbalanced with an average voltage standing
wave ratio (VSWR) of 3:1 or less at RF power levels up to 350 watts.
Is capable of being assembled and erected by one individual.

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ANA 1-6.5

The antenna system (Figure 6-11) includes:


A standard lightweight mast having a maximum height 15 meters.
A canvas carrying bag similar to that issued with antenna equipment RC-292.
Assembly and erection procedures are provided with the bag.
All necessary guying assemblies, stakes, base plate, tools, and other ancillary
equipment required to make a complete antenna system.
All necessary coaxial cables and cable adapters for Radio Sets AN/PRC-
77/1077 (series).

Figure 6-11. Broadband OE-254 Antenna.

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ANA 1-6.5

Section IV.
Field Repair and Expedients

6-15. Assessment of Damage


Antennas are sometimes broken or damaged, causing either a communications failure or
poor communications. If a spare is available, there is no problem--replace the damaged
antenna. When there is no spare, you may have to construct an emergency antenna. The
following paragraphs are suggestions on repairing antennas and antenna supports and on
constructing and adjusting emergency antennas.

6-16. Repair Techniques Whip Antennas.


When a whip antenna is broken into two sections, the portion of the antenna that is
broken off can be connected to the portion attached to the base by joining the sections as
shown in Figure 6-12. Use the method illustrated in A, Figure 6-12, when both parts of
the broken whip are available and usable. Use the method shown in B when the portion
of the whip that was broken off is lost or when the whip is 80% badly damaged that it is
not fit for use. To restore the antenna to its original length, add a piece of wire that is
nearly the same length as the missing part of the whip. Then, lash the pole support
securely to both sections of the antenna. Clean the two antenna sections thoroughly to
ensure good contact before connecting them to the pole support. If possible, solder the
connections.

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ANA 1-6.5

Figure 6-12. Emergency repair of broken whip.

Wire Antennas.
Emergency repair of a wire antenna may involve the repair or replacement of the wire
used as the antenna or transmission line; or, the repair or replacement of the assembly
used to support the antenna. When one or more wires of an antenna are broken, the
antenna can be repaired by reconnecting the broken wires. To do this, lower the antenna
to the ground, clean the ends of the wires, and twist the wires together. Whenever
possible, solder the connection. If the antenna is damaged beyond repair, construct a new
one. Make sure that the length of the wires of the substitute antenna are the same length
as those of the original. Antenna supports may also require repair or replacement. A
substitute item may be used in place of a damaged support and, if properly insulated, can
be of any material of adequate strength. If the radiating element is not properly insulated,
field antennas may be shorted to ground and be ineffective. Many commonly found items
can be used as field expedient insulators. The best of these items are plastic or glass, to
include plastic spoons, buttons, bottle necks, and plastic bags. Though less effective than
plastic or glass but still better than no insulator at all are wood and rope, or both, in that
order. The radiating element--the actual antenna wire-- should touch only the antenna
terminal and should be physically separated from all other objects, other than the

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ANA 1-6.5

supporting insulator. Figure 6-13 shows various methods of making emergency


insulators.

Figure 6-13. Improved insulators.

Guys.
Lines used to stabilize the supports for an antenna are called guys. These lines are usually
made of wire, manila rope, or nylon rope. If a rope breaks, it may be repaired by tying the
two broken ends together. If the rope is too short after the tie is made, it can be
lengthened by adding another piece of or a piece of dry wood or cloth. If a guy wire
breaks, it can be replaced with another piece of wire. Figure 6-14 shows a method of
repairing a guy line with wood.

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ANA 1-6.5

Figure 6-14. Repaired guys and mast.

Masts.
Some antennas are supported by masts. If a mast breaks, it can be replaced with another
of the same length. If long poles are not available as replacements, short poles may be
overlapped and lashed together with rope or wire to provide a pole of the required length.

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ANA 1-6.5

6-17. Tips on Construction and Adjustment Constructing the Antenna.


The best kinds of wire for antennas are copper and aluminum. In an emergency, however,
use any type that is available. The exact length of most antennas is critical. The
emergency antenna should be the same length as the antenna it replaces. Antennas
supported by trees can usually survive heavy wind storms if the trunk of a tree or a strong
branch is used as a support. To keep the antenna taut and to prevent it from breaking or
stretching as the trees sway, attach a spring or old inner tube to one end of the antenna.
Another technique is to pass a rope through a pulley or eyehook, attach the rope to the
end of the antenna and load the rope with a heavy weight to keep the antenna tightly
drawn. Guys used to hold antenna supports are made of rope or wire. To ensure that the
guys made of wire will not affect the operation of the antenna, cut the wire into several
short lengths and connect the pieces with insulators.

Adjusting the Antenna.


An improvised antenna may change the performance of a radio set. Use the following
methods to find out if the antenna is operating properly. A distant station may be used to
test the antenna. If the signal received from this station is strong, the antenna is operating
satisfactorily. If the signal is weak, adjust the height and length of the antenna and the
transmission line to receive the strongest signal at a given setting on the volume control
of the receiver. This is the best method of tuning an antenna when transmission is
dangerous or forbidden. In some radio sets, the transmitter is used to adjust the antenna.
First, set the controls of the transmitter in the proper position for normal operation; then,
tune the system by adjusting the antenna height, the antenna length, and the transmission
line length to obtain the best transmission output. Impedance-matching a load to its
source is an important consideration in transmissions systems. If the load and source are
mismatched, part of the power is reflected back along the transmission line towards the
source. This reflection not only prevents maximum power transfer, but also can be
responsible for erroneous measurements of other parameters, or even cause circuit
damage in high-power applications. The power reflected from the load interferes with the
incident (forward) power causing standing waves of voltages and current to exist along
the line. The ratio of standing-wave maxima to minima is directly related to the
impedance mismatch of the load; therefore the standing-wave ratio (SWR) provides the
means of determining impedance and mismatch.

WARNING
Serious injury or death can result from contact with the radiating antenna of a
medium- or high-power transmitter. Turn the transmitter off while making
adjustments to the antenna.

6-18. Field Expedient Omni-directional Antennas


Vertical antennas are omni-directional; that is, they transmit and receive equally well in
all directions. Most tactical antennas are vertical; for example, the manpack portable
radio uses a vertical whip. A vertical antenna can be improvised by using a metal pipe or
rod of the correct length, held erect by means of guys. The lower end of the antenna
should be insulated from the ground by placing it on a large block of wood or other
insulating material. A vertical antenna may also be a wire supported by a tree or a

66
ANA 1-6.5

wooden pole (Figure 6-15). For short vertical antennas, the pole may be used without
guys (if properly supported at the base). If the length of the vertical mast is not long
enough to support the wire upright, it may be necessary to modify the connection at the
top of the antenna (Figure 6-16).

Figure 6-15. Field substitutes for support of vertical wire antennas.

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ANA 1-6.5

Figure 6-16. Additional means of supporting vertical wire antennas.

End-Fed Half-Wave Antenna


An emergency, end-fed half-wave antenna can be constructed from available materials
such as field wire, rope, and wooden insulators. The electrical length of this antenna is
measured from the antenna terminal on the radio set to the far end of the antenna (Figure
6-17). The best performance can be obtained by constructing the antenna longer than
necessary, and then shortening it, as required, until best results are obtained. The ground
terminal of the radio set should be connected to a good Earth ground for this antenna to
function efficiently.

Figure 6-17. End-Fed half wave antenna.

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ANA 1-6.5

Center-Fed Doublet Antenna


The center-fed doublet is a half-wave antenna consisting of two quarter wavelength
sections on each side of the center. Construction of an improvised doublet antenna for use
with FM radios is shown in Figure 6-18. Doublet antennas are directional broadside to
their length, which makes the vertical doublet antenna essentially omni-directional.

Figure 6-18. Half wave doublet antenna.

The length of a half-wave antenna (Figure 6-18)may be computed by using the formula in
paragraph 6-7. Cut the wires as closely as possible to the correct length because the
length of the antenna wires is important.

A transmission line is used for conducting electrical energy from one point to another and
it is used to transfer the output of a transmitter to an antenna. Although it is possible to
connect an antenna directly to a transmitter, the antenna generally is located some
distance away. In a vehicular installation, for example, the antenna is mounted outside
and the transmitter inside the vehicle. A transmission line, therefore, is necessary as a
connecting link.

Center-fed half-wave FM antennas (Figure 6-19) can be supported entirely by pieces of


wood. These antennas can be rotated to any position to obtain the best performance. If the
antenna is erected vertically, the transmission line should be brought out horizontally
from the antenna for a distance equal to at least one-half of the antenna's length before it
is dropped down to the radio set.

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ANA 1-6.5

Figure 6-19. Center fed half-wave antenna.

A similar arrangement for a short, center-fed half-wave antenna is shown in Figure 6-20.
The ends of this antenna are connected to a piece of dry wood, such as a bamboo pole,
and the bend in the pole holds the antenna wire straight. Another pole, or bundle of poles,
serves as the mast.

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ANA 1-6.5

Figure 6-20. Bent bamboo antenna.

Figure 6-21 shows an improvised half-wave antenna. This technique is used primarily
with FM radios. It is effective in heavily wooded areas to increase the range of portable
radios. The top guy wire can be connected to a limb or passed over the limb and
connected to the tree trunk or a stake.

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ANA 1-6.5

Figure 6-21 Improvised vertical half-wave antenna.

6-19. Field Expedient Directional Antennas


The vertical half-rhombic antenna (Figure 6-22) and the long-wire antenna (Figure 6-23)
are two field expedient directional antennas. These antennas consist of a single wire,
preferably two or more wavelengths long, supported on poles at a height of 3 to 7 meters
above the ground. The antennas will, however, operate satisfactorily as low as 1 meter
above the ground. The far end of the wire is connected to ground through a non-inductive
resistor of 500 or 600 ohms. To ensure the resistor is not burned out by the output power
of the transmitter, use a resistor rated at least one-half the wattage output of your
transmitter. A reasonably good ground, such as a number of ground rods or a
counterpoise, should be used at both ends of the antenna. The radiation pattern is
directional. The antennas are used primarily for either transmitting or receiving high-
frequency signals.

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ANA 1-6.5

28 METERS

Figure 6-22. Vertical half-rhombic antenna.

Figure 6-23. Long wire antenna.

The V antenna is another field expedient directional antenna. It consists of two wires
forming a V with the open area of the V pointing toward the desired direction of
transmission/reception (see Figure 6-24). To make construction easier, the legs may slope
downward from the apex of the V (this is called a sloping-V antenna) (Figure 6-25). The
angle between the legs varies with the length of the legs in order to achieve maximum
performance. Use table 6-1 to determine the angle and the length of the legs. When the
antenna is used with more than one frequency or wavelength, use an apex angle that is
midway between the extreme angles determined by the chart. To make the antenna
radiate in only one direction, add non-inductive terminating resistors from the end of each
leg (not at the apex) to ground. The resistors should be approximately 500 ohms and have
a power rating at least one half that of the output power of the transmitter being used.
Without the resistors, the antenna radiates bi-directionally, both front and back.

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ANA 1-6.5

Table 6-1. Leg angles for V antenna.

3m

3m

3m

Figure 6-24. V antenna

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ANA 1-6.5

Figure 6-25. Sloping V antenna

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ANA 1-6.5

CHAPTER 7
RADIO OPERATIONS UNDER
UNUSUAL CONDITIONS

Section I. Operations in Extremely Cold Areas

7-1. Capabilities and Limitations


Single-channel radio equipment has certain capabilities and limitations that must be
carefully considered when operating in extremely cold areas. However, in spite of
significant limitations, radio is the normal means of communications in such areas. One
of the most important capabilities of radio in extremely cold areas is its versatility.
Vehicular-mounted radios can be moved relatively easy to almost any point where it is
possible to install a command headquarters. Smaller, manpacked radios can be carried to
any point accessible by foot or aircraft. Some frequencies may be blocked out completely
by static for extended periods of time during storm activity. Fading, caused by changes in
the density and height of the ionosphere, can also occur and may last from minutes to
weeks. The occurrence of these disturbances is difficult to predict. When they occur, the
use of alternate frequencies and a greater reliance on other means of communications are
required.

7-2. Techniques for Better Operations in Extremely Cold Areas


Whenever possible, radio sets for tactical operations in extremely cold areas should be
installed in vehicles to reduce the problem of transportation and shelter for operators.
This will also help solve some of the grounding and antenna installation problems due to
the climate. Because of permafrost and deep snow, it is difficult to establish good
electrical grounds in extremely cold areas. The conductivity of frozen ground is often too
low to provide good ground wave propagation. To improve ground wave operation, use a
counterpoise to offset the degrading effects of poor electrical ground conductivity. When
installing a counterpoise, remember to install it high enough above the ground so that it
will not be covered by snow. In general, antenna installation in extremely cold areas
presents no serious difficulties. However, installing some antennas may take longer
because of adverse working conditions. A few tips for installing antennas in extremely
cold areas are listed below. The mast sections and antenna cables must be handled
carefully since they become brittle in very low temperatures.

Whenever possible, antenna cables should be constructed overhead to prevent


damage from heavy snow and frost. Nylon rope guys, if available, should be
used in preference to cotton or hemp because nylon ropes do not readily
absorb moisture and are less likely to freeze and break.
An antenna should have extra guy wires, supports, and anchor stakes to
strengthen it to withstand heavy ice and wind loading.
Some radios (generally older radios) adjusted to a particular frequency in a
relatively warm place may drift off frequency when exposed to extreme cold.
Low battery voltage can also cause frequency drift. When possible, allow a
radio to warm up several minutes before placing it into operation. Since
extreme cold tends to lower output voltage of a dry battery, try warming the

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ANA 1-6.5

battery with body heat before operating the radio set. This minimizes
frequency drift. Flakes or pellets of highly electrically charged snow is
sometimes experienced in colder regions. When these particles strike the
antenna, the resulting electrical discharge causes a high-pitched static roar
that can blanket all frequencies. To overcome this static, antenna elements
can be covered with polystyrene tape and shellac.

7-3. Maintenance Improvement in Extremely Cold Areas


The maintenance of radio equipment in extreme cold presents many difficulties. Radio
sets must be protected from blowing snow, since snow will freeze to dials and knobs, and
blow into the wiring to cause shorts and grounds. Cords and cables must be handled
carefully since they may lose their flexibility in extreme cold. All radio equipment and
power units must be properly winterized. Check the appropriate TM for winterization
procedures. A few tips for maintenance in extreme cold areas are listed below.

7-4. Power Units.


As the temperature goes down, it becomes increasingly difficult to operate and maintain
generators. They should be protected as much as possible from the weather.

7-5. Batteries.
The effect of cold weather conditions on wet and dry cell batteries depends upon the
following factors: the type and kind of battery, the load on the battery, the particular use
of the battery, and the degree of exposure to cold temperatures.

7-6. Shock Damage.


Damage may occur to vehicular radio sets by the jolting of the vehicle. Most synthetic
rubber shock mounts become stiff and brittle in extreme cold and fail to cushion
equipment. Check the shock mounts frequently and change them, as required.

7-7. Winterization.
Check the TMs for your radio set and power source to see if there are special precautions
for operation in extremely cold climates. For example, normal lubricants may solidify
and permit damage or malfunctions. They must be replaced with the recommended cold
weather lubricants.

7-8. Microphones.
Moisture from your breath may freeze on the perforated cover plate of your microphone.
Use standard microphone covers to prevent this. If standard covers are not available,
improvise a suitable cover from rubber or cellophane membranes or from rayon or nylon
cloth.

7-9. Breathing and Sweating.


A radio set generates heat when it is operated. When you turn it off, the air inside cools
and contracts and draws cold air into the set from the outside. This is called breathing.
When a radio breathes and the still-hot parts come in contact with subzero air, the glass,
plastic, and ceramic parts of the set may cool too rapidly and break. When cold

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ANA 1-6.5

equipment is brought suddenly into contact with warm air, moisture will condense on the
equipment parts. This is called sweating. Before cold equipment is brought into a heated
area, it should be wrapped in a blanket or parka to ensure that it will warm gradually to
reduce sweating. Equipment must be thoroughly dry before it is taken back out into the
cold air or the moisture will freeze.

7-10. Vehicular-Mounted Radios.


These radios present special problems during winter operations because of their
continuous exposure to the elements. Proper starting procedures must be observed. The
radio's power switch must be off prior to starting the vehicle; a particularly critical
requirement when vehicles are slave started. If the radio is cold soaked from prolonged
shutdown, frost may have collected inside the radio and could cause circuit arcing.
Hence, time should be allowed for the vehicle heater to warm the radio sufficiently so
that any frost collected within the radio has a chance to thaw. This may take up to an
hour. Once the radio has been turned on, it should warm up for approximately 15 minutes
before transmitting or changing frequencies. This allows components to stabilize. If a
vehicle is operated at a low idle with radios, heater, and lights on, the batteries may run
down. Before increasing engine revolutions per minute to charge the batteries, radios
should be turned off to avoid an excessive power surge. A light coat of silicon compound
on antenna mast connections helps to keep them from freezing together and becoming
hard to dismantle.

Section II. Operations in Desert Areas

7-11. Capabilities and Limitations.


Radio is usually the primary means of communications in the desert. It can be employed
effectively in desert climate and terrain to provide the highly mobile means of
communications demanded by widely dispersed forces. However, desert terrain provides
poor electrical ground and counterpoises are needed to improve operation. (Refer to
chapter 6 for information on counterpoises.).

7-12. Techniques for Better Operations in the Desert.


For the best operation in the desert, radio antennas should be located on the highest
terrain available. Transmitters using whip antennas in the desert will lose one-fifth to
one-third of their normal range due to the poor electrical grounding characteristic of
desert terrain. For this reason, it is important to use complete antenna systems such as
horizontal dipoles and vertical antennas with adequate counterpoises.

7-13. Equipment Considerations.


Some radios automatically switch on their second blower fan if their internal temperature
rises too high. Normally, this happens only in temperate climates when the radios are
transmitting. This may disturb soldiers unaccustomed to radio operation in the desert
environment. Operation of the second fan, however, is quite normal. RF power amplifiers
used in AM and SSB sets are liable to overheat severely and burn out. Such equipment
should be turned on only when necessary (signal reception is not affected). Since the RF
power amplifiers take approximately 90 seconds to reach the operating mode, the SOP of

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ANA 1-6.5

units using the equipment should allow for delays in replying. Dust affects
communications equipment such as SSB/AM RF power amplifiers. Dust covers,
therefore, should be used whenever possible. Some receiver-transmitter units have
ventilating ports and channels that can get clogged with dust. These must be checked
regularly and kept clean to prevent overheating.

7-14. Batteries.
Wet cell batteries do not hold their charge efficiently in intense heat. Electrolyte
evaporates rapidly and should be checked weekly (more often, if warranted). Add
distilled water as needed. Extra containers of distilled water should be carried in the
vehicle. Maintenance of vehicle batteries beyond adding water must be done only by
authorized motor pool personnel according to applicable regulations. Dry battery supplies
must be increased, since hot weather causes batteries to fail more rapidly.

7-15. Electrical Insulation.


Wind-blown sand and grit will damage electrical wire insulation over a period of time.
All cables that are likely to be damaged should be protected with tape before insulation
becomes worn. Sand will also find its way into parts of items such as plugs, either
preventing electrical contact or making it impossible to join the plugs together. A brush,
such as an old toothbrush, should be carried and used to clean such items before they are
joined.

7-16. Condensation.
In deserts with relatively high dew levels and high humidity, overnight condensation can
occur wherever surfaces such as metals exposed to air are cooler than the air temperature.
This condensation can affect such items as electrical plugs, jacks, and connectors. All
connectors likely to be affected by condensation should be taped to prevent moisture
from contaminating the contacts. Plugs should be dried before inserting them into
equipment jacks. Excessive moisture or dew should be dried from antenna connectors to
prevent arcing.

7-17. Static Electricity.


Static electricity is prevalent in the desert. It is caused by many factors, one of which is
wind-blown dust particles. Extremely low humidity contributes highly to static
discharges between charged particles. Poor grounding conditions aggravate the problem.
Be sure to tape all sharp edges (tips) of antennas to cut down on wind-caused static
discharges and the accompanying noise. If you are operating from a fixed position,
ensure that equipment is properly grounded. Since static-caused noise diminishes with an
increase in frequency, use the highest frequencies that are available and authorized.

7-18. Maintenance Improvement in the Desert.


In desert areas, the maintenance of radio sets becomes more difficult because of the large
amounts of sand, dust, or dirt that enter the equipment. Sets equipped with
servomechanisms are particularly affected. To reduce maintenance downtime, keep the
sets in dustproof containers as much as possible. It is also important to keep air vent
filters clean to allow cool air to circulate to prevent overheating. Preventive maintenance

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ANA 1-6.5

checks should be made frequently. Also, you should keep a close check on lubricated
parts of the equipment. If dust and dirt mix with the lubricants, moving parts may be
damaged.

Section III. Operations in Mountainous Areas

7-19. Capabilities and Limitations.


Operation of radios in mountainous areas have many of the same problems as in cold
weather areas. Also, the mountainous terrain makes the selection of transmission sites a
critical task. In addition, the terrain restrictions encountered frequently make radio relay
stations necessary for good communications. Because of terrain obstacles, radio
transmissions will frequently have to be by line of sight. Also, the ground in mountainous
areas is often a poor electrical conductor. Thus, a complete antenna system, such as a
dipole or ground-plane antenna with a counterpoise, should be used. The maintenance
procedures required in mountainous areas are very often the same as for maintenance in
cold weather areas. The varied or seasonal temperature and climatic conditions in
mountainous areas make flexible maintenance planning a necessity.

Section IV. Operations in Special Environments

7-20. Radio Communications in Urbanized Terrain.


Radio communications in urbanized terrain pose special problems. Some problems are
similar to those encountered in mountainous areas. There are problems of obstacles
blocking transmission paths. There is the problem of poor electrical conductivity due to
pavement surfaces. There is also the problem of commercial power lines interference.
VHF radios are not as effective in urbanized terrain as they are in some other areas. The
power output and operating frequencies of these sets require a line of sight between
antennas. Line of sight at street level is not always possible in built-up areas. HF radios
do not require or rely on line of sight as much as VHF radios. This is true because
operating frequencies are lower and power output is greater. To overcome this, the VHF
signals must be retransmitted. Retransmission stations in aerial platforms can provide the
most effective means if they are available. Organic retransmission is more likely to be
used. The antenna should be hidden or blended in with surroundings. This will help
prevent the enemy from using it as a landmark to "home in" his artillery bombardment.
Antennas can be concealed by water towers, existing civilian antennas, or steeples. Here
are some other steps that should be taken within urbanized terrain:
Park radio-equipped vehicles inside buildings for cover and concealment.
Dismount radio equipment and install it inside buildings (in basement, if
available).
Place generators against buildings or under sheds to decrease noise and
provide concealment (adequate ventilation must be provided to prevent heat
buildup and subsequent failure of generator).

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Chapter 8
Wire and Messenger Operations

Section I. Wire Operations

8-1. Purpose.
Wire systems provide internal communications for CP and support areas however, long
wire lines, meaning a greater distance than can be observed unless secure, should be
avoided. These wire systems will be extended to subordinate systems when allowed by
the tactical situation. Wire communications are used in static or defensive roles. Users are
responsible for installing, operating and maintaining their equipment. An example would
be an infantry kandak is responsible wire communications in their kandak and the
communications company would install wire from the brigade CP to the kandak
switchboard.

8-2. Installation.
Installation begins with planning; answers to the following questions will give a starting
point for the planner.
Who and where is the wire communication needed?
What is the timeline for the mission?
Distance from beginning to end?
Is the area secure?
Temporary or fixed site?
Number of lines requested?

The planner should gather all available information and conduct route reconnaissance
which will allow the planner to finalize the plan, assemble the resources and accomplish
the mission.
a. The route map and tasking should be passed to the wire team responsible for
laying the wire.
b. The team SGT should assemble all needed resources and coordinate with the
supported unit for the best time to accomplish the mission.
c. The wire can be either buried or placed on a pole elevated in the air. If possible the
wire should be buried (at least 15 cm).
d. The wire should be anchored at the start point, end point and every 100-15 meters.
e. All wires leading to a switchboard should be labeled with the date and
destination/unit it belongs too.
f. Once the wire is laid and the phones connected, a communications test should be
conducted to ensure all is working properly.

8-3. Recovery.
When the wire system is no longer needed or the facility is relocating, the wire should be
recovered. During the recovery, the wire should be cleaned and inspected for
serviceability and prepared for future use. Any wire found to be unserviceable should be
turned in and new wire requested.

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8-4. Maintenance and Troubleshooting.


If the wire system stops working, the wireman should check the phones on both ends to
ensure they are operational. Once they are checked and working, a wireman must walk
the line looking for any breaks or exposed wire. Once the break or bad section of wire is
found; it should be replaced by splicing good wire into the line.

A wire team should routinely inspect the network for serviceability to ensure
communications is not interrupted.

Section II. Messenger Service

8-5. Messenger Service.


Messenger service is the most secure means of passing messages from one headquarters
to another headquarters. If messenger service is required the brigade communications
officer should produce a schedule. Participating units should know what time the
messenger will arrive and depart there location. Messenger team should consist of two
soldiers with communications. There route should be known by their higher headquarters
with an expected time of return. The messenger teams in the Communications Company
are equipped with motorcycles.

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Chapter 9
OFFENSIVE OPERATIONS

OFFENSIVE FUNDAMENTALS
When required to fight the enemy's combat forces, the ANA must achieve surprise and
use the indirect approach to get to the decisive point. For sustained operations or when
required to fight an enemy with a significant firepower/mobility advantage, the brigade
may require augmentation from the Corps.

9-1. Purpose.
Offensive operations are conducted for varied purposes. Some of these are:
To destroy enemy personnel, equipment, and resources.
To seize or secure key or decisive terrain.
To gain information.
To deceive and divert the enemy.
To hold the enemy in position.
To disrupt an enemy attack.
a. The attacker must have superior combat power at the decisive point to overcome
the enemy. Economy of force must be used at other locations to achieve concentration of
combat power at the decisive point. Once the attack is successful, the enemy must be
pressed relentlessly to keep him off balance.
b. Attacks should avoid the enemy's strengths. The goal of the commander should be
to strike the enemy with an overwhelming concentration of combat power from an
unexpected direction when he least expects it.

9-2. Characteristics of Offensive Operations.


All successful offensive operations use surprise, concentration, speed, flexibility, and
audacity. The CO decides how they are applied for each mission.
a. Surprise. Units achieve surprise by striking the enemy at a time, at a place, or in a
manner for which he is unprepared. Total surprise is rarely essential, simply delaying or
disrupting the enemy's reaction is usually effective.
(1) Surprise delays his reactions, stresses his command and control, and induces
psychological shock in soldiers and leaders. This may allow an attacker to succeed with
fewer forces than he might otherwise require.
(2) The brigade's ability to attack during limited visibility, to operate in small units,
and to infiltrate, is often key to achieving surprise. The brigade must exploit the effect of
surprise on the enemy before he can recover.
b. Speed. Speed promotes surprise, keeps the enemy off balance, contributes to the
security of the attacking force, and prevents the defender from taking effective
countermeasures.
(1) Properly exploited, speed confuses and immobilizes the defender until the
attack becomes unstoppable. It is built into operations through careful planning.
(2) The brigade increases its speed in the attack by using simple plans,
decentralized control, and mission orders. Speed of movement depends on
reconnaissance, reducing the soldiers' loads, using proper movement formations and

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techniques, and selecting good routes. Speed in planning results from effective SOPs,
capable leaders, and the proper use of time.
c. Concentration. The attacker concentrates combat power at decisive points and
times to achieve decisive results. Leaders strive to concentrate the effects of their combat
power while maintaining their dispersion in small units.
(1) Because the attacker is often moving across terrain the enemy has prepared, he
may be exposing himself to the enemy's fires. By concentrating overwhelming combat
power, he can reduce both the effectiveness of the enemy fires and the amount of time he
is exposed to these fires.
(2) The challenge for the CO is to concentrate combat power while reducing the
enemy's ability to do the same against his unit. Actions that cause the enemy to shift
combat potential away from the decisive point result in a greater advantage in combat
power there.
d. Flexibility. At some point in most attacks, the original plan must be adjusted to
meet the changes in the situation. Mission orders and competent subordinate leaders with
initiative will ensure the proper adjustments are made.
(1) The commander must expect uncertainties and be ready to exploit opportunities.
The flexibility required often depends on the amount of reliable intelligence on the
enemy.
(2) The CO builds flexibility into his plan during his estimate. By conducting a
thorough wargame process, he develops a full appreciation for possible enemy actions. A
reserve increases the commander's flexibility.
e. Audacity. Audacity is the willingness to risk bold action to achieve positive
results. The audacious commander develops confidence by conducting a thorough
estimate. His actions, although quick and decisive, are based on a reasoned approach to
the tactical situation and on his knowledge of his soldiers, the enemy, and the terrain. He
is daring and original, he is not rash!
(1) Audacious commanders throughout history have used the "indirect approach".
They maneuver to maintain a position of advantage over the enemy, seek to attack the
enemy on the flank or rear, and exploit success at once, even if this briefly exposes
flanks.
(2) Boldness and calculated risk have always been the keystones of successful
offensive operations. They must, however, be consistent with the higher commander's
mission and intent.

9-3. Offensive Framework


A simple, complete concept of operation is the basis of all tactical offensive operations.
All offensive operations consist of reconnaissance and surveillance (R&S) activities, a
main attack with supporting attacks, and sometimes, reserve operations.
a. Reconnaissance and Security. Before an attack can begin, the enemy must be
found. This includes locating flanks, gaps, weaknesses, and obstacles in his position or
formation. At the same time, friendly forces must be protected from surprise and yet still
be able to rapidly deploy when contact is made with the enemy.
(1) Reconnaissance is done to obtain information about the enemy or the terrain.
The brigade's reconnaissance is focused on collecting information that is critical to the
attack. These requirements may be directed by the commander.

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(2) Security is the use of protective measures to prevent enemy observation or fires
on the company. All units are responsible for their own local security. They may also be
given specific security tasks as part of the brigade R&S plan.
(3) Units conduct patrols, establish OPs, and move using appropriate movement
formations and techniques to accomplish both reconnaissance and security tasks.
Commanders and subordinates must clearly understand what they are to accomplish. In
some cases, they will only observe and report; while in others, they will also be required
to fight.
b. Attacks. Closing with the enemy by maneuver to destroy or capture him is an
attack. This is the primary task of the army in warfare. The brigade may be designated the
main or supporting attack within a corps. It also designates its own main and supporting
attacks.
(1) The main attack accomplishes the mission. A platoon is the main attack for a
company if the platoon's attack will accomplish the company mission.
(2) A supporting attack helps the main attack succeed. Supporting attacks are used
to suppress, deceive, fix, or isolate enemy units; to seize terrain that is key to the
brigade's mission; or to protect the main attack from enemy counterattacks. A follow and
support force is also a supporting attack. It is a committed force, not a reserve that is
assigned specific missions in support of the main attack. These may include: destroy by
passed units/positions; reduce obstacles; secure lines of communications; secure key
areas/facilities; provide EPW search teams, demolition teams, firstaid and litter teams,
and ammunition re-supply.
(3) The main effort is the focus of combat power at any given time during the
attack. Both the main attack and main effort are mechanisms for concentrating and
coordinating combat power, but they are not synonymous. For example, the kandak
concept for seizing an enemy strongpoint has 1st Company supporting by fire (a
supporting attack), 2d Company conducting a breach and seizing a foothold (a supporting
attack), and 3d Company seizing the decisive point on the strongpoint (the enemy CP).
The 3d Company has the decisive action that accomplishes the kandak's mission. They
are the main attack throughout the operation; however, 3d Company's success depends on
2d Company's success. When 2d Company is conducting the breach, this is the most
critical action; they should be designated the initial main effort. 1st Company initially
supports 2d Company's breach, but upon commitment of 3d Company, they support the
main attack.
c. Reserves. In the offense, they are positioned to weight the main effort. They
exploit success, reinforce or maintain momentum, deal with enemy counterattacks, or
provide security.
(1) The reserve is committed at a decisive point in the battle to ensure success of
the mission or to capitalize on opportunities generated by the successful attack. Reserves
must be readily available; they provide flexibility to the plan. When a designated reserve
is not possible, the CO provides flexibility by other means such as beprepared missions
or additional security/reconnaissance tasks for committed units. Control measures that
support rapid issuance of FRAGOs also provide flexibility to the plan.
(2) A unit held in reserve is not committed to a specific mission. The reserve leader
is given planning guidance. For example: "In priority, be prepared to continue the main
attack; be prepared to begin a movement to contact immediately after the main attack

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succeeds to maintain contact with the enemy; be prepared to block a counterattack along
avenue of approach 2, coming from the west to prevent disruption of the main attack."
The leader prepares for each mission in this order. These be-prepared missions may not
be required to accomplish the unit's mission. The reserve leader should also be given the
criteria the commander will use to initiate each be-prepared mission.
(3) The size of the reserve and the headquarters that controls it depends upon the
commander's estimate of the situation. Usually, the more vague the enemy situation, the
larger the reserve. The leaders of the reserve must understand their beprepared missions;
they must keep up with the current situation; and they must keep their unit ready for
action on short notice.

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Chapter 10
DEFENSIVE OPERATIONS

DEFENSIVE FUNDAMENTALS
Defensive techniques are integrated into almost all operations, and they are used to
accomplish a variety of tasks, such as re-supply during offensive operations. In addition
to the primary purpose of defeating the enemy's attack, patrol bases and assembly areas
are temporary defensive positions used to provide security even during offensive
operations.

10-1. Purpose.
The purpose of defense operations is to cause the enemy attack to fail and to create
conditions favorable to assuming the offensive. The commander's concept for the defense
determines which control measures and techniques are used.
a. Conducting the defense does not simply entail killing enemy soldiers and
destroying equipment faster than the enemy can replace them. The enemy's plan, the
cohesion and synchronization of his forces, his morale, and his ability to see the
battlefield must be destroyed. Brigades conduct defensive operations
To defeat an enemy attack.
To gain time to prepare for other operations.
To allow a higher commander to concentrate forces elsewhere.
To control key enemy forces as a prelude to offensive operations.
To retain key or decisive terrain.
b. The brigade is organized, equipped, and supported to conduct dynamic, nonlinear
defensive operation to protect CSS assets and the unit. When required to conduct a more
static, linear style defense, the commander must limit the vulnerability of his force.
(1) The lethality of the modern battlefield is such that any unit located can be
quickly destroyed. This threat is reduced by the proper preparation of survivability
positions, but this requires a great deal of time and resources.
(2) Anytime the commander's concept requires the unit, or part of it, to fight from
static positions, he must consider two thingshow likely is it for the enemy to locate
these positions and if located, what is the enemy's capability to apply combat power
against my positions?

10-2. Characteristics Of The Defense.


The characteristics of the defense should be considered when planning or conducting
defensive operations. The considerations as they apply to units are:
a. Preparation. The defender arrives in the battle area before the attacker. He must
take advantage of this by making the most thorough preparations for combat that time
allows. By analyzing the factors of METTTC, the commander gains an understanding of
the tactical situation and identifies potential friendly and enemy weaknesses. He then
wargames friendly and enemy options and synchronizes his concept of the operation with
all available combat multipliers. Since the enemy decides the time and place of the attack,
allround security is posted to provide early warning. The reconnaissance and security
operations must begin immediately upon transitioning to the defense and continue
throughout the operation.

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b. Disruption. Defensive plans vary with the circumstances, but all defensive
concepts of operation aim at disrupting the attacker's synchronization. Counterattacks,
indirect fires, obstacles, and retention of key or decisive terrain prevent the enemy from
concentrating his strength against portions of the defense. Destroying enemy command
and control vehicles disrupts enemy synchronization and flexibility. Deception measures
further disrupt the enemy's attack.
c. Concentration. The defender must concentrate combat power at the decisive time
and place if he is to succeed. He must obtain a local advantage at points of decision.
Offensive action and the use of surprise and deception are often the means of gaining this
advantage. The defender must remember that this concentration refers to combat power
not just soldiers. Combat power focuses on effectsnot just numbers of soldiers/weapon
systems. To do so, the defender normally must economize in some areas, retain a reserve,
and maneuver to gain local superiority. Local counterattacks may be needed to maintain
the integrity of the defense. Indirect fire can be shifted to critical points to rapidly
concentrate destructive effects.
d. Flexibility. Flexibility is derived from sound preparation and effective C2. The
defender must be agile enough to counter or avoid the attacker's blow and then strike
back effectively. Flexibility results from a detailed estimate, an understanding of the
unit's purpose, aggressive R&S, and, when applicable, organization in depth and retention
or reconstitution of a reserve. Flexibility requires that the commander "see the
battlefield"both physically and through timely and accurate reports. Supplementary
positions on secondary avenues of approach provide more flexibility to the commander.
After a good analysis of the terrain and enemy, reserves can be positioned to allow the
commander to react to unexpected events.

10-3. Defensive Framework.


Brigades and larger units have two broad patterns of defense: mobile and area. A mobile
defense is mainly oriented on enemy destruction; an area defense is oriented on retaining
terrain. Both types have static and maneuver elements, and both follow the defensive
framework.
a. Security operations forward of and to the flanks of the main battle area (MBA).
These operations consist of security (OPs), reconnaissance, and counter reconnaissance
tasks. Depending on the specific missions assigned, the unit may simply observe and
report, engage with indirect fires, and or engage with directfire weapons. Security
operations are crucial throughout the defenseinitially, to support the preparation of the
defense; early in the fight, to disrupt the enemy attack and or to identify his main effort;
and in the main battle area, to support the commander's decision-making process.
b. Defensive operations conducted in the MBA oriented on enemy destruction,
terrain retention, or force protection. Normally, the decisive fight occurs in the main
battle area; therefore, the main effort is located there. Units tasked with security missions
or reserve missions must support the main effort in the commander's concept for
conducting the defense.
c. Reserves that allow the commander to seize and maintain the initiative and
preserve his flexibility. Although the reserve does not have an assigned mission that
directly supports the main effort, the CO attempts to employ the reserve at the decisive
time and place to ensure the success of the defense.

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Chapter 11
CONVOY OPERATIONS
(Reference Transportation Decree)

11-1. DEFINITION
A motor convoy is a group of vehicles organized for the purpose of control and orderly
movement with or without escort protection. This chapter provides guidance for
planning, organizing, and conducting convoys. A convoy is defined as follows:
Any group of six or more vehicles temporarily organized to operate as a
column, with or without escort, proceeding together under a single
commander.
Ten or more vehicles per hour dispatched to the same destination over the
same route.
Any one vehicle, with or without escort, requiring the submission of a special
hauling permit.

11-2. CONVOY MOVEMENT REQUEST


Civil and or military highway authorities may set limits on vehicle weight, length, width,
and height to ensure the safety of the highway user and to preclude damage to the
highway. Dimension and weight limitations on vehicles vary. Check local rules and
restrictions before any military motor movement. For gross planning purposes, vehicles
are normally considered over dimensional or overweight if they exceed the following:

Width 260 cm
Height 411 cm (4 m)
Weight 9072 kilograms for single axles
15422 Kilograms for tandem axles
36288 kilograms for gross weight
Length 15 to 18 meters for semi-trailers

a. Units planning to convoy must request and receive clearance before beginning
movement. The request is submitted through command channels to the installation
transportation office (ITO) or movement control element within whose area the convoy
originates. Requests are prepared manually based on parameters provided by the unit.
b. Once the convoy clearance request has been reviewed and processed by the
approving authority, the unit is issued a convoy clearance number (CCN). The movement
of the convoy must be conducted as the convoy clearance directs. Deviations are not
authorized without prior coordination with the approving authority.
c. The convoy commander must ensure that the routing specified on the approved
convoy clearance is followed and that the estimated time of departure and estimated time
of arrival are met at each of the checkpoints and rest halts.

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11-3. CONVOY PLANNING


All convoy movements must be planned in advance. The following factors and formulas
will assist in convoy calculations.
a. Time-Distance Factors. Time-distance factors are used to perform calculations
for planning highway movements. Understanding time and distance factors is critical
when planning a convoy. Figure 11-1 shows the relationship between distance factors and
time factors.

Figure 11-1

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b. Distance factors are expressed in kilometers or miles. The following explains


distance factors:
(1) Column Length is the length of the roadway the convoy occupies, measured
from the front bumper of the lead vehicle to the rear bumper of the trail vehicle.
(2) Road Space is the length of a convoy plus any additional space added to the
length to avoid conflict with leading and following traffic.
(3) Gap is the space between vehicles (vehicle gap) or between elements of a
convoy (column gap). It is measured from the rear of one element to the front of the
following element. (A simple method to use is the "4 Second Rule." It establishes an
interval of four seconds between vehicles in the convoy. The interval can be maintained
regardless of the speed of the convoy, and it allows for the space between vehicles to be
adjusted as the rate of march changes.)
(4) Road Distance is the distance from point-to-point on a route.
(5) Road Clearance Distance is the distance that the head of a convoy must travel
for the entire convoy to clear a given point along the route. It is the sum of the convoy's
column length and road distance.
c. Time is expressed in hours or minutes. The following describes time factors:
(1) Pass Time is the time required for a convoy or a subgroup to pass a given point
on the route.
(2) Time Space is the time required for a convoy or one of its subgroups to pass any
point along the route plus any additional time required for safety.
(3) Time Gap is the time interval between vehicles or elements as they pass a given
point. It is measured from the trail vehicle of one element to the lead vehicle of the
following element.
(4) Time Lead is the time between individual vehicles or elements of a convoy,
measured from head to head, as they pass a given point.
(5) Time Distance is the time required for the head of a convoy or any single
vehicle to move from one point to another at a given rate of march.
(6) Road Clearance Time is the total time a convoy or an element needs to travel
over and clear a section of road. Road clearance time equals the pass time plus time
distance.
c. Preparation of the Graphic Strip Map. The strip map shows a picture of the
route over which the convoy will travel. The strip map is detailed but not so cluttered
with information that it is unreadable (Figure 11-2). The following items must be shown
on the strip map:
(1) Start point (SP). The SP is the location where the convoy must start and comes
under the active control of the convoy commander. As the SP is passed, each element
should be traveling at the rate of speed and vehicle interval stated in the OPORD. When
selecting an SP, select a place that is easily recognized on the map and on the ground.
(2) Release point (RP). The RP is the place where convoy elements are released to
their owning units. It must be clearly shown on the strip map. As with the SP, the convoy
passes the RP without halting and at the rate and vehicle interval stated in the OPORD.
(3) Halts. Scheduled halts provide rest, messing, refueling, maintenance, and
schedule adjustment, while allowing other traffic to pass. Halt time is included in the road
march. Generally, all elements of the convoy halt at the same time so that the time gaps

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between elements remain the same. Every effort should be made so that dining and
refueling halts coincide.
(4) Critical points/checkpoints. CPs are designated along the route for control and
maintenance of the schedule. Choose easily recognized features as CPs.
(5) Distance between CPs.
(6) Arrival and departure times at the SP, CPs, RP, and all halts.
(7) Convoy routes. Route data, including route numbers, major intersections, and
mileage between points.
(8) Major cities and towns.
(9) North orientation.
(10) Logistical support data, including the location of all logistical support facilities.
This must also include the procedures for requesting/obtaining medical and maintenance
support.

Figure 11-2

11.4. CONVOY ORGANIZATION


The organization of a convoy consists of organizational and functional elements.
a. Organizational Elements. A convoy commander can better control a convoy if it is
broken into smaller, more manageable groups. Whenever possible, convoys are organized
along organizational lines, such as platoon, company, and kandak. The three
organizational elements of a convoy are a march column, a serial, and a march unit
(Figure 11-3). They are described as follows:

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ANA 1-6.5

(1) A march column is a group of two to five serials. It represents approximately a


kandak-to-brigade size element. Each column has a column commander.
(2) A serial is a subdivision of the march column. It consists of elements of a march
column (convoy) moving from one area over the same route at the same time. All the
elements move to the same area and are grouped under a serial commander. The serial
commander is directly responsible to the convoy commander. A serial may be divided
into two or more march units.
(3) A march unit is a subdivision of the serial. It comes under the direct control of
the march unit commander. It is the smallest organized subgroup of the convoy and
usually will not exceed 20 vehicles.

Figure 11-3. Convoy Organizational Elements

b. Functional Elements. All convoys, regardless of size, are made up of three


functional elements. These elements are the head, the main body, and the trail (Figure 11-
4) and are explained as follows:
(1) The head is the first vehicle of each column, serial, or march unit. It carries the
pacesetter, which sets the pace to maintain the prescribed schedules and rates of march.
The pacesetter leads the convoy on the proper route. With the head performing these
duties, the convoy commander is free to move up and down the convoy to enforce march
discipline.
(2) The main body follows right behind the head (pacesetter) and consists of the
majority of vehicles in the convoy. It is the largest part of the convoy. It can be
subdivided into serials and march units for easier control and management.
(3) The trail is the last section of a march element. The trail consists of recovery,
maintenance, and medical support. The trail officer is responsible for march discipline,
breakdowns, straggling vehicles, and control at the scene of any accident involving his
march unit until the arrival of civilian authorities.

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Figure 11-4. Functional elements of a convoy

c. Types of Formations. The convoy must be organized to meet mission


requirements and provide organizational control. The convoy commander decides how
the convoy is formed for movement. The three basic types of formations are close
column, open column, and infiltration. They are described as follows:
(1) Close column provides the greatest degree of convoy control. It is characterized
by vehicle intervals of 25 to 50 meters and speeds under 40 kph. Close column is
normally used during limited visibility or on poorly marked or congested roads.
(2) Open column is the preferred formation used during movement. It is
characterized by vehicle intervals of 100 meters or more and speeds in excess of 40 kph.
Open column is normally used on well marked open roads with good visibility.
(3) Infiltration has no defined structure. Vehicle intervals and speeds may vary.
This type of formation is normally not used during movement. Infiltration should only be
used as a last resort in extremely congested areas or when the mission dictates.
d. Convoy Commander. Each convoy will be organized under the control of a
convoy commander. Since the convoy commander must be free to supervise the
movement of the convoy, there is no specified location for him in the convoy. The
convoy commander should have contact with all subordinate commanders during the
movement. (See Convoy Commander Checklist at Appendix E.)
e. Serial and March Unit Commanders. Serial and march unit commanders are
positioned where they can best control their convoy element. Although commanders may
want to place themselves at the head of their units, it is not recommended because this
restricts their ability to control all of their vehicles.

NOTE Convoy, serial, and march unit commanders should avoid driving in the left hand
lane because the limited speed of military vehicles can easily cause them to
become a hazard to faster moving civilian traffic.

f. Pacesetter. The convoy commander will designate a pacesetter for the convoy.
The pacesetter is in the first vehicle in the march element, normally the slowest, heaviest
vehicle, excluding oversize and overweight vehicles. The pacesetter performs the
following:
(1) Maintain the rate of march established by the convoy commander.
(2) Meet all established times at SP, CP, and RP.

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(3) Inform the convoy commander of any obstacles or hazards that may cause a
deviation from the established route, such as construction, detours, or other obstacles.
g. Trail Officer. The trail officer is positioned at the rear of a march element. He
checks and observes vehicles at the SP and keeps the convoy commander informed on the
status of vehicles that fall out of the convoy. He oversees all maintenance, recovery,
accident investigation, medical aid, and disposition of disabled equipment. He picks up
all guides and markers left by preceding march elements.
h. Guides. Guides are used to ensure the convoy follows the prescribed route and
become very important when operating in an area where road signs are poor or
nonexistent. They assist convoys in locating supported units, preventing conflict with
other convoys, and providing information on the route. Guides are instructed that the
convoy does not have priority over civilian traffic when not on a military reservation.
Guides do not have authority to disregard traffic lights or other traffic devices on public
roads.
i. Civilian Police Escort. If civilian or military police escort is required, the UMC
coordinates with the appropriate officials to secure the assistance of civilian and military
police areas through which the convoy will pass. These areas include the following:
(1) Major intersections.
(2) Entrances to and exits from main roads/routes.
(3) Densely populated and industrial areas.
(4) Entrances to and exits from rest halt areas.
j. Vehicle Placement. The placement of the vehicles in an organizational element of
a convoy is determined by many factors. One of the major factors is the danger of rear-
end collisions. To reduce the possibility of injury to personnel, place vehicles
transporting troops in the first march unit of the main body of the convoy. When empty
trucks or trucks loaded with general cargo is available, use them as buffer vehicles
between those transporting personnel and those loaded with hazardous cargo. Other
factors to consider include the following:
(1) Position those vehicles that require the longest unloading time near the front of
the main body of the convoy. This will shorten the turnaround time.
(2) Position one prime mover without trailer (bobtail) per 10 vehicle-trailer
combinations to support the recovery operations.
(3) Place vehicles transporting hazardous cargo in the last serial of the convoy but
not in the trail party.

11-5. CONVOY COMMUNICATIONS


Convoy commanders and SGTs must effectively communicate with their subordinate
leaders and vehicle drivers. Communications must be well planned and understood by all
personnel involved in the movement. Radio is the principal means of communications
within a motor convoy. Radio allows for the rapid transmission of orders and messages
between widely separated elements in a convoy. Plans for radio use must be given in
orders, in the unit SOP, and in the movement plan. Consideration needs to be given to the
number of radios in the unit and distance over which elements of the convoy are trying to
communicate.
a. Other means of communication are visual communications. These may involve
hand and arm signals, flags, and headlights. In addition to hand and arm signals,

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messages may be written on a board and posted along the route or displayed by a guide in
view of the oncoming vehicles. In the event of radio silence or for other reasons, the
drivers or their assistants can use visual signals for convoy control. These signals should
be specified in an SOP so that drivers are completely familiar with them. The signals
must also be trained and rehearsed.
b. The next group of signals includes audio, which consists of the use of horns,
whistles, and verbal messages. When possible, serial commanders should be equipped
with loudspeakers to issue verbal instructions.

11-6. CONVOY IDENTIFICATION


Convoy identification includes Convoy Control Number (CCN) and vehicle
identification. These are discussed below.
a. Convoy Control Number. The UMO coordinates with the UMC at the ITO/TMO
and or the MCT on submitting convoy clearance request and permits for moving
oversized/overweight vehicles. The UMO provides the clearance request through
command channels to origin ITO/TMO and/or the MCT. The origin ITO/TMO and /or
the MCT is responsible for processing all convoy clearances and special hauling permits
for their geographical area. They consolidate all clearances and process them in
accordance with the priorities established by the Commander. If the clearance request is
disapproved then the move must be rescheduled. If approved then it is returned to the
UMO through the same command channels from which it came. Along with the approval
a Convoy Clearance Number (CCN) is provided to the moving unit. Each convoy is
identified by its CCN. The CCN identifies the convoy during its entire movement. It is
placed on both sides of each vehicle in the convoy. The CCN is also placed on the top of
the hood of the first and last vehicles of each march element.
b. Vehicle Identification. The first vehicle (pacesetter) in each element of the
convoy must have on its front a sign with 10 cm black letters on a yellow background
reading CONVOY FOLLOWS. The last vehicle of each convoy element will have on the
rear a sign reading CONVOY AHEAD. CONVOY AHEAD signs are not on
maintenance or medical vehicles unless that vehicle's purpose is to represent the end of
the convoy.
(1) Mark each march element of a convoy with flags 30 cm in height and 45 cm in
length. The lead vehicle is fitted with a blue flag and the rear vehicle with a green flag.
Mount the flag on the left front of the lead and trail vehicle so that it will not interfere
with the vision of the driver or with any functional component of the vehicle (Figure 11-
5).
(2) The vehicles of the column, serial, and the march unit commanders must carry
on the left front bumper a white and black flag. Trail party vehicles will carry an
international orange safety flag. Local police or MP escort vehicles will not display
convoy identification flags.

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White and Black Flag Convoy, Serial, or March unit


Commander
International Orange Flag Trail Vehicles
Green Flag Rear Vehicle
Blue Flag Lead Vehicle

Figure 11-5. Vehicle markings with flags.

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Figure 11-6. Safety markings.

11-7. SAFETY EQUIPMENT AND WARNING DEVICES


While moving at night or during periods of reduced visibility, lead, trail, and oversize and
overweight vehicles will operate four-way flashers. Convoy vehicles will also display
reflective L-shaped symbols 30 cm long and 5 cm wide at the lower corners of the
vehicle's body (Figure 11-6).
a. Headlights of all vehicles moving in convoy or halted on road shoulders must be
on low beam at all times except where prohibited by local ordinances. While halted on
shoulders, vehicles equipped with emergency flasher systems must also have these lights
operating. The following safety equipment is needed in all vehicles:
A fire extinguisher suitable for a petroleum fire.
A first aid kit.
A set of tire chains when snow or ice conditions may be encountered.
A highway warning kit (that complies with local and national requirements).
b. Road guides must wear high visibility devices such as a reflective vest. Baton
flashlights must also be provided when the convoy operates during darkness or when
visibility is reduced to 150 meters or less.

11-8. FINAL ACTIONS BEFORE DEPARTURE


a. The convoy commander or his designee inspects all vehicles in the convoy staging
area to ensure that they are in satisfactory condition. He ensures on-the-spot corrections
are made as soon as possible. Vehicles should be checked for:
Completed dispatch.
Completed Preventive Maintenance Checks and Services (PMCS) and
deficiencies and shortcomings are corrected.
Required basic issue items.
Appropriate fuel levels.
Appropriate safety equipment (fire extinguishers, first aid kit, and so on.)

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Secured secondary loads.


Correct CCN, flags, signs, lights, and placards.
Activated headlights (low beam).
b. The convoy commander or his designee inspects the drivers and ensures the
following:
Drivers and assistant drivers possess a valid operators license.
Drivers with experience are selected to operate vehicles on public highways.
Drivers are prepared, are in the proper uniform, and have required equipment.
Drivers have 8 hours of rest within 12 hours before the convoy departs.

NOTE: The assistant driver remains awake at all times and keeps the driver alert. The
use of an assistant driver DOES NOT double the amount of driving time for the
convoy.

c. After vehicles and drivers have been inspected and the convoy is organized and
ready to move, the commander assembles the convoy personnel for a final briefing before
the convoy departs. The commander issues orders and strip maps to drivers and uses an
enlarged strip map (a blackboard drawing or other drawing) to explain details of the
route. The commander briefs the following topics:
Convoy organization and vehicle assignments.
Departure and arrival times.
Compliance with traffic signals.
Route of march.
Maximum and minimum speeds.
Actions at halts.
Route and highway markers in accordance with the strip map.
Vehicle gaps or intervals (for urban areas, conventional routes, and entrance and
exit routes).
Rest stops and refuel points schedules.
Vehicle recovery operations.
Obedience to civil authorities and Military Police (MP).
Location and time of scheduled halts.
Action to take if separated from the convoy.
Actions in the event of breakdown or accident.
Procedures for refueling.
Communications/signal procedures.
Light discipline.
Security en route and during halts.
Weather forecast and actions during inclement weather.
Chain of command and locations.
Safety during movement and during halts.

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11-9. CONVOY EXECUTION


Convoys must depart staging or marshaling areas in sufficient time to pass the Start Point
(SP) at the prescribed time. Convoy commanders should use the close column formation
when moving from the staging area to the SP of the main convoy route.
a. Traffic. Main convoy routes are usually characterized by heavy, fast-moving
traffic. Entering the route is a critical operation, but the risk can be reduced when civilian
police assist by controlling traffic.
b. Ensure that all vehicles remain in the right lane after the convoy has entered the
flow of traffic. Where the right lane is reserved for traffic turning off at the next exit, the
convoy should use the next adjacent lane. Drivers must be alert and drive defensively.
c. To leave the route, either to enter a rest area or to take another route, move
vehicles to the deceleration lane at the earliest opportunity and reduce to a safe speed to
exit. Commanders should ensure that all vehicles remain with the convoy element.
d. Scheduled Halts. Schedule halts so that the convoy will halt for 15 minutes at the
end of the first hour of operation and 10 minutes every 2 hours thereafter. Minor
adjustments to this schedule can be made when a suitable area is not available at these
time periods. Schedule all meals and refueling halts at the same time. Take the following
precautions when halting the convoy:
Avoid areas on curves or reverse sides of hills.
Leave enough room to allow the vehicles to park off the paved portion of the
road and return to the road safely.
Maintain a minimum distance of one meter between parked vehicles.
Do not permit convoy personnel on the traffic side of vehicles except to perform
prescribed maintenance.
Make sure drivers and assistant drivers perform prescribed maintenance and
check the security of cargo
Post guards at least 50 meters behind the last vehicle to warn traffic when
departing a rest area.
Maintain a sufficient time gap between serials to allow one to clear a rest area
before the following serial arrives.
d. Unscheduled Halts. Move a disabled vehicle immediately from the traffic lane to
a location where it will not be a hazard to other traffic. If a breakdown occurs, place a
highway warning device either in the obstructed lane or on the shoulder of the road if the
vehicle is on the shoulder. Do this before any attempt is made to repair the vehicle.

DO NOT use military personnel to warn traffic by manual flagging except where
warning devices do not give adequate warning.

e. In the event of an accident, make every effort to minimize its effects and keep the
convoy moving. Do the following if an accident happens in the convoy:
Keep moving. Only the vehicle immediately behind the vehicle should stop and
render assistance.
Give first aid. Give immediate attention to injuries.

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Report any accident to civilian police and wait for assistance. Do not move the
damaged vehicle until an accident investigation has been completed by civilian
police.
Trail parties will assist civil authorities, investigate, and recover the vehicle as
required.
Clear the traffic lane. The crew of the affected vehicle should make every effort
to clear the traffic lane as soon as possible.

f. The first officer or SGT to arrive at the scene of the accident will take charge by
supervising emergency aid, directing military traffic, warning civilian traffic, and
directing the placement of warning devices until the trail officer arrives. The trail officer,
aided by available medical and maintenance personnel, will supervise and direct care of
the injured and disposition of the damaged vehicles. Further assistance needed should be
requested from the agencies listed in the convoy OPORD.

11-10. MOVEMENT REPORTS


The convoy commander normally provides a movement report to the next higher HQ.
During deployment and selected exercises, special instructions included with the
approved convoy clearance directs the convoy commander to report to the appropriate
HQ upon departure, at selected halt locations, and upon arrival. As a minimum, the report
should contain the following:
Convoy clearance number and convoy commander's name.
Time of arrival at scheduled halts.
Time of arrival at any border crossings.
Complete details and circumstances of any accident or incident.

Note: Refer to ANA 4-01.45 Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for Combat Convoy
Operations for a more detailed discussion on convoys.

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Chapter 12
OTHER COMBAT TASKS

12-1. Area Damage Control (ADC).


The corps commander provides guidance to planners on requirements to support the
operation, including area damage control. The rear area operations center is responsible
for ADC plans to provide necessary support. Planners in the G4 shop ensure logistics and
medical support is available to support the corps. When ADC assets are available, the
rear CP must provide each base with external support necessary to overcome an attack
and return to its primary mission. Effective planning, setting specific responsibilities, and
use of all available assets to conduct ADC are necessary to restore operations and provide
continuous support. ADC assets will be limited. In emergencies, assets will likely have to
be diverted from other missions. In most cases, bases will have to use local assets to deal
with the situation. CSS/LOG base commanders will identify assets available for ADC.
Assets will include medical evacuation and treatment elements as well as equipment
evacuation and repair, critical supply assets. Commanders will identify critical support
points, to include points that are the sole local sources of supplies. They will also assess
the base and base cluster capabilities to conduct ADC operations. ADC plans must be
included in BDOC and BCOC defense plans.

area damage control Measures taken before, during, or after hostile action or natural
or manmade disasters to reduce the probability of damage and minimize its effects.

12-2. Risk Management.


Risk is the chance of injury or death for individuals and damage to or loss of vehicles and
equipment. Risk, or the potential for risk, is always present in every combat and training
situation the company commander faces. Risk management must take place at all levels
of the chain of command during each phase of every operation; it is an integral part of all
tactical planning. The company commander, platoon leaders, SGTs, and all other soldiers
must know how to use risk management, coupled with fratricide avoidance measures, to
ensure that the mission is executed in the safest possible environment within mission
constraints. The primary objective of risk management is to help units protect their
combat power through accident prevention, enabling them to win the battle quickly and
decisively with minimal losses. The following outlines the process leaders use to identify
hazards and implement a plan to address each identified hazard. It also discusses the
responsibilities of the companys leaders and individual soldiers in implementing a sound
risk management program.

12-3. Risk Management Procedures.


This section outlines the five steps of risk management. A company commander should
never approach risk management with one size fits all solutions to the hazards the
company will face. Rather, in performing the steps, he must keep in mind the essential
tactical and operational factors that make each situation unique.
a. STEP 1, IDENTIFY HAZARDS. A hazard is a source of danger. It is any
existing or potential condition that could entail injury, illness, or death of personnel;
damage to or loss of equipment and property; or some other sort of mission degradation.

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Tactical and training operations pose many types of hazards. The company leadership
must identify the hazards associated with all aspects and phases of the company mission,
paying particular attention to the factors of METT-TC. Risk management must never be
an afterthought; leaders must begin the process during their troop-leading procedures and
continue it throughout the operation. Table 12-1, lists possible sources of battlefield
hazards that the unit might face during a typical tactical operation. The list is organized
according to the factors of METT-TC.

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Table 12-1

b. STEP 2, ASSESS HAZARDS TO DETERMINE RISKS. Hazard assessment is


the process of determining the direct impact of each hazard on an operation (in the form
of hazardous incidents). Use the following steps.
(1) Determine hazards that can be eliminated or avoided.

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(2) Assess each hazard that cannot be eliminated or avoided to determine the
probability that the hazard can occur.
(3) Assess the severity of hazards that cannot be eliminated or avoided. Severity,
defined as the result or outcome of a hazardous incident, is expressed by the degree of
injury or illness (including death), loss of or damage to equipment or property,
environmental damage, or other mission-impairing factors (such as unfavorable publicity
or loss of combat power).
(4) Taking into account both the probability and severity of a hazard, determine the
associated risk level (extremely high, high, moderate, and low). Table 12-2 summarizes
the four risk levels.
(5) Based on the factors of hazard assessment (probability, severity, and risk level,
as well as the operational factors unique to the situation), complete the risk management
worksheet. Figure 12-1 shows a completed risk management worksheet.

Table 12-2. Risk levels and impact on mission.

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ANA 1-6.5

Figure 12-1. Completed Risk Management Worksheet.

c. STEP 3, DEVELOP CONTROLS AND MAKE RISK DECISIONS This step


is accomplished in two sub-steps: develop controls and make risk decisions. These sub-
steps are accomplished during the make a tentative plan step of the troopleading
procedures.
(1) Developing Controls. After assessing each hazard, develop one or more
controls that will either eliminate the hazard or reduce the risk (probability, severity, or
both) of potential hazardous incidents. When developing controls, consider the reason for
the hazard, not just the hazard by itself.
(2) Making Risk Decisions. A key element in the process of making a risk
decision is determining whether accepting the risk is justified or, conversely, is
unnecessary. The decision-maker must compare and balance the risk against mission
expectations. He alone decides if the controls are sufficient and acceptable and whether to
accept the resulting residual risk. If he determines the risk is unnecessary, he directs the
development of additional controls or alternative controls; as another option, he can
modify, change, or reject the selected COA for the operation.

d. STEP 4, IMPLEMENT CONTROLS. Controls are the procedures and


considerations the unit uses to eliminate hazards or reduce their risk. Implementing
controls is the most important part of the risk management process; this is the chain of
commands contribution to the safety of the unit. Implementing controls includes
coordination and communication with appropriate superior, adjacent, and subordinate
units and with individuals executing the mission. The company commander must ensure

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that specific controls are integrated into operations plans (OPLANs), OPORDs, SOPs,
and rehearsals. The critical check for this step is to ensure that controls are converted into
clear, simple execution orders understood by all levels. If the leaders have conducted a
thoughtful risk assessment, the controls will be easy to implement, enforce, and follow.
Examples of risk management controls include the following:
Thoroughly brief all aspects of the mission, including related hazards and
controls.
Conduct thorough PCCs and PCIs.
Allow adequate time for rehearsals at all levels.
Drink plenty of water, eat well, and get as much sleep as possible (at least 4
hours in any 24-hour period).
Use buddy teams.
Enforce speed limits, use of seat belts, and driver safety.
Establish recognizable visual signals and markers to distinguish maneuvering
units.
Enforce the use of ground guides in assembly areas and on dangerous terrain.
Establish marked and protected sleeping areas in assembly areas.
Limit single-vehicle movement.
Establish SOPs for the integration of new personnel.

e. STEP 5, SUPERVISE AND EVALUATE. During mission execution, leaders


must ensure that risk management controls are properly understood and executed.
Leaders must continuously evaluate the units effectiveness in managing risks to gain
insight into areas that need improvement.
(1) Supervision. Leadership and unit discipline are the keys to ensuring that
effective risk management controls are implemented.
(a) All leaders are responsible for supervising mission rehearsals and execution
to ensure standards and controls are enforced. In particular, SGTs must enforce
established safety policies as well as controls developed for a specific operation or task.
Techniques include spot checks, inspections, situation reports (SITREPs), confirmation
briefs, buddy checks, and close supervision.
(b) During mission execution, leaders must continuously monitor risk
management controls, both to determine whether they are effective and to modify them as
necessary. Leaders must also anticipate, identify, and assess new hazards. They ensure
that imminent danger issues are addressed on the spot and that ongoing planning and
execution reflect changes in hazard conditions.
(2) Evaluation. Whenever possible, the risk management process should also
include an after-action review (AAR) to assess unit performance in identifying risks and
preventing hazardous situations. During an AAR, leaders should assess whether the
implemented controls were effective. Following the AAR, leaders should incorporate
lessons learned from the process into unit SOPs and plans for future missions.

12-4. Implementation Responsibilities.


Leaders and individuals at all levels are responsible and accountable for managing risk.
They must ensure that hazards and associated risks are identified and controlled during
planning, preparation, and execution of operations. The company leadership and their

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senior SGTs must look at both tactical risks and accident risks. The same risk
management process is used to manage both types of risk. The commander alone
determines how and where he is willing to take tactical risks. The commander manages
accident risks with the assistance of his officers, SGTs, and individual soldiers.

12-5. Breakdown of the Risk Management Process.


Despite the need to advise higher headquarters of a risk taken or about to be assumed, the
risk management process may break down. Such a failure can be the result of several
factors; most often, it can be attributed to one or more of the following:
The risk denial syndrome in which leaders do not want to know about the risk.
A soldier who believes that the risk decision is part of his job and does not
want to bother his unit leadership.
Outright failure to recognize a hazard or the level of risk involved.
Overconfidence on the part of an individual or the unit in being able to avoid
or recover from a hazardous incident.
Subordinates who do not fully understand the higher commanders guidance
regarding risk decisions.

12-6. Risk Management Command Climate.


The company commander gives the company direction, sets priorities, and establishes the
command climate (values, attitudes, and beliefs). Successful preservation of combat
power requires him to embed risk management into individual behavior. To fulfill this
commitment, the company commander must exercise creative leadership, innovative
planning, and careful management. Most importantly, he must demonstrate support for
the risk management process.
a. The chain of command can establish a command climate favorable to risk
management integration by taking the following actions:
Demonstrate consistent and sustained risk management behavior through
leadership by example and emphasis on active participation throughout the
risk management process.
Provide adequate resources for risk management. Every leader is responsible
for obtaining the assets necessary to mitigate risk and for providing them to
subordinate leaders.
Understand your own and your soldiers limitations, as well as your units
capabilities.
Allow subordinates to make mistakes and learn from them.
Prevent a no mistakes mindset from creeping into the units culture.
Demonstrate full confidence in subordinates mastery of their trade and their
ability to execute a chosen COA.
Keep subordinates informed.
Listen to subordinates.
b. For the company leadership, its subordinate leaders, and individual soldiers,
responsibilities in managing risk include the following:
Make informed risk decisions. Establish and then clearly communicate risk
decision criteria and guidance.
Establish clear, feasible risk management policies and goals.

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Train the risk management process. Ensure that subordinates understand the
who, what, when, where, and why of managing risk and how these factors
apply to their situation and assigned responsibilities.
Accurately evaluate the companys effectiveness, as well as subordinates
execution of risk controls during the mission.
Inform higher headquarters when risk levels exceed established limits.

HEALTH SERVICE SUPPORT


Effective, timely medical care is an essential factor in sustaining the company's combat
power during continuous operations. The company commander must ensure that the
company's leaders know how to keep soldiers healthy, how to save their lives if they are
wounded or injured, and how to make them well once injury or illness occurs.

12-7. Health and Hygiene.


The company commander and all leaders must emphasize and enforce high standards of
health and hygiene at all times. This "preventive medicine" approach should cover all
aspects of the soldier's health and well being, including the following.
Regular bathing and changing of clothes.
Prevention of weather-related problems. These include cold injuries such as
frostbite, trench foot, and immersion foot, and heat injuries like heat
exhaustion and heat stroke. Soldiers must understand the effects of conditions
such as sunburn and wind-chill.
Prevention of diseases. Insect-borne diseases such as malaria and Lyme
disease, and diarrhea diseases can be prevented with effective field sanitation
measures, including unit waste control, water purification, rodent control, and
use of insect repellents.
Combat operational stress control, battle fatigue prevention, and strict
implementation of the unit sleep plan.

12-8. Soldiers Wounded In Action.


Care of wounded or injured soldiers during combat operations is a continuous,
progressive operation that occurs in a series of separate but interlocking stages. It
involves personnel, equipment, and facilities at virtually every level of the organization.
The normal flow of medical treatment for combat casualties is from the combat lifesaver
to the senior trauma specialist at the casualty collection point (CCP) to medics at the aid
station. In addition, company leaders play an important role in obtaining and providing
medical services for their wounded in action (WIA). The following paragraphs discuss
the individual responsibilities of company personnel in this process.
a. Combat Lifesaver. The combat lifesaver (CLS) is almost always the first person
on the scene to begin the process of providing enhanced first aid to the wounded and
injured personnel. The CLS is a non-medical soldier trained to provide advanced first
aid/lifesaving procedures beyond the level of self-aid or buddy aid. The CLS is not
intended to take the place of medical personnel but to slow deterioration of a wounded
soldiers condition until medical personnel arrive. Each certified CLS will be issued a
CLS aid bag. Whenever possible, the company commander should ensure that there is at
least one combat lifesaver in each squad.

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b. Company Sergeant. The company sergeant supervises and coordinates casualty


operations, collects witness statements and submits them to the kandak S1, and submits
the battle loss report to the kandak TOC. Perhaps his most important duty is managing
the company's personnel status during combat operations. As necessary, he directs cross
leveling among platoons to alleviate personnel shortages.
c. Commander. The company commander has overall responsibility for medical
services. His primary task is to position medical personnel (if available) at the proper
point to treat casualties or to evacuate those casualties properly. The company
commander designates the location for the company's CCP and ensures that all leaders
record the location on appropriate overlays. He also develops and implements appropriate
SOPs for casualty evacuation.

12-9. Casualty Evacuation.


Effective casualty evacuation provides a major increase in the morale of a unit. Casualties
are cared for at the point of injury (or under nearby cover and concealment) and receive
self-aid/buddy-aid, advanced first aid from the combat lifesaver, or emergency medical
treatment from the trauma specialist (if available).
a. During the fight, casualties should remain under cover where they received initial
treatment (self-aid or buddy-aid). As soon as the situation allows, casualties are moved to
the platoon CCP. From the platoon area, casualties are normally evacuated to the
company CCP and then back to the aid station, which is designated by the company
commander in the OPORD. The unit SOP should address this activity, to include the
marking of casualties during limited visibility operations. Small, standard chemical lights
work well for this purpose. Once the casualties are collected, evaluated, and treated, they
are prioritized for evacuation back to the company CCP. Once they arrive at the company
CCP, the above process is repeated while awaiting their evacuation back to the aid
station.
b. An effective technique, particularly during an attack, is to task-organize a logistics
team under the Company Sergeant. These soldiers carry additional ammunition forward
to the platoons and evacuate casualties to either the company or the kandak CCP. The
leader determines the size of the team during his estimate.
c. When the company is widely dispersed, the casualties may be evacuated directly
from the platoon CCP by vehicle. In some cases, the casualties must be moved to the
company CCP before evacuation. When the ambulances are not enough to move the
wounded, unit leaders may direct supply vehicles to "backhaul" non-urgent casualties to
the kandak aid station after supplies are delivered. In other cases, the platoon sergeant
may direct platoon litter teams to carry the casualties to the rear.
d. Leaders must minimize the number of soldiers required to evacuate casualties.
Casualties with minor wounds can walk or even assist with carrying the more seriously
wounded. Soldiers can make field-expedient litters by cutting small trees and putting the
poles through the sleeves of buttoned shirts. A travois, or skid, may be used for casualty
evacuation. This is a type of litter on which wounded can be strapped; it can be pulled by
one person. It can be locally fabricated from durable, rollable plastic on which tiedown
straps are fastened. In rough terrain, casualties may be evacuated to the aid station by
litter teams, carried with the unit until transportation can reach them, or left at a position
and picked up later.

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ANA 1-6.5

e. Unit SOPs and OPORDs must address casualty treatment and evacuation in detail.
They should cover the duties and responsibilities of key personnel, the evacuation of
casualties, and the priority for manning positions. They should specify preferred and
alternate methods of evacuation and make provisions for retrieving and safeguarding the
weapons, ammunition, and equipment of casualties. Slightly wounded personnel are
treated and returned to duty by the lowest echelon possible. Casualty evacuation should
be rehearsed like any other critical part of an operation.
f. A casualty report is filled out when a casualty occurs or as soon as the tactical
situation permits. This is usually done by the soldier's squad leader and turned in to the
platoon sergeant, who forwards it to the Company Sergeant. A brief description of how
the casualty occurred (to include the place, time, and activity being performed) and who
or what inflicted the wound is included. If the squad leader does not have personal
knowledge of how the casualty occurred, he gets this information from any soldier who
does have the knowledge. This information is used to inform the soldier's next of kin and
to provide a statistical base for analysis of friendly or enemy tactics. Once the casualtys
medical condition has stabilized, the company commander may write a letter to the
soldier's next of kin.

NOTE: Before casualties are evacuated to the CCP or beyond, leaders should remove all
key operational items and equipment, including SOIs, maps, position location devices,
and laser pointers. Every unit should establish an SOP for handling the weapons and
ammunition of its WIAs.

g. At the CCP, the senior trauma specialist conducts triage of all casualties, takes the
necessary steps to stabilize their condition, and initiates the process of evacuating them to
the rear for further treatment. He assists the PSG and vehicle commanders in arranging
evacuation via ground or air ambulance, or by non-standard means.
h. When possible, the medical platoon ambulances provide evacuation and en route
care from the soldiers point of injury or the companys CCP to the KAS. The ambulance
team supporting the company works in coordination with the senior trauma specialist
supporting the platoons. When a casualty occurs in a fighting vehicle, the evacuation
team will move as close to the vehicle as possible, making full use of cover, concealment,
and defilade. Assisted, if possible by the vehicles crew, they will extract the casualty
from the vehicle and administer emergency medical treatment. In mass casualty
situations, non-medical vehicles may be used to assist in casualty evacuation as directed
by the infantry company commander. Plans for the use of non-medical vehicles to
perform casualty evacuation should be included in the unit SOP. Ground ambulances
from the CSS Medical Company or supporting corps air ambulances evacuate patients
from the aid station back to the CSSMC medical treatment facility (MTF) located in the
BSA.

12-10. Soldiers Killed In Action.


The company commander designates a location for the collection of those killed in
action. Temporary remains holding areas should be established behind a natural barrier,
such as a stand of trees, or shielded from the view of others by using either tents or
tarpaulins. All personal effects remain with the body, but equipment and issue items

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ANA 1-6.5

become the responsibility of the vehicle commander or squad leader until they can be
turned over to the Company Sergeant or supply sergeant. As a rule, human remains
should not be transported on the same vehicle as wounded soldiers. Procedures for
soldiers killed in action are outlined in the Afghanistan National Army Casualty
Operations and Assistance regulation approved June 2007.

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ANA 1-6.5

Annex A

THE ESTIMATE OF THE SITUATION


The estimate of the situation is the Army's decisionmaking process. It helps the leader
determine his mission, understand his situation, and select the best course of action to
accomplish his assigned responsibilities. Leaders use the estimate for EVERY tactical
decision. Their experience, ability, and the time available will determine the amount of
detailed analysis in each estimate. The estimate is a continuous process; the CO
constantly receives information about the situation. Whenever he receives the
information (during planning, en route), he must decide if this information affects his
mission. If it does, then he decides how to adjust his plan to meet this new situation. It is
only through the estimate process, however hasty, that the leader can make the proper
decision. The estimate has five steps.
Step 1: Conduct a detailed mission analysis.
Step 2: Analyze the situation and develop courses of action.
Step 3: Analyze courses of action (wargame).
Step 4: Compare courses of action.
Step 5: Make a decision.

A-1. CONDUCT A DETAILED MISSION ANALYSIS


Leaders conduct a detailed mission analysis whenever they receive instructions to begin a
new operation. These instructions may be received as warning orders, OPORDs, or
FRAGOs. The leader may also deduce a change to his mission based on a change in the
situation. In any case, the CO conducts the mission analysis to determine the following:
Commander's concept and intent (kandak and brigade).
All tasks his unit must accomplish.
All limitations on his unit's freedom of action.
His unit's restated mission statement.
a. The Higher Commanders' Concept and Intent. The company commander must
know what both his kandak and brigade commanders want accomplished as the result of
the operation. He must also understand his role and responsibilities within their concepts.
This information is found in the kandak OPORD in paragraph 1b for the brigade and in
paragraph 2 and 3 for the kandak.
b. The Unit's Tasks. The CO determines all the tasks that his unit must accomplish;
they may be found throughout the order. Tasks that are clearly stated in the order, during
the oral OPORD, or on the operation overlay are called specified tasks. Examples of
specified tasks are:
The Communication Company will provide 2 radio relay teams to the 2d
Kandak.
Communications Company will attach 4 messengers to the Brigade TOC.
(1) In addition to these specified tasks, other requirements may become apparent as
the OPORD is analyzed. These are called implied tasks; they are not routine or SOPtype
requirements. Nor are they requirements inherent to other assigned tasks or to military

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operations. Routine or SOP tasks depend on the specific unit, but generally the following
type tasks would be considered routine:
Provide security during movement.
Conduct re-supply operations.
Coordinate with adjacent units.
(2) If the company was assigned a mission to move the ammunition supply point
(ASP) for some purpose, some examples of inherent tasks might be as follows:
Task-organize the unit to accomplish the mission.
Conduct reconnaissance to locate the best route.
(3) In some cases or for some units, tasks that should be routine, inherent, or SOP
may not be. In this case, the CO (understanding the training and limitations of his unit)
would identify that task as an implied task. It is not important to classify the tasks. What
is important is to identify all the requirements (tasks) that the unit must complete to
accomplish its mission. Once the CO identifies these tasks, he then ensures that his plan
includes all of them.
c. The Unit's Limitations. The CO next determines all control measures or
instructions in the OPORD that restrict his freedom of action; these are called limitations.
In every operation, there are some limitations on the company. The operations overlay
has graphic control measures that restrict the unit's freedom to maneuver. The
coordinating instructions often include limitations. Throughout the order, there may be
specific times that the unit must meet. The following are some examples of common
limitations:
Cross the SP at 100030 OCT 94.
Weapon status, tight; warning status, yellow.
At times, it may be confusing whether something is a task or a limitation. The first
example given above is both a specified task (cross the SP) and a limitation (at exactly
0030 hours on 10 OCT). What is important is that the information is included in the CO's
concept, and that all subordinates understand and comply with it.
d. Mission-Essential Task(s). After reviewing all the above factors, the CO
identifies his missionessential task(s). Failure to accomplish a mission-essential task
results in the company's failure to accomplish its primary purpose for that operation. In a
well-written OPORD, the CO will find his mission-essential task in the maneuver
paragraph.
e. The Restated Mission Statement. If the mission analysis began as the result of
receiving a kandak OPORD, the mission statement should have been clearly stated in the
kandak concept of the operation, (paragraph 3a). The mission essential tasks and
purposes for each of the companies should be stated in the kandak scheme of maneuver.
(1) If the mission analysis began as the result of a short FRAGO or a significant
change to the situation, the company's mission may not be clearly stated. In this case, the
commander must determine his mission essential task. He does this by reviewing the
kandak commander's concept and determining what his companys role is for the decisive
action. What must his unit achieve to support the kandak's mission accomplishment? The
relationship of his unit to the kandak's main effort may also clarify his mission essential
task. If the CO reviews each of his assigned tasks by this process, it should be clear
which task is essential to the success of the kandak commander's concept.

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(2) Time is continuously analyzed during the operation. Once the CO has
conducted his mission analysis, he has a better understanding of the time requirements for
his unit. If a time schedule was issued prior to conducting the detailed mission analysis, it
may need to be updated now.
(3) The restated mission statement becomes the focus for the remainder of the
estimate process. This is a clear, concise statement of the essential task(s) to be
accomplished by the company and the purpose to be achieved. The mission statement
will normally state WHO (the company), WHAT (the task), WHEN (the critical time),
WHERE (usually a grid coordinate), and WHY (the purpose the company must achieve).
It also becomes paragraph 2 of the company OPORD. The other specified and implied
tasks and limitations are included in the plan where required. Some examples of restated
missions follow:
(WHO)"Communications Company conducts linkup (WHEN) 090500Z Dec
92 (WHAT) to support the 1st Commando Kandak (WHERE) vicinity NB
457271 (road intersection) (WHY) to establish communications at Kandahar
Airfield"
(WHO)"Communications Company defends (WHEN) NLT 281530Z Oct 97
(WHAT) to defend the FOB (WHERE) from AB163456 to AB163486 to
AB123456 to AB123486 to (WHY) prevent enemy forces from destroying the
radio relay site."

A-2. ANALYZE THE SITUATION


With the restated mission statement from Step 1 to provide focus, the CO continues the
estimate process. Step 2 involves analyzing the situation, using the remaining factors of
METTTC (mission, enemy, terrain, troops, time and civil considerations). The IPB
integrates the enemy doctrine with the terrain and weather to evaluate enemy capabilities,
vulnerabilities, and possible COAs.
a. Once the CO has a full appreciation for the situation, he then develops several
COAs that will accomplish his mission. Throughout this section, the analysis process is
presented in a very deliberate, stepbystep manner. In reality, it is a very dynamic
process. For example, this section describes the terrain analysis coming before the enemy
analysis. In a tactical situation, the commander will normally have a great deal of
knowledge about the enemy. In effect, this allows a more rapid estimate and decision.
What must be avoided is jumping to a hasty conclusion/decision without first doing an
honest analysis of the situation. Step 2 is normally the most time consuming step of the
estimate.
b. During the analysis, the CO determines facts about the situation. He also
determines questions for which he has no facts. He then tries to answer these questions
through additional analysis or reconnaissance. When these questions impact on his ability
to develop valid courses of action, he must plan from assumptions.
(1) Assumptions are used in the absence of facts. They are based on the facts that
he has developed his knowledge of the enemy's doctrine, and also his experience from
fighting this enemy. An example of a valid assumption might be: The enemy has
prepared antipersonnel minefields on the dismounted avenues of approach into his
position. Possible minefield locations can then be deduced based on the enemy's doctrine
and the CO's knowledge of his tactics. During this analysis, assumptions are treated as

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facts to allow the CO to deduce the impact they may have on his unit. The CO reduces
the number of assumptions by conducting reconnaissance to gather the required facts.
(2) The CO also analyzes the facts to determine how they impact on his mission, on
his unit, and on the enemy. For example: The CO's terrain analysis identifies a creek that
is an obstacle to mounted movement. The CO analyzes this fact to deduce the impact it
may have on the operation. If he is defending, he must determine how the creek will
affect the enemy's movement. It may only be an obstacle to wheeled vehicles and not to
tracked ones. Are there choke points along the obstacle which would allow him to
concentrate combat power against the enemy? How will the obstacle affect friendly
units? Is vehicle re-supply and casualty evacuation possible forward of the creek or will
he have to use soldiers to move supplies and casualties? How can this obstacle assist in
the accomplishment of his mission? The quality of these deductions will determine the
effectiveness of the courses of action developed later in Step 2. Figure A-1 shows this
analysis process for Step 2.

Figure A-1

(3) Throughout Step 2, the CO identifies potentially decisive points where he can
generate superior combat power in relation to the enemy. These points may result from

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his terrain analysis (locations on the ground which provide an advantage or put the enemy
at a disadvantage), from the enemy analysis (an identified enemy weakness that can be
exploited), or possibly from the time analysis (a time when the combat potential of the
enemy force is degraded). Ideally, a decisive point will be identified where an enemy
weakness is positioned at a time and a location that allows the company to generate
overwhelming combat power. These points are potentially decisive because the effects of
the company's combat potential, when applied there, should lead to accomplishing the
mission. This is particularly true in the defense.

A-3. ANALYZE THE TERRAIN


The factors of METTTC guide the leader through the estimate process. Although the
first factor is mission analysis, the next factor analyzed should be the terrain, not the
enemy. By understanding the terrain prior to the enemy analysis, the leader will have a
better appreciation for the enemy's capabilities and limitations.
a. The leader considers the terrain from both his viewpoint and from the enemy's.
The kandak assigns the company its area of operations in defense of the FOB. If there is
terrain or enemy units outside the assigned AO that could impact on the mission, the
leader must be concerned with them. This terrain, including the area of operations, is
called the area of interest. The leader conducts a detailed terrain analysis of this area.
b. OCOKA provides the significant military aspects of the terrain. These will assist
the leader with his terrain analysis. In order, analyze observation and fields of fires, cover
and concealment, obstacles, key terrain and avenues of approach. Because of the effect
that the weather has on the terrain, it is analyzed at the same time.
(1) Observation and fields of fire. Determine locations that provide the best
observation and fields of fire along the approaches, near the objective, or on key terrain.
Determine the potential of friendly or enemy forces to overwatch or support (with direct
fire) the movement of their forces, and to observe movement along the avenue of
approach and place fire on it from various positions on the terrain. The analysis of fields
of fire is mainly concerned with the ability to cover the terrain with direct fire. Look at
the capability of direct fire weapons from likely or known positions. Reconnaissance
from the enemy's viewpoint is most effective when conducting a defensive analysis.
Determine where fires may be concentrated.
(a) Offensive considerations:
What are the fields of fires and observation for enemy weapons on or near
the objective? En route?
Is there any dead space around the objective? On the approaches into it?
What are the fields of fires and observation from likely support positions?
Where can the enemy concentrate fires? Where is he less able to
concentrate his fires?
(b) Defensive considerations:
What locations provide good fires and observation on the enemy
approaches?
How obvious are these positions to the enemy?
Determine possible locations for the key weapons.
(2) Cover and concealment. The analysis of cover and concealment is often
inseparable from the fields of fires and observation. Weapon positions must have both to

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be effective and to be survivable. Infantry units are capable of improving poor cover and
concealment by digging in and camouflaging their positions. When moving, the terrain is
used to provide cover and concealment.
(a) Offensive considerations:
Determine the routes with good cover and concealment.
Identify areas along the approaches to the objective with poor cover and
concealment.
Consider the use of smoke missions/limited visibility to provide
concealment.
(b) Defensive considerations:
Focus on the locations with good fields of fires.
Think about how the enemy can use the available cover and concealment.
(3) Obstacles. Identify the existing and reinforcing obstacles and hindering terrain
that will affect mobility. All terrain is evaluated and coded as either NOGO, SLOW
GO, or GO. When time permits, a combined obstacle overlay is developed to graphically
depict the mobility capability of the terrain.
NOGO terrain is impractical for the type of force being considered to move
through it. NOGO terrain does not always mean that units cannot pass
through that terrain, but only that the speed of movement will be substantially
reduced unless considerable effort is expended to enhance mobility.
(Example: slopes of greater than 45 degrees for mounted movement.) With
mounted forces, this would mean substantial engineer support.
SLOWGO terrain hinders ground movement to a lesser degree than NOGO
terrain. Little effort is needed to enhance mobility. (Example: sparsely
vegetated forests and fordable streams.) GO terrain is fairly open terrain that
presents no problem to ground movement.
(a) Offensive considerations:
How is the enemy using these obstacles?
How will these obstacles affect my movement?
Where are the weapons/units that are covering these obstacles?
How can the company avoid these obstacles?
(b) Defensive considerations:
How will the existing obstacles affect the enemy?
How do the existing obstacles support my mission?
(4) Key terrain. Key terrain is any location or area that the seizure, retention, or
control of affords a marked advantage to either combatant. Using the map and
information already gathered, look for key terrain that dominates avenues of approach or
the objective area. Next, look for decisive terrain that if held or controlled will have an
extraordinary impact on the mission. The retention or seizure of decisive terrain is
necessary for accomplishment of the mission. During the wargame process, other terrain
may be identified as potentially key or decisive, based on likely changes in the situation.
By this analysis, the commander should get a good feel for potential positions for friendly
and enemy units and weapon systems. These locations are important during the
development of COAs.
(a) Offensive considerations:
Is the enemy controlling the key terrain? How?

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How does this terrain affect my mission?


How can I gain control of this terrain?
(b) Defensive considerations:
What advantage do I gain by controlling the key terrain?
How can the enemy gain control of this terrain?
(5) Avenues of approach. Avenues of approach are developed next and identified
one level down. These are areas through which a unit can maneuver. Normally, they are
thought of in terms of mounted movement, but they can be applied to dismounted
movement as well. Both mounted and dismounted avenues of approach must be
identified. When selecting them, the commander uses tactical judgment with respect to
the type unit to be used. They traverse GO terrain, bypass NOGO terrain, and
occasionally pass through or over SLOWGO terrain. They are considered for both the
enemy and friendly units. As such, a doctrinal width guideline for a platoon is 250
meters, a company is 500 meters, and a kandak is 1,500 meters. Aerial and subterranean
avenues must also be considered.
(a) Offensive considerations:
How can these avenues support my movement?
What are the advantages/disadvantages of each? (Consider enemy, speed,
cover, and concealment.)
What are the likely enemy counterattack routes?
(b) Defensive considerations:
How can the enemy use these approaches?
Which avenue is most dangerous? Least? (Prioritize each approach.)
Which avenues would support a counterattack?
c. Weather factors are considered at the same time as terrain. Primary emphasis is on
temperature/humidity, precipitation, wind, cloud cover and visibility. Light data is
considered as part of cloud cover and visibility. The commander focuses on how the
weather affects the terrain, equipment, and soldiers of both forces.
(1) Terrain. The terrain is most affected by rain, snow, or freezing temperatures.
GO terrain may become NOGO terrain after a heavy rain because it will no longer
support vehicle movement. Freezing this same terrain may revert it to GO terrain if it will
now support vehicles. The frozen ground may prevent digging fighting positions.
(2) Equipment. The temperature and humidity can change the amount of
maintenance required to keep equipment operating. Batteries may not last as long. The
soldiers' clothing and boots wear out faster under some conditions.
(a) Vehicles. Aviation assets are grounded by a number of weather conditions.
Vehicles freeze to the ground or fail to start in extreme cold. Hot and dusty conditions
increase the maintenance needs.
(b) Weapons. The operation and maintenance of weapons are affected by
extreme temperatures. Even if the weapon is not affected, the capability to acquire targets
may be severely degraded. High winds affect the accuracy of all projectiles particularly
indirect fires.
(3) Soldiers. The spirit and morale of the soldiers are affected by the conditions
they fight in. In winter zones, more energy and resources may be spent on just surviving
the elements than fighting the enemy. Non-battle casualties may outnumber the battle
casualties.

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A-4. ANALYZE THE ENEMY


Often, a major portion of the enemy analysis has already been completed for the
company commander by the brigade and kandak S2s, who had access to much more
information. The important enemy information is provided to the company commander in
paragraph 1a of the OPORD. The CO must accept this information as accurate because it
is what the kandak commander based his concept on. If a company commander
developed his concept based on a different enemy COA, he could disrupt the entire
kandak plan. Therefore the company commander begins his enemy analysis from the
information provided by kandak. However, it is important to realize that the kandak S2's
analysis did not focus on the enemy expected in the company's sector or the company's
portion of the defense. He was looking at the situation from a broader perspective and
with different concerns. It is the company commander's responsibility to refine this
information to develop the detailed understanding required to complete his concept. The
focus of this analysis is to locate the enemy's strengths (to avoid them) and his
weaknesses (to exploit them). The end result of the enemy analysis should be a detailed
statement of the enemy's most probable COA. At this point, the commander analyzes the
enemy's composition, disposition, recent activities, reinforcement capabilities, possible
courses of action, and weaknesses.
a. Composition. This is an analysis of the forces and weapons that the enemy can
bring to bear. Determine their strength, what weapons systems they have available, and
what additional weapons and units are supporting him. The CO must know the enemy's
weapons as well as his own. It is this detailed knowledge of the specific characteristics
for each weapon that allows the leader to pinpoint the enemy's weaknesses.
b. Disposition. The enemy's disposition is how he is arrayed on the terrain, such as
in defensive positions, in an assembly area, or moving in march formation. Use enemy
doctrinal templates to develop situational templates. Consider how long the enemy has to
prepare his defense or attack. When analyzing the situational templates, search for his
weak points, which may be exploited to destroy him or to control the decisive ground.
Consider where he is accepting risk and where the terrain limits his ability to defend,
attack, or gain mutual support. Finally, determine what his intentions are.
c. Recent Activities. Identify recent and significant enemy activities that may
indicate future intentions. These activities may point out a weakness that the company
can exploit. They may also provide a better understanding of what the enemy is likely to
do in reaction to the company. This will result in a more effective wargame process.
d. Reinforcement Capabilities. Determine positions for reserves and estimated time
to counterattack or reinforce. Although the enemy analysis must focus on the enemy
force on the company's objective or expected in the company's sector, the CO should
consider all enemy forces in his area of interest. To fully understand his enemy force, the
CO must understand how the enemy he is fighting fits into the larger enemy force.
e. Possible Courses of Actions. Determine the enemy's possible COAs. Analyzing
these COAs may ensure that the friendly unit is not surprised during execution.
Determine the enemy's most likely COA; use the other possible COAs to develop
contingency plans or security taskings. Develop a narrative description and sketch of the
enemy COA from start to finish. Examples of enemy COAs follow

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"The enemy will attack NLT 120800 Dec 2007 to disrupt CSS activities with
two platoons conducting the main attack along avenue of approach C.
Specific objectives for the enemy will be the ATP and maintenance areas.
Although he has the capability to employ chemical weapons, this is not
likely. After seizing these objectives, the enemy will continue the attack to
seize the TOC.

NOTE: In addition to a narrative COA statement for the enemy, the commander develops
a situational template of how he expects the enemy COA to look. For example, in the
offense, a company commander develops a situational template that depicts enemy
squads, their fighting positions and individual vehicles. In the defense, the attacking
enemy should be templated down to platoon level. His R&S activities, artillery targets,
C2 assets, and obstacles should be templated. Also consider how he may employ smoke,
chemical agents, CAS, and deception to support his operation.

f. Weaknesses. Identify the enemy weaknesses. Others may result from the war
game process. Determine how to exploit these weaknesses.

A-5. ANALYZE TROOPS AVAILABLE


The CO analyzes his troops available to ensure he knows the current status of his
company. He also considers the friendly situation to determine how adjacent and
supporting units may affect his mission. The purpose of this step is to identify all
available resources and to identify any new limitations resulting from recent fighting. The
CO considers his current location, disposition, supply status, and personnel strength. He
is particularly concerned with losses to key leaders and weapons, ammunition status, and
the morale of his men. The CO considers his current task organization and if any changes
are planned. He considers the capability of any attached or supporting units and
determines the impact of the company's priority in the kandak's fire priorities. Other
considerations include:
The location of the aid station.
The locations for the kandak main CP and command group.

A-6. ANALYZE THE TIME


The commander continuously updates his initial estimate of time and the time schedule.
He considers the times specified in the kandak order and any other key times that may
have resulted from his analysis of the situation. The deductions made here will assist in
synchronizing subordinate units. The CO evaluates time and space considerations (the
consideration for how specific units will move in a given situation, the time required, the
formations used, and so forth) throughout the estimate.

A-7. ANALYZE CIVIL CONSIDERATIONS


Civil considerations relate to civilian populations, culture, organizations, and leaders
within the AO. Commanders consider the natural environment, to include cultural sites,
in all operations directly or indirectly affecting civilian populations. Commanders include
civilian political, economic, and information matters as well as more immediate civilian
activities and attitudes.

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A-8. DEVELOP COURSES OF ACTION


A course of action is a possible plan that accomplishes the company's mission. It is as
detailed as necessary to clearly describe how the unit will accomplish the mission and to
allow effective wargaming later in Step 3 of the estimate. It is generally a scheme of
maneuver supported by a COA sketch.
a. Normally two or three courses of action are developed; however, the amount of
planning time may limit the CO to only one. In this case the XO may assist by also
developing a COA and wargaming the two with the CO. Each COA must be:
Feasible-It accomplishes the mission and supports the commander's concept.
Reasonable-The Company remains an effective force after completing the
mission.
Distinguishable-It is not just a minor variation of another COA.
b. During the analysis of the situation, the commander integrates the facts, makes
deductions, and analyzes further. Before developing the COAs, he determines the most
critical facts and deductions for this mission. These provide greater focus to the COA
development process. Examples of these might be:
Potential decisive points determined from the integration of the terrain and
enemy analysis.
Limited planning time requiring an immediate decision and quick execution.
A critical ammunition shortage.
A complete lack of information on the enemy force.
c. These critical factors, the restated mission statement and the other facts and
deductions provide the focus for developing the COAs. Each COA should be developed
starting at a potential decisive point. If one has not already been identified, consider the
focus of the company's mission statement. If it focuses on
Gaining or retaining ground, then determine what terrain is most important. If
key or decisive terrain has been identified, the decisive point is probably on
this ground.
Enemy destruction, then determine what the enemy's weakness is. This may
result from his organization, his doctrine, or his disposition on the ground.
There may be a critical unit, weapon, or asset that is of great importance to the
enemy. Its destruction will have a decisive effect on the enemy's ability to
generate combat power. A deception task may cause the enemy to react in a
way that exposes a weakness. If an obvious weakness is not identified, locate
his strengths and plan to avoid these while making an enemy weakness
through maneuver or the effect of the company's fires.
Security of a friendly force, then determine the most vulnerable part of the
friendly force. Consider how the enemy may attack that unit. Look for the
terrain that will provide an advantage to the enemy. Consider the approaches
he will use to get to this terrain. From this analysis, the CO should be able to
identify the area of greatest risk and a potential decisive point.
d. Once the CO has identified his potential decisive point(s), he develops his COAs
using the following process.
(1) Determine decisive points and times to focus combat power.

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(2) Determine the results that must be achieved at the decisive points to accomplish
the mission.
(3) Determine the purposes to be achieved by the main and supporting efforts. (The
supporting purposes must be clearly linked to the main effort's assigned purpose).
(4) Determine the essential tasks for subordinate units (main and supporting efforts)
that achieve these purposes.
(5) Taskorganize squads to accomplish each mission that has been determined.
(6) Assign C2 headquarters. (The platoon headquarters, section leaders, XO,
Company Sergeant, and other company leaders are used as required.)
(7) Complete a generic task organization by assigning all organic or attached units.
(8) Establish control measures that clarify and support the accomplishment of the
platoon's assigned mission. (This may also include critical timings for key events.)
(9) Prepare a COA statement and sketch.
(10) Repeat this process for additional courses of action. (Other COAs may begin
with a different potential decisive point, or they may concentrate combat power at the
same one using different tasks, purposes, positions, and so forth.)
e. Consider the following while developing courses of action.
(1) Where can risk be taken to enable weighting the main effort? What is the
likelihood of this action being overwhelmingly decisive?
(2) What assets are needed for immediate subordinates to achieve their specific
tasks and purposes? Ensure the main effort is resourced first. If insufficient resources
remain to ensure the supporting efforts' missions are attainable, change the tasks or
modify the purpose. Do not take resources from the main effort to reduce risk in less
important areas.
(3) Ensure mutual support is achieved. This may be done by the physical
positioning of units and weapons in relation to each other, or it may be achieved by the
clear linkage of purposes in subordinate's mission statements. Often, during decentralized
operations, mutual support between the main and supporting efforts is solely dependent
on a clear linkage of purposes in the unit's missions.
(4) What freedom of action do subordinates have? Use control measures (axis,
DOA, assault positions, objectives, BPs, sectors, engagement areas...) to synchronize
subordinate actions without stifling initiative.
f. The essential part of the COA, dealing with the actions at the decisive point
(normally on the objective), has been completed. There may be additional details required
to allow a thorough war game of each COA from start to finish. These may include:
Movement prior to the maneuver at the decisive point or following the decisive
action.
Positioning other assets, such as the CP, mortars, or the company trains, and
assigning them missions.
Establishing additional fire control measures or signals.
Significant soldiers' load decisions such as leaving the rucksacks, or company
mortars behind for an attack.
If these details are not needed to clarify the COA or to allow a complete wargame
process, they should not be included at this time because they will complicate the
wargame process.

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g. A sketch of the COA will enhance clarity. The sketch should graphically capture
the maneuver aspects of the COA. Proper graphic control measures (see ANA 1-3.1)
should be used, but additional graphics may also be used to clarify the COA. When using
this sketch as a concept sketch (as part of an OPORD), these nonstandard graphics must
be explained in a legend.
(1) Offensive course of action (Example).
COMPANY MISSION STATEMENT: #1 Co/2 Kandak attacks at 190600
OCT 2007, to seize high ground vicinity NB 459270 (OBJ DOG) to prevent
the enemy from disrupting 201st Corps (ANA Main Effort) attack.
COA STATEMENT: The company crosses the LD at 0600 along direction of
attack Blue and occupies the ORP. After the leader's reconnaissance, one
platoon (2 infantry squads, and the 82-mm mortars) occupy a support position
vicinity hill 455 to suppress enemy positions to support the company's seizure
of OBJ DOG. The remaining two platoons (3 squads each) occupy the assault
position. The lead platoon seizes the western enemy squad position (OBJ
TOOL) to allow the trail platoon to pass through and seize the decisive terrain.
The trail platoon (company main effort) remains in the assault position. On-
order, it moves through the lead platoon, seizes the high ground vicinity
NB459270 (OBJ BOX) to disrupt the enemy's command and control and to
dominate the remaining squad positions. Then it destroys any enemy
remaining in these positions to the south and east to prevent the enemy from
disrupting 201st Corps attack. The Company Sergeant with one infantry squad
will follow and support the main effort by re-supplying ammunition and
evacuating casualties.
(2) Defensive course of action (Example).
MISSION STATEMENT: #2 Co/3d Kandak (L) is prepared NLT 281700
AUG 2007 to destroy enemy forces from GL375651 to GL389650 to
GL394660 to GL 373665 to prevent the envelopment of #1 Co (Kandak Main
Effort).
COA STATEMENT: The Company defends with two PLTs forward in sector
and 1 PLT in a BP. The PLT (2 squads) forward in the north destroys enemy
forces to prevent enemy bypass of the main effort PLT. The PLT (3 squads, 2
SPG-9) in sector to the south destroys enemy forces to prevent an organized
company attack against the Co main effort. The main effort PLT (3 squads, 2
SPG-9) retains Hill 657 (vic GL 378659) to prevent the envelopment of #1 Co
(Kandak Main Effort) from the south. The Co mortars locate vic GL 377664.

A-9. ANALYZE THE COURSES OF ACTION


Step 3 of the estimate is the analysis of courses of action. This analysis is conducted by
wargaming the friendly courses of action against the enemy's most probable courses of
action. This step of the estimate ensures the COA is viable and that the CO understands
how the fight will take place. It clearly shows where the company is taking risks,
when/where decisions may be required, and also the advantages and disadvantages of
each course of action. Do not begin to compare the friendly COAs at this point in the
estimate process. The comparison occurs during Step 4.

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a. Techniques. Basic techniques for conducting the war game include the box, the
belt, and the avenue of approach methods.
(1) The box. This method is used to focus the wargame process on a specific area
of the battlefield. This may be the objective area, an engagement area, or some other
critical area where the decisive action will take place. The leader uses the same action
reaction counteraction method already discussed, but he limits himself to the actions
within the box. The size of the box is determined by the situation, but it should include
the units and actions that impact on the decisive action. When time is limited, this
technique ensures that the wargame process considers the decisive action, but the
disadvantage is that other critical actions/events may not be considered.
(2) The belt. The leader using the belt technique divides the COA into sections in
depth and then wargames each of these belts in sequence. The offensive COA wargame
example used the belt technique initially. The COA was divided into the following
phases:
Movement from the AA into the ATTACK POSITION.
Movement from the LD to the ORP.
Actions in the ORP.
Deployment prior to the assault.
The assault.
Consolidation.
Each of these phases was war-gamed in sequence. In the example, once the war game
reached the assault phase, the box technique was used to war-game the decisive action in
detail. This technique may also be used to war-game a defensive COA.
(3) The avenue of approach. It is most often used to war-game a defensive COA
when there are several avenues of approach that must be considered. The leader
wargames the selected COA against the enemy's most probable COA by focusing the
process on one avenue of approach at a time.
b. WarGame. To wargame the friendly COAs against the enemy most probable
COA, the CO mentally fights the battle as he expects it to occur. He divides the COAs
into a series of actions or events, analyzes each to determine the likely result or reaction,
and then considers the likely counteraction. This process of action, reaction, and
counteraction continues until the mission is accomplished or the COA fails. An example
for wargaming an offensive and defensive course of action is provided.
(1) Offensive COA war game. This is a war game of the COA presented in paragraph
A-8 g (1).
(a) First action: The company moves from the AA into the attack position.
Enemy reaction: None. Risk of detection is slight.
(b) Second action: The company crosses the LD and moves along DOA BLUE.
Enemy reaction: Moderate risk of detection at danger area (HWY 27). If
detected, the enemy may engage with indirect fires.
Friendly counteraction: Suppress known enemy position (vic Hill 325)
and suspected enemy position (vic NB423243). Break contact and
continue movement on DOA BLUE to the ORP.
(c) Third action: Occupy the ORP.
Enemy reaction: None.
(d) Fourth action: Conduct leader's reconnaissance.

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Enemy reaction: If detected, the enemy will increase the security on his
perimeter and possibly increase his patrolling.
Friendly counteraction: Options include complete the reconnaissance,
immediately initiate the artillery preparation and execute the tentative
plan, or move to the alternate ORP and issue a FRAGO.
(e) Fifth action: Support and security elements move into position. The company
(-) occupies the assault position.
Enemy reaction: If he detects the company, his options include engaging
with direct and indirect fires, repositioning soldiers or vehicles within his
perimeter, or withdrawing to an alternate position.
Friendly counteraction: Initiate the assault once the support element is in
position.
(f) Sixth action: Support element initiates fires; the lead platoon breaches the
wire.
Enemy reaction: Returns direct fire on the support element. Requests
indirect fires (TOT- 2 minutes if we are on his planned targets, 5-7
minutes if we have avoided them.) Once detected, the breach site will be
the enemy leader's main concern. The two positions with good
observation will place effective small arms fire on the breaching
element. The enemy will attempt to reposition the eastern squad to the
trench vicinity of the breach site.
Friendly counteraction: The support element repositions as necessary to
prevent enemy movement toward the breach site. The closein support
element (with the breaching platoon) suppresses the two enemy positions
in vicinity of the breach. The lead PLT seizes a foothold and begins
clearing the trench towards the enemy CP. If the breach is unsuccessful
due to reinforcement by the enemy eastern squad, the breaching platoon
will maintain pressure here while the trail platoon moves to the alternate
breach site (vicinity of the enemy's vacated eastern squad position), to
conduct a breach and clear toward the enemy CP. Onorder, the lead
platoon will disengage and follow through the alternate breach site.
(g) Seventh action: The lead PLT seizes its objective and begins to pass through
the trail PLT (main effort).
Enemy reaction: Options include repositioning soldiers, committing his
reserve, withdrawing from this position, or counterattacking with another
unit.
Friendly counteraction: Continue the attack. Once the lead platoon has
seized its objective, any enemy repositioning will have little effect. If the
enemy has a reserve, it should be too small to have much effect. If he
attempts to withdraw, the support element will destroy him. A
counterattack is unlikely and would be engaged by the isolation forces,
providing at least 15 minutes early warning.
(h) Eighth action: Main effort platoon seizes the dominant terrain and destroys
the enemy CP. Both platoons clear their objectives.

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Enemy reaction: Withdraw or wait for outside assistance. His remaining


positions are dominated by the high ground (OBJ BOX) seized by the
main effort.
Friendly counteraction: None.
(2) Defensive course of action war game. This is a wargame for the COA presented
in paragraph 2-21g(2).
(a) First action: Enemy divisional or regimental reconnaissance assets arrive in
the company sector.
Friendly reaction: Security forces engage with direct and indirect fires.
Enemy counteraction: If the reconnaissance unit was destroyed, the
enemy may send other assets to replace them. If not destroyed, they will
withdraw and attempt to bypass.
(b) Second action: Enemy recon patrol enters the company sector.
Friendly reaction: Forward platoons report situation. Confirm enemy
most probable COA. Antiarmor section prepares to initiate ambush at
intersection.
Enemy counteraction: None unless the recon patrol detects the forward
platoons or prior reconnaissance has located the company's positions. If
so, the enemy will use indirect fires while the recon patrol determines the
company's dispositions.
(c) Third action: The antiarmor section initiates ambush on the recon patrol.
Forward platoons engage enemy in sectors with direct and indirect fires.
Enemy reaction: CRP seeks cover and reports. Lead companies deploy,
return fire, and attempt to fight through forward platoons. Indirect fires
called on any friendly concentrations located.
Friendly counteraction: Avoid decisive engagements. Maintain dispersed
formations.
(d) Fourth action: Main effort platoon engages enemy south of hill 657. Priority
of fires shifts to the main effort.
Enemy reaction: He attempts to concentrate against the main effort by
fixing with direct and indirect fires. Then he conducts a flank attack with
dismounted infantry and repositions indirect assets (AGS-17s and
kandak mortars) to support this attack.
Friendly counteraction: Forward platoons engage following forces to
disrupt the attack against the main effort. Destroy/disrupt C2 and CS
assets as they move into sector. Request CAS on enemy concentrating
south of hill 657. (Preplanned CAS mission.)
(e) Fifth action: Enemy assault against the main effort platoon. The enemy
second echelon kandak may begin moving through forward platoon sectors.
Friendly reaction: Depends on the combat potential the enemy has
positioned to support the assault. Possibly issue a FRAGO to the
antiarmor section and the platoon (-) in the northern sector to reorient
against the enemy attacking the main effort. Arrival of a second echelon
kandak indicates the enemy main attack is in our sector. This is a change
to the enemy most probable COA requiring a FRAGO by the kandak.
(f) Sixth action: The main effort successfully retains hill 657.

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Enemy reaction: Remnants of the attacking unit occupy defensive


positions vicinity hill 657 to reorganize and prepare to assault again or
support another unit's assault. If the lead kandak is unsuccessful, it is
unlikely that the second echelon kandak will be committed in this sector.
Friendly counteraction: Issue a FRAGO to focus all available combat
power to destroy this enemy force before he can reorganize.
OR
Action: The main effort is unsuccessful in retaining hill 657.
Enemy reaction: If the enemy attack is successful, he will reorganize and
continue the attack. Depending on his losses, he may pass through
another company at this time.
Friendly counteraction: The main effort platoon withdraws to a rally point
in the restricted terrain, reorganizes, and interdicts enemy moving north.
Forward platoons continue to destroy enemy in sector. The company
reports the situation to the kandak and continues to operate to disrupt
enemy forces moving through sector.
(g) Seventh action: Exploit success of the main effort. (Even if the main effort
did not retain hill 657, the enemy combat potential is degraded and his momentum
disrupted.) Concentrate combat power against enemy weaknesses exposed throughout the
company sector, such as isolated enemy positions, C2, and CS assets.
Enemy reaction: He will attempt to reorganize to continue the attack.
Friendly counteraction: Maintain pressure on the enemy throughout the
depth of his unit. Use artillery, mortars, and CAS against his strengths.
c. Information Learned. Upon completing the war game of each COA, the leader
should know its advantages and disadvantages. He also has identified any critical events
that will determine the success or failure of each COA. These factors are used during
Step 4 to compare the COAs. In addition, the commander now has a much greater
appreciation for the conduct of this mission. The CO will use this information later as he
expands the selected COA into the tentative plan for his company.

A-10. COMPARE THE COURSES OF ACTION


At Step 4 in the estimate process, the CO compares the COAs and selects the one that is
most likely to accomplish the assigned mission. The CO considers the advantages and
disadvantages for each COA. He also considers how the critical events impact on each
COA. Then he selects significant factors based on this mission; the COAs are then
compared using these factors. The CO may also compare the COAs using only the
advantages and disadvantages for each COA. This method is more subjective than using
the significant factors that are common to all COAs.
a. Advantages and Disadvantages. These are the specific strengths and weaknesses
that were noted during the war-game process. They may pertain to the mission, the
terrain, the enemy, or any other aspect of the operation. They may apply to just one COA
or to all of them.
(1) Examples of advantages include:
Uses the most covered and concealed routes.
Allows extra time for the leader's reconnaissance.
Supports the reduction of the soldier's loads.

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ANA 1-6.5

Provides an excellent chance of surprise.


Limits the risk on the secondary approach.
(2) Examples of disadvantages include:
High risk of detection by the enemy's OP.
Mortar ammunition requirements increase the soldier's loads.
Time constraint requires daylight movement.
Does not attack the enemy's weakest point.
b. Critical Events. In every operation, there are certain events or activities that will
have a major impact on the success of the mission. These may have been identified
during the mission analysis, the analysis of the situation, or the wargame process.
Normally at company level, these critical events will apply to each COA. The significant
factors for the comparison will often result from these critical events. Examples of
possible critical events include:
A forward passage of lines.
Crossing a major stream en route to the objective.
Breaching the protective obstacles.
Gaining a foothold on the objective.
Evacuating the casualties.
Defeating the enemy's reconnaissance.
Controlling the unit's fires into an engagement area.
c. Significant Factors. These are common factors that provide the focus for
comparing each COA. They are selected for each tactical mission based on mission
accomplishment. These factors are significant because they impact directly on the success
of the mission. A long list reduces the importance of the most significant factors;
therefore, the CO should limit the number of factors to a manageable number. Normally
three to seven factors will provide a good comparison. There are two basic types of
significant factors, mission-specific and general.
(1) Mission-specific factors. These are generated from the requirements for a
specific mission. They are often determined by the critical events identified during the
wargame process. They may also result from the advantages and disadvantages for each
COA. Examples include:
Casualty evacuation.
Soldier's load.
Effectiveness in accomplishing the mission.
Time usage.
(2) General factors. These are for the employment of all operations. They include
the Principles of War, the risk involved, the characteristics of the offense or defense, and
other such doctrinal guidelines. Although these apply in every tactical operation, certain
ones are more important to the mission at hand. The CO determines which these are and
then lists them as significant factors for this mission. Examples include:
Security.
Simplicity.
Surprise.
Exploitation of enemy weaknesses.
Risk.
Disruption of the enemy attack.

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Concentration at the decisive point.


Use of limited visibility.
Employment of key weapons.
d. Decision Matrix. Once the CO has selected the significant factors, he must decide
which COA supports each factor the best. The CO compares the COAs using each factor
and then makes his decision.
(1) A more detailed technique involves a simple COA decision matrix. This may be
required when there are too many factors for the CO to compare. It is important that the
CO uses significant factors from his estimate of the situation to develop the matrix.
Mission specific factors are used as much as possible. Figure A-2 provides an example of
a COA decision matrix.
(2) There are several ways to use this matrix. The simplest way is to give a + to the
COA which best supports each factor. All other COAs would receive a -. Another way is
to rank order each COA for each factor. The best COA for each factor receives a 1, next
best a 2, and the COA that supports the factor the least would receive a 3. The COA with
the lowest sum supports the significant factors best.

Figure A-2. Decision matrix

A-11. MAKE A DECISION


Step 5 of the estimate process involves making the decision. The CO selects the COA
that he believes has the best chance of accomplishing the mission. The results of the

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ANA 1-6.5

comparison in Step 4 assist him in making this decision, but they do not make it for him.
The CO may not select the COA that the decision matrix indicates is the best. There may
be factors that were not included in the matrix but now have a significant impact on the
mission. For example: As he analyzed the troops available in Step 2 and selected his
significant factors during Step 4, he was unaware of the current status of his company's
physical condition. Upon learning of the extent of his company's fatigue, the CO may
decide this is the most significant factor to consider in making this decision. Even if the
decision had already been made and orders issued before this new information was
determined, the CO should immediately update his estimate and decide what impact this
may have on his mission. It is this continuous estimate process that allows the CO to
make rapid decisions during the fight.

A-12. COMPLETE THE TENTATIVE PLAN


The focus of this process is to generate overwhelming combat power at the decisive
point. To do this, the CO positions his units and weapons, assigns those tasks and
purposes, allocates resources, designates control measures, and synchronizes activities.
He refers back to the deductions from his estimate to complete his plan. To complete the
tentative plan, the CO begins with the COA selected at Step 5 of the estimate. He
expands this COA into a complete five-paragraph OPORD. The OPORD format is a
guide for deciding what information is required to complete the plan.
a. Task Organization. The generic task organization from the COA is the basis for
this; some changes may have resulted from the war-game process. The CO refers to the
task organization in the kandak order and ensures all assets under his control are included
in his plan. The CO takes the generic task organization from the COA and develops a
specific task organization that assigns squads and weapons to each of his platoons. An
example of a company task organization follows:
Truck Co (+)
1st Med Trk Platoon
2d Med Trk Platoon
1st squad/Heavy Trk Platoon
MP Squad
UMT/Maintenance & Supply Co
b. Enemy Situation. The enemy situation in the KANDAK OPORD (paragraph 1a)
is the basis for this, but the CO refined this to provide the detail required by his
subordinates. The CO considers the results of his enemy analysis to determine the
information he includes in his paragraph 1a. This may include the enemy's composition,
disposition, strength, recent activities, and capabilities. He also includes the enemy's most
probable COA, which was used in the war-game process. A sketch or enemy overlay
should be included.
c. Friendly Situation. This information is found in paragraphs 1b, 2, and 3 in the
Kandak OPORD. The Kandak mission and concept are stated in paragraphs 2 and 3a
respectively. The units adjacent to the company (left, right, front, and rear) are found on
the operations overlay. Their mission statements are found in both paragraph 1b (adjacent
Kandak) and 3a (adjacent Cos). Units supporting the company will be found in the
kandak task organization and in paragraphs 1b (external to the Kandak) and paragraph 3
(Kandak assets).

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ANA 1-6.5

d. Mission Statement. The company mission statement was determined at Step 1 of


the estimate. It is normally clearly stated in paragraph 3 of the Kandak OPORD.
e. Concept of the Operation. This paragraph describes how the CO intends to
accomplish his mission. At company level, a maneuver and fires subparagraph will
always be included. When needed to clarify the concept or to ensure synchronization,
additional subparagraphs, such as engineering, EW, and intelligence operations may be
included. The operations overlay/concept sketch is referenced here.
(1) Maneuver. The maneuver paragraph should be focused on the decisive action. It
may, however, describe the maneuver throughout the operation. At company level, a
maneuver paragraph that assigns the missions to each platoon/section and identifies the
main effort normally requires no additional clarification. When additional information is
required to clarify the concept, the CO may insert this information in the concept of the
operation paragraph. Information such as movement formations and techniques, or the
order of movement, should only be included if it clarifies the concept. Normally, the
coordinating instructions paragraph is the appropriate location for this type of
information.
(2) Fires. This paragraph describes how the CO intends for the fires to support his
operation. The company FSO (if attached) may prepare this paragraph based on the CO's
guidance; normally he will not have an FSO. This paragraph normally states the purpose
to be achieved by the fires, the priority of fires for the company, and the allocation of any
priority targets. A target list or overlay may be referenced here. Specific taskings for the
company mortars should only be stated here if they clarify the concept of the operation.
(3) Engineering. Often, especially in defensive operations, this paragraph is
required to clarify the CO's concept for preparing obstacles, and fortifications. When the
company is supported by engineer equipment or units, the CO would state his guidance
for employing these assets here. He may do this by stating the priority of effort
(survivability, countermobility, and mobility) and the priority of support for his
subordinates (3d PLT, 1st PLT, AA section, 2d PLT, mortar section, and the CP).
f. Tasks to Maneuver Units. This paragraph lists the tasks/limitations for each of
the platoons and sections. Each of these subordinate units will have a separate paragraph.
The information included here comes from two sourcesthe tasks and limitations
identified during the mission analysis and from the wargame process.
(1) The tasks from the mission analysis may require only one subordinate unit to
complete them. In this case, the CO decides which unit should do this task and assigns it.
Examples of these tasks are listed.
Provide one squad to carry ammunition for the kandak mortar platoon.
Establish an OP at NB233876 NLT 231000.
Others may require two or more subordinate units or even the entire company to comply
with them. In this case, the CO would list these tasks or limitations in the coordinating
instructions.
(2) Most of these requirements result from the wargame of the COA. They
include
How to synchronize the operation.
How to secure the company throughout the operation.
How to concentrate the combat potential at decisive points.
How to manage the soldier's load.

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ANA 1-6.5

How to degrade the enemy's combat potential.


To accomplish each of these requirements, the CO assigns specific taskings to each of his
units. He also assigns specific limitations to certain subordinates. These may be listed
here or noted on the company operations overlay/concept sketch.
g. Tasks to Combat Support Units. The 60-mm mortar section and other CS units
(engineers, FA, and so forth) are addressed here.
h. Coordinating Instructions. These are requirements that apply to two or more
subordinate units. These also may have been assigned by kandak or required based on the
COA developed by the company CO. If they do not apply to all the subordinate units,
then clearly state those units that must comply. Examples might be:
The company time schedule.
2d and 3d PLT will each carry 30 mortar rounds.
The consolidation plan.
The KANDAK rehearsal is at 211500 DEC 91.
i. Service Support. This paragraph provides the critical logistical information
required to sustain the company during the operation. Most of this information is
extracted from the kandak OPORD. There are also certain requirements generated from
the company commander's concept. These may include:
The location for the company trains.
The casualty evacuation plan.
Instructions for caching rucksacks, supplies, or other equipment.
The re-supply plan.
j. Command and Signal. This paragraph states where the C2 facilities and key
personnel will be located during the operation. It includes the following information from
the Kandak OPORD that subordinates require.
(1) Locations for the main CP and the command group.
(2) Critical communication requirements, such as radio listening silence in effect
forward of the LD.
(3) Signals for specific events or actions. The company concept will have similar
requirements for the company commander to include. These may include:
The locations for the CO or CP, and the XO.
Adjustments to the unit SOP, such as a change to the succession of command
or the standard PZ markings.
Emergency/visual signals for critical actions.
Signal information.

NOTE: The tentative plan should stand alone and have essential information so that it
can be issued and executed if time does not permit physical reconnaissance to verify.

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Annex B
Examples of Orders

Figure B-1. Annotated OPORD format.

134
ANA 1-6.5

Figure B-1. Annotated OPRD format continued.

135
ANA 1-6.5

Figure B-1. Annotated OPRD format continued.

136
ANA 1-6.5

Figure B-1. Annotated OPRD format continued.

137
ANA 1-6.5

Figure B-1. Annotated OPRD format continued.

138
ANA 1-6.5

Figure B-1. Annotated OPRD format continued.

139
ANA 1-6.5

Figure B-1. Annotated OPRD format continued.

140
ANA 1-6.5

Figure B-2. Annotated Service Support Order.

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ANA 1-6.5

Figure B-2. Annotated Service Support Order continued.

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ANA 1-6.5

Figure B-2. Annotated Service Support Order continued.

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ANA 1-6.5

Figure B-2. Annotated Service Support Order continued.

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ANA 1-6.5

Figure B-2. Annotated Service Support Order continued.

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ANA 1-6.5

Figure B-2. Annotated Service Support Order continued.

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Figure B-2. Annotated Service Support Order continued.

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ANA 1-6.5

Figure B-3. Movement Order format.

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ANA 1-6.5

Figure B-4. Annotated Warning Order format.

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ANA 1-6.5

Figure B-4. Annotated Warning Order format continued.

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ANA 1-6.5

Figure B-5. Fragmentary Order format.

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ANA 1-6.5

Figure B-6. Annotated Overlay order format.

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Figure B-6. Annotated overlay Order format continued

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ANA 1-6.5

Appendix C

9-Line MEDEVAC
Line 1 6-digit UTM grid location of pick-up site.

Line 2 Radio Frequency, call sign and suffix of requesting personnel

Line 3 Number of Patients by Precedence


A Urgent-Loss of life or limb within 2 hours
B - Urgent Surgical
C Priority-Loss of life/limb within 4 hours
D Routine-Evacuation within 24 hours
E Convenience

Line 4 Special Equipment


A - None C - Extraction Equipment
B - Hoist D Ventilator

Line 5 Number of Patients by Type


Litter Ambulatory (Sitting)

Line 6 Security of Pick-up Site (What possible/known threat in the area?)

Line 7 Method of Marking Pick-up Site


A - Panels D - None
B - Pyrotechnics Signal E - Other
C - Smoke Signal

Line 8 Patient Nationality and Status


A. - ANA D - Civilian
B. - ANP E - EPW
C - Coalition

Line 9 NBC Contamination (Not Applicable

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ANA 1-6.5

Appendix D

Reports
A. Accident Report Format :

1. Establish local security/traffic control.


2. Assess damage to personnel, vehicles, and load.
3. Determine location (8 digit grid).
4. Contact the nearest base camp and provide:
Status of personnel.
MEDEVAC request (if needed).
Status of vehicles.
Location.
Current situation.
Recovery assistance (if needed), state type of equipment and type of damage.
Complete accident form in duplicate/use cameras to record accident if available.
Follow instructions from higher headquarters.

B. Unexploded Ordnance Report:

1. When mines, explosives, or other UXO are found, report them immediately to the
units tactical operations center (TOC) using the following format:
LINE 1. Date/time/group discovered
LINE 2. Reporting unit and grid location and area of operation of UXO.
LINE 3. Method of contacting over watching unit (radio freq/call sign / telephone
number).
LINE 4. Type of munitions (dropped, projected, placed, thrown).
LINE 5. Resources threatened.
LINE 6. Impact on mission.
LINE 7 Protective measures taken.
LINE 8. Recommended priority (immediate, indirect, minor, or no threat).
(Immediate: stops a units maneuver and mission capability or threatens critical
assets vital to the mission. Indirect: stops the units maneuver and mission capability or
threatens critical assts important to the mission. Minor: reduces the units maneuver and
mission capability or threatens non-mission critical assets of value. No threat: has little
or no effect on the units capabilities or assets.)
2. Marking UXO.
If safe to do so, mark area using marking tape, engineer tape, candy striped tape,
mine signs or whatever means are available to keep third party personnel out of the area.
Protective measures: Build a barricade far enough away from the UXO so that it
cannot fall on it.
NOTE: Do not enter an uncleared area to mark a mine or UXO. Place marking in
the closest cleared area (i.e. if mine or UXO is off the side of the road, place marking on
the edge of the road).

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C. Enemy Contact (Internal Report to Convoy)

CALL SIGN: Convoy commander, this is truck six, CONTACT


DIRECTION: 3 oclock (direction of travel is 1200)
DISTANCE: 200 meters
TYPE OF THREAT: RPG and small arms

D. SALUTE Format:

Size What is the size of the element?


Activity What are they doing?
Location Grid coordinates of the element?
Unit/uniform What unit/element it is: Describe the element involved.
Time Date/time group of observations
Equipment What equipment do they possess?

NOTE: Provide any other information that may be beneficial for the development
of the situation.

E. ACE Format:

Ammunition: How much ammunition remains by weapon type, reallocate if


required. (Ammunition is best counted by full magazine, drum or belt).
Casualties: How many/priority. Begin CASEVAC or MEDEVAC if possible.
Equipment: Type of damage/severity/recoverability/missing

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Annex E
Convoy Commanders Checklist
YES NO NA

Has a reconnaissance of the approved route been


made and a strip map prepared?

Have overweight, oversize, or exceptionally slow


vehicles been identified and provisions made for their
movement?

Is there a listing of contacts, available along the route


in case of incident or accident?

Are specific provisions made to preclude the carrying


of passengers in the last vehicle of an element?

Are convoy identifying signs available and in good


repair?

Are trucks that are to carry personnel equipped with


first aid kits?

Do vehicles that are required to operate at night have


the "L" shaped reflective symbol in the lower left
corner of the tailgate?

Are flags (BLUE for lead vehicle, GREEN for trail


vehicle, and BLACK and WHITE for the convoy
commander) available and in good order?

Does each vehicle of the proposed convoy contain a


basic highway warning kit appropriate for the
vehicle?

Do vehicles transporting compressed gases,


explosives, or flammables have flashing lanterns in
lieu of flares or fuses?

Have possible rest stops or break areas along the route


been identified on strip maps?

Is a comprehensive checklist for the convoy


available?

Have provisions been made for inoperable vehicle


recovery?

Has a start point been identified?

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ANA 1-6.5

YES NO NA

Have all host nation convoy requirements been met?

Has the release point been identified?

Has the convoy movement order been reviewed to


determine the route?

Can bridges and narrow passageways safely


accommodate all loaded or tracked vehicles?

Are critical points known and listed on strip maps?

Has the size of march units been determined?

Has the rate of march on the convoy movement order


been verified?

Has the vehicle interval on open road been


determined?

Has the type of column been determined?

Have provisions been made for refueling, if required?

Has a suitable bivouac site been selected, if required?

Have convoy clearances been obtained, if required? Is


clearance documentation available for inspection en
route?

Is escort required and has it been requested?

Are spare trucks available for emergencies?

Are vehicles fully serviced, clean, and ready for


loading?

Are loads proper, neat, and balanced?

Are drivers properly briefed?

Is the convoy marked front and rear of each march


unit?

Are guides in place?

Are blackout lights functioning?

Are maintenance services alerted?

158
ANA 1-6.5

YES NO NA

Is maintenance truck in rear?

Are medics in rear?

Is there a plan for casualties?

Are all interested parties advised of the estimated time


of arrival?

Are all vehicles properly marked?

Is officer at rear of convoy ready to take necessary


corrective action such as investigating accidents,
unusual incidents, and changing loads?

Has a trail officer been identified?

Is there a personnel/cargo loading plan?

Has a plan been made for feeding personnel?

Has time been established for formation of convoy?

Has time been established for releasing trucks?

Is a written operations order on hand, if required?

Will a log of road movement be required at end of


trip?

Has weather forecast been obtained?

Do all personnel have proper clothing and equipment?

Is there a communications plan?

Are personnel prohibited from riding in the cargo


compartments of vehicles transporting ammunition?

Are drivers of ammunition vehicles briefed on


accident emergency response procedures and the
required withdrawal distances in the event of a fire?

Are the marshaling areas for ammunition or explosive


laden vehicles separated from unrelated personnel,
equipment, and facilities by the appropriate distance?

159
ANA 1-6.5

Annex F
Radio Fact Sheets

HH7700 Fact Sheet

ANA HH7700 is a compact and lightweight VHF handheld transceiver that provides
communications capability in the 30 to 88 MHz band.
The HH7700 offers up to 2320 channels at 25 kHz spacing, or 4640 channels at 12.5 kHz
spacing.
The HH7700 provides in the standard configuration, up to sixteen programmable memory
channels. Additional channels are available through the keypad.
RF power output levels of 500mW, 1W and 5W are user selectable.
The HH7700 offers an optional embedded voice scrambler* which is compatible with
ANAs existing VHF radios.
It is interoperable in FM clear-voice mode with our Squad Radio family
(PRC1060/70/80), the Spectre-V series (PRC2100/2150), the new Datron PRC7700V and
most other single-channel 30-88 MHz VHF/FM radios using a 150 Hz tone-squelch or
CTCSS squelch system.
The HH7700 radio is easy to operate and is rugged and splash proof by design.
The manufacture offers two battery pack options, a standard capacity battery permitting
up to 10 hours of autonomy and a high capacity battery offering up to 18 hours of
uninterrupted service.

FREQUENCY RANGE: 30 MHz to 87.9875 MHz


CCIR EMISSION TYPE: 16K0F3E (Wide), 11K0F3E (Narrow)
MODE: SIMPLEX
CHANNEL SPACING: 25 kHz (Wide), or 12.5 kHz (Narrow)
TOTAL PRESET CHANNELS: 16
MODULATION: FM, (300 Hz to 3000 Hz)
DISPLAY: Alphanumeric LCD, 14 segments, 5 digits
plus icons
PROGRAMMING: Computer Programmable
COMSEC: Optional Voice Scrambler *
CURRENT CONSUMPTION:
o TRANSMIT MODE: Less than 2.0 A
o RECEIVE MODE: Less than 0.6 A (excluding scrambler)
BATTERY LIFE: 4000 mAH Li-Ion: Approx. 18 hours (5-5-
90, high power)
2200 mAH Ni-MH: Approx. 10 hours (5-5-
90, high power)
ENVIRONMENTAL
TEMPERATURE: -30C to +60C
HUMIDITY: 90%
WATER RESISTANCE: Splash Proof
RECEIVER

160
ANA 1-6.5

RECEIVER TYPE: Dual Conversion, Super Heterodyne


SENSITVITY: Better than 0.35V for 12 dB SINAD
SQUELCH: 150-Hz Tone, CTCSS (38 tones)
AUDIO DISTORTION: 3%
AUDIO OUTPUT: 400mW ( 5% distortion), 500mW max.
OUTPUT IMPEDANCE: 8
TRANSMITTER
OUTPUT POWER: Hi: 5W, Mid: 1W, Low: 500mW (nominal)
ANTENNA IMPEDANCE: 50
FREQUENCY STABILITY: 2.5 ppm (-30C to +60C)
FM HUM & NOISE: 45dB (Wide), 40dB (Narrow)
SPURIOUS RESPONSE: 50dB
MODULATION: Direct frequency modulation
MAJOR ACCESSORIES
HH-4400BAT 4.0 AH Li-Ion battery
HH-2200BAT 2.2 AH Ni-MH battery
HH-CHG1 Battery Charger
HH-ANT1 Flexible 30-88 MHz antenna w/internal
matching network
HH-CASE1 Case
HH-MIC1 Handheld Microphone
HH-TACHS1 Tactical Headset (microphone & speaker)
HH-SCR1 Voice Scrambler

HH7700 Hand Held


Radio.

161
ANA 1-6.5

PRC-1070 Fact Sheet

The PRC1070 is a portable squad radio that offer handheld tactical communications
capability in the 30 to 88 MHz band in 25 kHz steps. The radios have 2320 available
channels and up to nine preset-able memory channels.
An RF power output of 100mW to 2W is user selectable. The PRC1080 has built-in full
or partial-band frequency hopping and digital encryption, and is designed for use in
situations where high-level anti-jam techniques and communications security are
required. The PRC1070, while not containing either hopping or encryption, is up
gradable to both functions by the addition of a single module. The PRC1060 is the same
as the PRC1070 except that it is not upgradable. The PRC1060 also has an internal voice
scrambler that can be enabled by the operator to provide a level of security if needed.
All squad radios work with most single-channel VHF/FM radios using a 150 Hz tone
system. In addition, special user-selectable voice processing enhances single-channel FM
voice quality when operating in Squad Radio-only networks. The PRC1080 also works
with Datron's PRC2100V (Spectre V) in hopping and encrypted modes. The squad
radios are reliable in harsh field environments. They are waterproof and have been
qualified to the exacting requirements of MIL-STD-810 for shock and vibration and other
environmental standards. An internal Built-in-Test (BIT) function makes it easy to
identify a defective subassembly. Datron offers a vehicle docking station (MT1060DS)
that is ideal for security forces that require occasional mobile use. This device is a
convenient way of mounting the radio in a vehicle next to the driver. Whenever the radio
is in the docking station, vehicle power is used to both run the radio and charge an
attached radio battery. If additional RF power is needed, the optional MT1060MM forms
the basis for a powerful mobile station. It can be located in a section of the vehicle next to
the antenna and offers power conditioning, a remote-control interface, and a 30W RF
power amplifier.
General
Frequency range 30 to 88 MHz;
Available channels 2,320 in 25 kHz steps
Preset channels 9 Programmable memory channels
Channel programming Front panel or remotely via keyfill device
Modes PRC1070: FM, FF clear voice
Input power requirements 7.5 Vdc;
Battery pack H4595 1.8AH, rechargeable NiCd
Frequency stability 15 ppm
Antenna 12 rubber duck or 3 ft. tape (AT892BB-ADPT)
Antenna port BNC for 50 ohm broadband antennas or for connection to
external amplifier; whip antenna port.
Display Backlit,multi-function custom LED
Mechanical,
Environmental
Size (H x W x D) 254.0 x 89 x 44 mm
Weight 1.7 lbs (0.8 kg) w/o battery; 2.4 lbs (1.2 kg) w/battery
Color OD, black, or gray (customer specified)

162
ANA 1-6.5

Package Sealed, immersible to 1m


Temperature -40 to +60 degrees C.
Transmitter
RF power output 100mW or 2W, operator selectable
Duty cycle Continuous service, all modes
Harmonics -46 dB, 2nds; -50 dB, others
Modulation Narrowband voice, +/- 7 kHz
150 Hz tone deviation 3 kHz +/- 500 Hz
Receiver
Sensitivity 12 dB SINAD for 0.5uV input
Squelch 150 Hz tone
Audio 400mW into 8 ohms; 12mW into 1000 ohms
Accessories
H2200 Stealth headset (fits underneath standard MIL headset)
MT1060DS Vehicle docking station
MT1060MM Mobile 30W RF booster amplifier
AT892BB-ADPT 3 ft. tape antenna (broadband)
1080KIT Upgrade kit for PRC1070 to add ECCM & COMSEC
CMS2100 Programming kit (software & manual)
KF1088B, C992303, Programming hardware accessories
1080ADPT

PRC-1070 Hand held radio.

163
ANA 1-6.5

PRC-1077 Fact Sheet

Datron's PRC1077 is a VHF/FM manpack transceiver designed for use in demanding


environments. It is a 5W radio operating over the full 30 - 88 MHz frequency range with
25 kHz resolution. The PRC1077 is rugged, compact, and can be configured with
numerous add-on ancillaries and accessories to create a wide variety of manpack, mobile,
or base station systems. Originally designed as a drop in replacement for the AN/PRC-
77, the PRC1077's modular design allows the use of modern components, resulting in a
product with the flexibility for future expansion.

The PRC1077 incorporates all the features required in a tactical manpack radio. It is
reliable, lightweight, easy to program, easy to use, and provides long mission life due to
low current drain. Its modular packaging design allows easy field maintenance. An
optional encryption module can be embedded into the PRC1077 to provide over-the-air
voice security for those situations where tactical communications security is required.
The PRC1077 is a modern manpack radio with high performance features that still retains
the same form, fit, and function of the AN/PRC-77. This provides existing users, both
foreign and domestic, the ability to economically modernize their tactical
VHF systems without obsoleting their extensive inventory of accessories and ancillary
equipment. Although the PRC1077 is completely interchangeable with the PRC-77, and
can be used in all PRC-77 configurations, it is much more reliable, easier to use, and
offers significantly higher performance. A full range of accessories is available for the
PRC1077. They include the AM1077 50W RF Booster Amplifier, PS1077 Power Supply
Adapter, MT1077 Mobile Mount, and PRC1077-ECU Extended Control System. The
PRC1077 in its high or low power configurations can be used with either +12Vdc or
+28Vdc primary power.

General
Frequency range 30 - 88 MHz
Available channels 2320 in 25 kHz steps
Preset channels 10 programmable memory channels
Channel programming Front panel
Modes FM; simplex, semi-duplex
Input power 11 - 15 Vdc;
requirements
Battery pack BB-LA6 sealed lead calcium; BA5598/U Lithium (case holds
spare battery)
Battery life 30 hrs @ 9:1 duty cycle (5W Tx) using BB-LA6
Antennas 3 ft tape and 10 ft whip; 50 ohm antenna
Antenna port BNC for 50 ohm broadband antennas or for connection to
external amplifier; whip antenna port.
Display Backlit,multi-function custom LED
Mechanical,
Environmental
Size 11.1 x 4.1 x 9.25 (28.2cm x 10.5cm x 23.5cm); W x H x D,
including battery pack.

164
ANA 1-6.5

Weight 9.7 lbs (4.4 kg), w/o battery pack; BB-LA6 pack is 2 lbs
(0.9kg).
Package OD, sealed, including battery pack.
Temperature -40 to +60 degrees C.
Transmitter
RF power output 0.3W, 2W or 5W, selectable
Duty cycle Continuous service
Harmonics -50 dB
Receiver
Sensitivity 10 dB SINAD for 0.3uV input
Squelch 150 Hz tone, carrier; selectable
Audio 500mW into 16 ohms; 50mW @ 150 ohms; 0 dBm into 600
ohms.
Accessories
Amplifier AM1077, 50W RF unit
Mobile mount MT1077, +12Vdc or +24Vdc versions; mounts to any vehicle
Power supply PS1077 for portable usage; UPF7000A-28 or UPF7000A-12 for
base station
Charger PRC-BC4 (4-unit charger), PRC-PS (power supply or 2-unit
charger),
PRC-SPU-10 (solar power unit), PRC-HC-30 (hand crank
generator)
Converter AM1077CONV, 12-to-28Vdc
Range (LOS) Backpack 12 kilometers
Vehicle mounted 48 kilometers

PRC-1077 VHF Radio

165
ANA 1-6.5

PRC-1099 Fact Sheet

Datron's PRC1099A is an HF/SSB tactical manpack transceiver designed for demanding


battlefield applications. It is a 20W radio operating over the full 1.6 - 30 MHz frequency
range with 10 Hz resolution. The PRC1099A is rugged, lightweight, easy to use, and can
be configured with numerous add-on ancillaries and accessories to create a wide variety
of manpack, mobile, or base station systems. Standard configurations are available at the
20W, 100W, and 400W levels using the basic PRC1099A manpack radio as the core.
Datron accessory equipment including shock mounts, RF booster amplifiers, antenna
tuners, modems, and remote control units can be added as required to fulfill specific
mission needs. Each high-power configuration is designed so that the core radio can be
quickly removed (jerk-and-run) for emergency use of the PRC1099A as a manpack.
All systems are MIL-STD-810 compliant and completely immersible to satisfy the most
demanding environmental conditions. The PRC1099A is designed for operation on any
frequency in the 1.6 - 30 MHz range. 100 programmable memory channels are available;
these channels can be programmed either from the front panel of the radio or remotely
from a computer. The radio contains a built in test (BITE) program to test essential
transmit and receive functions as well as static functions like battery status, memory and
display. The PRC1099A has a built-in antenna tuner that automatically matches the 3m
HF whip (AT-271A/U) and various long-wire antennas over the full frequency range.
The tuner has a memory mode whereby it stores the tuned configuration for up to 100
channels for scan mode operation and silent tuning when necessary. Internal options
available for the PRC1099 include FED-STD-1045A ALE. Datron's PRC1099A has been
successfully deployed around the world, providing reliable tactical HF communications
in the harshest battlefield environments.

General
Frequency range 1.6 to 30 MHz;
Available channels 2,840,000 in 10 Hz steps
Preset channels 100 Programmable memory channels
Scanning ALE scan modes
Channel From front panel or remotely via computer
programming
Modes USB, LSB,CW, AME; simplex or half-duplex
Input power 11 - 15 Vdc
requirements
Battery pack BB-LA6 sealed lead calcium; BA5598/U Lithium (case holds
spare battery)
Low battery LCD battery icon
indicator
Antenna port BNC for 50 ohm broadband antennas or for connection to
external amplifier; whip antenna port.
Display Backlit, multi-function custom LCD

166
ANA 1-6.5

Mechanical,
Environmental
Size 11.1 x 4.1 x 9.25 (28.2cm x 10.5cm x 23.5cm); W x H x D,
including battery pack.
Weight 9.7 lbs (4.4 kg), w/o battery pack; BB-LA6 pack is 2 lbs (0.9kg).
Package OD, sealed, including battery pack.
Temperature -30 to +60 degrees C, operating
Transmitter
RF power output 5/20W, PEP or average, manpack; 5/20/100/400W in mobile
configuration
Duty cycle Continuous duty service at 5W
Harmonics -50 dB (2 to 30 MHz)
Receiver
Sensitivity 10 dB SINAD for 0.5uV input
Squelch Audio derived, noise immune
Audio 500mW into 16 ohms; 50mW @ 150 ohms; 0 dBm into 600
ohms.
Antenna Tuning
Antennas Whip (AT-271A/U) and long wires (use LWA for wires longer
than 15m);
fully automatic antenna tuning; 100 channel memory.
Tune time 1-3 seconds initial tune (typical); 20ms, memory mode for preset
channels (no RF output in memory tune mode)
Antenna switching Tuner bypassed and 50 ohm port automatically engaged when
whip
(or long-wire) antenna removed
Range 400 kilometers

PRC-1099 HF Radio

167
ANA 1-6.5

RT-7000 Fact Sheet

The RT7000 transceiver provides a complete range of voice and data operation over the
entire 1.6 to 30 MHz HF spectrum. The RT7000 is microprocessor controlled and
features a state-of-the-art DDS-based synthesizer. An LCD provides channel and
frequency data, feedback on other front panel control functions, BITE information and
order-wire text messages.
The RT7000 has continuous tuning and up to 1000 memory channels that can be arranged
in multiple scan groups. It has simplex and half-duplex capability and a full alphanumeric
keypad for frequency or text entry. The RT7000 is packaged in a rugged, waterproof
housing designed to withstand harsh environments.

The RT7000 is used with broadband 50 ohm antennas or narrowband antennas in


conjunction with an automatic antenna tuner.
The RT7000 can be programmed and operated from its front panel or from an external
computer (if the ALE option is installed) utilizing a wide variety of interface standards
including RS232, 422 and 485.
Audio accessories available for use with the RT7000 include a heavy-duty hand
microphone, dynamic desk microphone, Morse key and headphones.

General
Frequency range 1.6 to 30 MHz (TX); 100 Hz to 30 MHz (RX); 10 Hz channel
spacing
Preset channels 256 standard, 1000 optional
Scanning Multiple scan groups, operator-selectable scan rates
Channel From front panel or remotely via computer or dedicated
programming remote control console
Frequency stability 0.5 ppm
Modes USB, LSB, CW, AME; simplex or half-duplex
Input power 11 to 16 Vdc (+12 Vdc models);
requirements 20 to 32 Vdc (+28 Vdc models)
Input power Reverse polarity, transient and under/over-voltage
protection
Antenna port 50 ohms, type N connector
Antennas 50 ohms or automatic antenna tuner (RAT7000B,
RAT1000C) for narrowband antennas
Interface Control: two RS32 COM ports; compatible with EIA
RS422/423/485 with option.
Audio: 600 ohms, balanced and isolated
Mechanical,
Environmental
Size (H x W x D) 6 in. x 14 in. x 18 in.
(15.2 cm x 35.6 cm x 45.7 cm)
Weight 35 lbs. (15.9 kg)
Cooling Rear panel heatsink;
RT7000FAN-1 fan kit (optional)

168
ANA 1-6.5

Temperature -30C to +60C, operating


Transmitter
RF Power output 125W PEP, 100W average
Duty cycle Continuous service, all modes; programmable - 3 levels
Harmonics -60 dB (2 to 30 MHz) nominally
Receiver
Sensitivity 10 dB SINAD for 0.5V input (2 to 30 MHz)
Attenuator +20 dB, operator switchable
Audio 5W into 4 ohm; 0 dBm into 600 ohms
Range 3300 kilometers

RT-7000 HF Radio

169
ANA 1-6.5

Glossary
Abbreviations and Acronyms

# number
AC alternating current
ADA air defense artillery
adj adjacent
admin administrative
A/L administrative/logistics
ALICE all-purpose lightweight individual carrying equipment
ALOC area logistics operation center
alt alternate
AM amplitude modulated
ant antenna
atch attached
attn attention
auth authority
aux auxiliary
avn aviation
bde brigade
BFA Battlefield Functional Area
BIS Battlefield Information Services
BL baseline
blk block(s)
bnd band
BOS Battlefield Operating System
bps bits per second
BSA brigade support area
BSBN baseband
btry battery
C clear
C2 command and control
C3 command, control and communications
C4 command, control, communications and computers
C4I command, control, communications, computers and information
CASEVAC casualty evacuation
cbt combat
CCES contingency communications extension switch
CCP contingency communications package
CCPS contingency communications parent switch
cdr commander
cen center
chan channel
CHS common hardware and software
CM control monitor
cmd command

170
ANA 1-6.5

CNR combat net radio


CNV crypto net variable
co company
CO commercial
COA course of action
coax coaxial cable
comm communications
COMSEC communications security
CP command post
CS combat support
CSCE communications system control element
CSS combat service support
CT communications terminal
D depth
DES dismounted extension switch
dig digital
dir directory
DLOS dismounted line of sight
DNVT digital non-secure voice terminal
doc documentation
DOS disk operating system
DSVT digital subscriber voice terminal
DTG digital transmission group, date-time-group
ea each
EA electronic attack
ECM electronic countermeasures
ECCM electronic counter countermeasures
EMP electro magnetic pulse
engr engineer
ENT enter
equip equipment
F Fahrenheit
FA field artillery
fctn function
FH frequency hopping
FLOT forward line of own troops
FM frequency modulated/field manual when use with a number
FPF final protective fire
FPL final protective line
FRAGO fragmentary order
freq frequency
FSC fire support coordinator
FSE fire support element
FSO fire support officer
fwd forward
G3 Assistant Chief of Staff, G3 (Operations and Plans)

171
ANA 1-6.5

G6 Assistant Chief of Staff, G6 (Communications)


gen generator
GHz gigahertz
GM group modem
H height
HF high frequency
HHC headquarters and headquarters company
HI high
HMMWV high mobility multipurpose vehicle
HPT high priority targets
HQ headquarters
HVA high voltage assembly
HVT high value target
Hz hertz
ICOM integrated COMSEC
IHFR Improved High Frequency Radio
IMA Information Mission Area
intel intelligence
IPB intelligence preparation of the battlefield
kpbs kilobits per second
km kilometer(s)
Km/h kilometers per hour
kw kilowatt
L length
LD load
ldr leader
LED light emitting diode
LF low frequency
LO low
log logistics
LOS line-of-sight
LP listening point
LSB lower sideband
m meter(s)
man manual
max maximum
M/C multi-channel
MEDEVAC medical evacuation
METT-TC mission, enemy, terrain, troops, time and civil considerations
MF medium frequency
mgt management
MHz megahertz
MI Military Intelligence
min minute(s)
MP Military Police
mux multiplex

172
ANA 1-6.5

mvr maneuver
NCS net control station
NRI net radio interface
NSN national stock number
NVIS near vertical incidence sky wave
OIC officer in charge
OOTW operations other than war
OP operations post
OPLAN operation plan
OPORD operation order
ops operations
PA power amplifier when used in radio configurations
para paragraph
PLL prescribed load list
plt platoon
PMCS Preventive Maintenance Checks and
Services
pos/nav position location/navigation
pr pair
pwr power
quan quantity
R&S reconnaissance and surveillance
RCU remote control unit
rcv receive
RETRANS retransmission
recon reconnaissance
RF radio frequency
RP release point
RPM revolutions per minute
Rt route
RT receiver-transmitter
S1 Adjutant
S2 Intelligence Officer
S3 Operations Officer
S4 Supply Officer
S6 Communications Officer
SB switchboard
sec section
SHF super high frequency
SCIPS Standard Integrated Command Post System
sig signal
SITTEMPS situation templates
SOI signal operation instructions
SOP standing operating procedure
spt support
SSB single sideband

173
ANA 1-6.5

sub subscriber
swbd switchboard
SWR standing wave ratio
tel telephone
TM technical manual
TMDE test, measurement, and diagnostic equipment
UHF ultra high frequency
USB upper sideband
UW unconventional warfare
VHF very high frequency
VLF very low frequency
VSWR voltage standing-wave ratio
WPM words per minute
xmtr transmitter

Definitions
Absorption Removal of energy from a radiated field by objects which retain the
energy or conduct it to ground. Loss by absorption reduces the
strength of a radiated signal.
Addressee The activity or individual to whom a message is to be delivered.
Alternating Current that is continually changing in magnitude and periodically
Current (AC) in direction from a zero reference level.
Amplification The process of increasing the strength (current, voltage, or power) of
a signal.
Amplifier A device using an electron tube, transistor, magnetic unit, or other
amplifying component that increases the strength of the input signal.
Amplitude The level of an audio or other signal in voltage or current. The
magnitude of variation in a changing quantity from its zero value.
Amplitude Modulation in which the amplitude of the carrier wave is varied
Modulation above and below its normal value in accordance with the
(AM) intelligence of the signal being transmitted.
Angle of The acute angle (smaller angle) at which a wave of energy strikes an
Incidence object or penetrates a layer of the atmosphere or ionosphere.
Antenna A device used to radiate or receive electromagnetic energy
(generally RF).
ANTIJAMMING A device, method, or system used to reduce or eliminate the effects
of jamming.
Audible Capable of being heard.
Array (antenna) An arrangement of antenna elements, usually dipoles, used to
control the direction in which most of the antenna's power is
radiated.
Audio Frequency A frequency that can be heard as a sound by the human ear. The
(AF) range is roughly from 15 to 20,000 Hz.
Authentication A security measure designed to protect a communication system
against fraudulent messages.

174
ANA 1-6.5

Automatic A circuit used to maintain the frequency of an oscillator within


Frequency specified limits.
Control (AFC)
Automatic Gain A control circuit that automatically maintains a constant output of
Control (AGC) some amplitude despite variations in strength of the input signal.
Axis of The line or route on which lie the starting position and probable
Communication future locations of the command post of a unit during a troop
movement. The main route along which messages are relayed or
sent to combat units in the field.
Azimuth An angle measured in a horizontal plane from a known reference
point.
Band A range of frequencies between two definite limits.
Bandwidth The width of a band of frequencies used for a particular purpose.
Beat Frequency The resultant frequency obtained when signals of two different
frequencies are combined in a circuit.
Beat Frequency An oscillator which produces a signal which mixes with another
Oscillator (BFO) signal to provide sum and difference frequencies. Generally used to
provide an audible signal for reception of CW transmissions.
Calibrate A process in which an instrument or device is compared with and
adjusted to an accurate standard.
Carrier The frequency used by a communication channel to transmit
Frequency intelligence between two or more distant locations.
Carrier Wave The RF component of a transmitted wave upon which an audio
signal, code signal, or other form of intelligence can be impressed.
Channel An assigned band of frequencies for a radio or television over which
transmissions can be made from one station to another.
Circuit An arrangement of one or more complete paths for current flow.
Coaxial Cable A transmission line consisting of two conductors, one inside the
other, and separated by insulating material. The inner conductor may
be a small copper tube or wire; the outer conductor may be metallic
tubing or braid. Radiation loss from this type of line is very little.
Command Post The headquarters of a unit or subunit where the commander and
(CP) staff perform their functions.
Communications A communications agency charged with the responsibility for
Center receipt, transmission, and delivery of messages. It normally includes
a message center, a encryption center, transmitting facilities, and
receiving facilities.
Communication The protection resulting from all measures designed to deny to
Security unauthorized persons information of value which might be derived
from a study of communications.
Conductor A wire, cable, or other object capable of carrying electric current.
(electrical) Good conductors are made of metals such as silver, copper, and
aluminum.
Continuous Radio waves having constant amplitude and a constant frequency.
Waves (CW) An un-modulated RF signal from a radio transmitter. When properly
keyed on and off, CW is used to transmit messages by international

175
ANA 1-6.5

Morse code (IMC).


Counterpoise A conductor or system of conductors used as a substitute for ground
in an antenna system.
Coupling The association of two or more circuits that permit energy transfer
from one to the other.
Critical The highest frequency, at which a given wave at any given time
Frequency will, if transmitted vertically, be refracted to earth by a layer of the
ionosphere.
Cross A type of crosstalk in which the carrier frequency being received is
Modulation interfered with by an adjacent carrier, so that the modulated signals
of both are heard at the same time.
Crystal A natural substance, such as quartz or tourmaline, which is used to
control the frequency of radio transmitters.
Date-Time The date and time, expressed in digits and zone suffix, when a
Group (DTG) message is prepared for transmission. The DTG is expressed as six
digits followed by a zone suffix--the first pair of digits denotes the
date, the second pair the hours, and the third pair the minutes.
Decibel (dB) The standard unit used to express transmission gain or loss and
relative power levels. Also a unit used to measure and compare
signal levels on a logarithmic scale.
Decibels Above The unit used to describe the ratio of the power at any point in a
or Below 1 transmission system to a reference level of l milliwatt.
Milliwatt (dBm)
Deflection The displacement of an electron beam from its straight-line path.
Detection The process of recovering the audio component (audible signal)
from a modulated RF carrier wave.
Dielectric An insulator. A term applied to the insulating material between the
plates of a capacitor.
Dipole Antenna An antenna having an electrical length equal to a half wavelength at
the frequency for which it is designated. It may be a single
conductor (rarely); but it generally consists of two elements, whose
total length is one-half wavelength, separated by an insulator or an
air space at the point of connection to the transmission line from the
transmitter.
Direct Current An electrical current that flows in one direction.
(DC)
Directional An antenna designed to transmit and receive RF energy in a specific
Antenna direction(s).
Discriminator A circuit that has an output voltage which varies in amplitude and
polarity in accordance with the frequency of the applied signal. It is
used primarily as a detector in an FM receiver.
Distortion The amount by which the output waveform differs from the input
waveform. Distortion may exist in amplitude, frequency, or phase.
Diversity System A system of radio communications in which a single received signal
is derived from a combination of, or selected from, a plurality of
transmission channels or paths. The system employed may include

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ANA 1-6.5

space diversity, polarization diversity, or frequency diversity. The


diversity principle takes advantage of the fact that fading
characteristics of a given signal generally vary widely, at any given
instant, at different receiving antenna locations and with different
frequencies.
Double Sideband That method of communications in which the frequencies produced
Transmission by the process of modulation are symmetrically spaced, both above
and below the carrier frequency, and are all transmitted.
Dummy Antenna An impedance device used in place of a regular antenna to prevent
unwanted radiation or reception during testing or adjustment.
Dummy Load A dissipative non-radiating device.
Duplex Duplex (or full duplex) operation refers to communications between
Operation two points, in both directions simultaneously.
Electromagnetic The field of force that an electrical current produces around the
Field conductor through which it flows.
Electromagnetic A wave propagating as a periodic disturbance of the electromagnetic
Wave field and having a frequency in the electromagnetic spectrum.
Facsimile A system of radio or wire communications by which still pictures,
illustrations, maps, or printed pages are transmitted and received.
Type-A facsimile is a system in which images are built up of lines or
dots of constant intensity. Type-B facsimile is a system in which
images are built up of lines or dots of varying intensity.
Feedback Returning a portion of the output of a circuit to its input. Negative
(out-of-phase) feedback reduces gain and distortion. Positive (in-
phase) feedback increases gain and can produce oscillation, both
acoustical and electrical.
Fading Variations in the strength of a radio signal at the point of reception.
Frequency The number of complete cycles repeated in a given period, usually
per second.
Frequency Band A continuous range of frequencies extending between two limiting
frequencies.
Frequency Distortion caused by the unequal attenuation or gain of the
Distortion frequencies present in a waveform.
Frequency Drift The gradual change in frequency of an oscillator or transmitter.
Frequency, The lowest high frequency effective at a specified time for
Lowest Useful ionospheric propagation of radio waves between two specified
High (LUF) points.
Frequency, The upper limit of the frequencies that can be used at a specified
Maximum time for radio transmission between two points and involving
Usable (MUF) propagation by reflection from the regular ionized layers of the
ionosphere.
Frequency Meter A device that is calibrated to indicate the frequency of the radio
wave to which it is tuned.
Frequency The process of varying the frequency of a carrier wave, usually with
Modulation (FM) an audio frequency, in order to convey intelligence.

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ANA 1-6.5

Frequency VLF (very low frequency): below 30 kHz (0.03 MHz). LF (low
Spectrum frequency): 30 - 300 kHz (0.03 -0.3 MHz). MF (medium frequency):
Designation 300 - 3000 kHz (0.3 - 3 MHz). HF (high frequency): 3 - 30 MHz.
VHF (very high frequency): 30 - 300 MHz. UHF (ultra high
frequency): 300 - 3000 MHz. SHF (super high frequency): 3000 -
30,000 MHz (3 - 30 GHz). EHF (extremely high frequency): 30 -
300 GHz.
Full-Duplex Telegraph or signaling circuits arranged for transmission in both
Operation directions at the same time.
Fundamental The lowest frequency of a complex wave.
Frequency
Gain The increase in signal strength that is produced by an amplifier.
Ground A metallic connection with the earth to establish ground (or earth)
potential.
Ground Wave A radio wave that travels along the Earth's surface rather than
through the upper atmosphere.
Half-Wave An antenna whose electrical length is half the wavelength of the
Antenna transmitted or received frequency.
Harmonic A whole-number multiple of a fundamental frequency.
Hertz (Hz) The standard term used to state frequency. One hertz is the same as
one cycle per second.
Hertz Antenna A half-wave antenna which does not depend upon earth ground or
ground plane to operate properly.
Histogram A graphical representation of a frequency distribution by a series of
rectangles having for one dimension a distance proportional to a
definite range of frequencies, and for the other dimension a distance
proportional to the number of frequencies appearing within the
range.
Horizontal Transmission of radio waves in such a way that the electric lines of
Polarization force are horizontal, parallel to the Earth's surface.
Image Frequency An unwanted signal combining or beating with the local oscillator
signal to form the intermediate frequency (IF). It is twice the
frequency of the IF away from the desired signal on the opposite
side of the local oscillator signal.
Impedance The total opposition offered by a circuit or component to the flow of
alternating current.
Impulse Any force acting over a comparatively short period of time.
Indirect Wave A wave received after being reflected from the layers of the
ionosphere or from another reflective surface.
Induction Process of inducing a current into a conductor by moving the
conductor or the magnetic field.
Inductor - Coil A device for introducing inductance into a circuit.
In Phase The condition existing when two or more signals of the same
frequency pass through their maximum and minimum values of like
polarity at the same instant.

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ANA 1-6.5

Insulator A device or material that has a high electrical resistance.


Intensity The strength of value of a current. The symbol I, for current, comes
from this word.
Interference Any undesired signal that tends to interfere with the desired signal.
Intermediate The fixed frequency to which the principal amplifier of a
Frequency (IF) superheterodyne receiver is tuned. The intermediate frequency is
produced by beating the received RF against the output of a variable
frequency oscillator to produce a constant beat frequency. In some
receivers, the IF is tunable over a limited range.
Ionosphere Highly ionized layers of atmosphere existing between the altitudes
of approximately 48 to 402 kilometers.
Jamming Deliberate interference intended to prevent reception of signals in a
specific frequency band.
Keying The breaking or interrupting of a radio carrier wave (either manually
or automatically).
Kilometer (km) One thousand meters, which is approximately equal to 3,280 feet.
To convert kilometers to miles, multiply kilometers by 0.6214. To
convert miles to kilometers, multiply miles by 1.6093.
Limiter A circuit that limits the output amplitude to some predetermined
value.
Load A device that consumes electrical power.
Local Oscillator An oscillator that is part of the receiver and is used to generate an
RF output which is combined with the incoming RF signal to
produce an intermediate frequency.
Loop Antenna An antenna consisting of one or more complete turns (loops) of
wire. It is designed for directional transmission or reception.
Marconi An antenna system in which the ground is an essential part.
Antenna
Means of Signal A medium by which a message is conveyed from one person or
Communication place to another.
Message. Any thought or idea expressed in brief form or in plain or secret
language and prepared in a form suitable for transmission by any
means of communication.
Micro A prefix representing one-millionth (abbreviated u).
Milli A prefix representing one-thousandth (abbreviated m).
Modem Acronym for MOdulator-DEModulator. Modems are primarily used
for converting digital signals into analog signals for transmission
and reception and for reconverting the analog signals into digital
signals for processing.
Modulate To mix two or more signals to produce another signal; to vary or
change the amplitude, frequency, or phase of the signals to be
modulated.
Network A system consisting of a number of designated stations connected
with one another by any means of communication.
Null The absence of a signal, information, indication, or deflection.
Ohm The basic unit of electrical resistance.

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ANA 1-6.5

Originator The command by whose authority a message is sent. The


responsibility of the originator includes the responsibility for the
functions of the drafter and releasing officer.
Out of Phase Two alternating quantities are out of phase when they do not pass
through corresponding values at the same time. For example, if the
current in a circuit reaches its maximum value before or after the
applied voltage does, the current is out of phase with the voltage.
Phase The difference in time or electrical degrees measured from the
beginning of a cycle to any point on the same cycle. A full cycle is
considered as having 360 electrical degrees.
Power The rate of doing work or the rate of expending energy. Unit of
electrical measurement is the watt.
Propagation The travel of electromagnetic waves through space or along a
transmission line.
Quarter-Wave An antenna with an electrical length that is equal to one-quarter
Antenna wavelength of the signal being transmitted or received.
Radiate To transmit RF energy.
Radio Channel A band of adjacent frequencies having sufficient width to permit its
use for radio communication.
Radio Frequency Any frequency of electrical energy capable of propagation into
(RF) space. Usually above 20 kHz.
Radio Wave Electromagnetic waves at a frequency lower than 3000 GHz and
propagated through space without an artificial guide.
Rear Echelon That part of a headquarters which is principally concerned with
administrative and logistical matters.
Reflection The turning back of a radio wave from an object or the surface of the
Earth.
Refraction The bending, or change in direction, of a radio wave passing into a
layer of atmosphere or the ionosphere.
Relay A transmission forwarded through an intermediate station.
Saturation The condition of a circuit when an increase of the input causes no
further increase in the output.
Selectivity The characteristic that determines the ability of a radio receiver to
discriminate between signals of different carrier frequencies.
Sensitivity The degree, or amount of response, that a circuit has to signals to
which it is tuned (related to signal strength).
Sideband A band of frequencies created by the modulation process located on
each side of the carrier frequency.
Sideband Power The power contained in the sidebands. It is this power to which a
receiver responds (not to the carrier power) when receiving a
modulated wave.
Single Sideband A system of radio communications in which the carrier and either
the upper or lower sideband is removed from AM transmission to
reduce the channel width and improve the signal-to-noise ratio.

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ANA 1-6.5

Skip Distance The distances on the Earth's surface between the points where a
radio sky wave leaves the antenna and is successfully reflected
and/or refracted back to Earth from the ionosphere.
Skip Zone The space or region within the transmission range where signals
from a transmitter are not received. It is between the end of the
ground wave and the point where the refracted wave returns.
Standing-Wave The ratio of the maximum to minimum amplitudes of voltage, or
Ratio (SWR) current, along a waveguide or transmission line.
Static Sharp, short bursts of noise on a radio receiver caused by electrical
disturbances in the atmosphere or by electrical machinery.
Tone Modulation A type of transmission obtained by causing the RF carrier amplitude
to vary at a fixed AF rate. When the type of transmission is keyed, it
becomes modulated continuous wave (MCW).
Transceiver Any conductor or system of conductors used to carry electrical
energy from its source to its load.
Transmission Any conductor or system of conductors used to carry electrical
Line energy from its source to its load.
Transmitter A radio transmitter is a piece of equipment that generates and
amplifies a radio frequency signal, adds intelligence to this signal,
and then sends it out into the air as a radio frequency wave.
Tuning The process of adjusting a radio circuit so that it resonates at the
desired frequency.
Unidirectional In one direction only.
Vernier Any device used to make a fine adjustment.
Voltage A term used to designate electrical pressure that exists between two
points.
Voltage The ratio of the amplitude of the electric field or voltage at a voltage
Standing-Wave maximum to that at an adjacent voltage minimum.
Ratio (VSWR)
Wavelength The distance a wave travels during one complete cycle. It is equal to
the velocity divided by the frequency.
Wave The transmission of RF energy through space.
Propagation
Zero Beat The point of complete silence reached when two frequencies being
mixed are exactly the same.

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