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Salahaddin University

Engineering College
Electrical Department
First Year

Principles of Electronics
Chapter Two
By: Hemin Ali Qadir
2016
OUTLINES
Part I:
Diode Operation
The Diode
Diode Biasing
Forward biasing
Reverse biasing
THE DIODE

A diode is made from a small piece


of semiconductor material, usually
silicon.
half is doped as a p region and half
is doped as an n region with a pn
junction and depletion region in
between.
The p region is called the anode.
The n region is called the cathode.
THE DIODE

Surface-Mount Diode
Typical Diode Packages Packages
DIODE BIASING
Biasing refers to the use of an external voltage to cause
the diode to conduct current in one direction and block
it in the other direction.
There are two bias conditions:
Forward Biasing
Reverse Biasing
FORWARD BIAS
Forward bias is the condition that
allows current through the pn
junction.
There are two requirements for
forward bias
First: The negative side of VBIAS is
connected to the n region of the
diode and the positive side is
connected to the p region.
Second: the bias voltage, VBIAS,
must be greater than the barrier
potential.
FORWARD BIAS
The negative side of the bias-voltage source pushes the free
electrons of n region toward the pn junction.
The negative side of the source also provides a continuous flow of
electrons from the conductor (wires) into the n region.
This flow of free electrons is called electron current.
FORWARD BIAS
The bias-voltage gives sufficient energy to the free electrons to
overcome the barrier potential of the depletion region and move
into the p region.
These electrons loss their energy immediately after they pass the
depletion reign. and recombine with holes.
In the p region, these electrons will recombine with holes and will
become valence electrons (not free).
FORWARD BIAS
The positive side of the bias-voltage attracts the valence electrons
toward the left end of the p region.
The holes in the p region provide the medium or pathway for these
valence electrons to move through the p region.
The valence electrons move from one hole to the next toward the left.
The holes, which are the majority carriers in the P region, effectively (not
actually) move to the right toward the junction.
This effective flow of holes is called the hole current.
The Effect of Forward Bias on the Depletion Region
As more electrons flow into the depletion region, the number of
positive ions is reduced.
As more holes effectively flow into the depletion region on the
other side of the pn junction, the number of negative ions
is reduced.
This reduction in positive and negative ions during forward bias
causes the depletion region to narrow
The Effect of the Barrier Potential During Forward Bias

The free electrons in n region have achieved enough energy from


the bias-voltage source to overcome the barrier potential.

When electrons cross the depletion region, they give up an amount


of energy equivalent to the barrier potential.

This energy loss results in a voltage drop across the pn junction equal
to the barrier potential (0.7 V for silicon) (0.3 V for germanium) .
REVERSE BIAS
Reverse bias is the condition that essentially prevents current
through the diode.

The positive side of VBIAS is connected to the n region.


The negative side of VBIAS is connected to the p region.
REVERSE BIAS
In the n region, the positive side of the bias-voltage source pulls
the free electrons away from the pn junction.
As result, additional positive ions are created near the depletion
region, and this causes the depletion region in n region to get
wider.
REVERSE BIAS
In the p region, electrons from the negative side of the voltage source
enter as valence electrons and move from hole to hole toward the
depletion region.

As result, theses electrons create additional negative ions near the


depletion region, and this causes the depletion region in P region to get
wider.
The flow of valence electrons can be viewed as holes being pulled
toward the positive side.
Reverse Current
The extremely small current exists in reverse bias.
It is caused by the minority carriers in the n and p regions that are
produced by thermally generated electron-hole pairs.

The small number of free minority electrons in the p region are pushed
toward the pn junction by the negative bias voltage.

When these electrons pass depletion region, they combine with the
minority holes in the n region as valence electrons and flow toward
the positive bias voltage, creating a small hole current.
Reverse Breakdown
Normally, the reverse current is so small, and it can be neglected.

However, if the external reverse-bias voltage is increased to a


value called the breakdown voltage, the reverse current will
drastically increase.

The high reverse-bias voltage imparts energy to the free minority


electrons so that as they speed through the p region, they collide
with atoms with enough energy to knock valence electrons out of
orbit and into the conduction band.

The newly created conduction electrons are also high in energy


and repeat the process.

As these high-energy electrons go through the depletion region,


they have enough energy to go through the n region as
conduction electrons, rather than combining with holes.
OUTLINES
Part II:
Voltage-Current (V-I) Characteristic of the Diode
Voltage-Current (V-I) Characteristic
The Diode Equation
Resistance Levels
V-I Characteristic for Forward Bias
When a forward-bias voltage is applied
across a diode, there is current.
This current is called the forward current (IF).
With 0 V across the diode, there is no
forward current.

As the forward-bias voltage is gradually


increased, the forward current and the
voltage across the diode gradually increase.

As the forward-bias voltage is farther


increased, the current continues to increase
very rapidly, but the voltage across the
diode increases only gradually above 0.7 V.

This small increase in the diode voltage


above the barrier potential is due to the
voltage drop across the internal dynamic
resistance of the diode.
V-I Characteristic for Reverse Bias
In reverse-bais, there is only an
extremely small reverse current (IR)
through the diode.
With 0 V, there no reverse current.
When the applied bias voltage is
increased to a value where the
(VR) reaches the breakdown
value (VBR), the reverse current
begins to increase rapidly.
Breakdown is not a normal mode
of operation for most pn junction
devices.
The Complete V-I Characteristic Curve
The Diode Equation
The relationship between the voltage VD across a PN junction of
the diode and the current ID through it is given by the so called
diode equation:

= / 1
Where:

= current through the diode ( or )


= voltage across the diode
= reverse saturation current
= Emission coefficient (Ideality factor), =1 for Ge and
=2 for Si for relatively
= thermal voltage
The Diode Equation
Example:
A silicon diode has saturation current of 1pA. Assuming the temperature
is 25 (room temperature), find the current in the diode when:

= Boltzmanns constant = 1.38 1023 J/K


q = electron charge = 1.6 1019 C
1. It is reverse biased by 0.1 V
2. It is reverse biased by 1 V
3. The anode is shorted to the cathode
4. It is forward biased by 0.5 V
5. It is forward biased by 0.7 V
Solution will be done in the class
Temperature Effects
From the diode equation, depends
on temperature.
The reverse saturation current (IS)
depends on temperature too.
In fact, the value of (IS) is more
sensitive to temperature variations
than is VT
For a forward-biased diode, as
temperature is increased, the forward
current (IF) increases for a given value
of forward voltage.
For a reverse-biased diode, as
temperature is increased, the reverse
current (IR) increases.
Resistance Levels
DC or Static Resistance
The resistance of the diode is not
constant.
The resistance of the diode changes
from an operating point to another
point.
At a particular operating point the
dc resistance can be found by the
Ohm equation:

The resistance levels in the reverse-


bias region will naturally be quite
high.
Resistance Levels
DC or Static Resistance
The dc resistance levels at the knee and below is high.
the resistance levels at the vertical rise section of the characteristics is
low.

Example:
Determine the dc resistance levels
for the diode of Figure shown at
1. ID =2 mA
2. ID = 20 mA
3. VD = -10 V
Resistance Levels
AC or Dynamic Resistance
If a sinusoidal voltage is applied, the
diode resistance is changing.
This resistance is called dynamic or ac
resistance.
lowercase italic r with a prime is used for
internal resistances of electronics
devices.
the diode ac resistance can be
calculated by;



=
Defining the dynamic or
ac resistance.
Were is the internal ac resistance
Resistance Levels
AC or Dynamic Resistance
The ac resistance in the vertical-rise
region of the characteristic is quite
small.
But it is much higher at low current
levels.
Example:
For the characteristics of this figure:
1. Determine the ac resistance
at ID =2 mA.
2. Determine the ac resistance
at ID = 25 mA.
3. Compare the results
of parts (a) and (b) to
the dc resistances
at each current level.
OUTLINES
Part IV:
Voltage-Current (V-I) Characteristic of the Diode
Diode Models
Load Line Analysis
Diode Models
Bias Connections
Forward-Bias
The forward current (IF) is from anode to
cathode.
The forward voltage drop (VF) due to the
barrier potential.

Reverse-Bias
The reverse current is extremely small
and can be considered to be zero.
Notice that the entire bias voltage
(VBIAS) appears across the diode.
Diode Models
Diode Approximations
The Ideal Diode Model
The ideal model of a diode is the least accurate approximation.
In ideal case, the diode is considered as a simple switch.
When the diode is forward-biased, it ideally acts like a closed (on) switch.
Diode Models
Diode Approximations
The Ideal Diode Model
When the diode is reverse-biased, it ideally acts like an open (off)
switch.
the barrier potential, the dynamic resistance, and the reverse current
are all neglected.
Diode Models
Diode Approximations
The Practical Diode Model
The practical model includes the barrier potential.

The forward current (IF)


by applying Kirchhoffs voltage law
Diode Models
Diode Approximations
The Practical Diode Model
When the diode is reverse-biased, it is equivalent to an open switch just as
in the ideal model.
The barrier potential does not affect reverse bias, so it is not a factor.
Diode Models
Diode Approximations
The Complete Diode Model
The complete model of a diode is the most accurate approximation.
It includes the barrier potential, the small forward dynamic resistance
( ) and the large internal reverse resistance .
Diode Models
Diode Approximations
The Complete Diode Model
Example:
1. Determine the forward voltage and forward current for the diode in Figure (a) for each of
the diode models. Also find the voltage across the limiting resistor in each case. Assume
= 10 at the determined value of forward current.
2. Determine the reverse voltage and reverse current for the diode in Figure (b) for each of
the diode models. Also find the voltage across the limiting resistor in each case. Assume
IR = 1 A.
Diode Models
Diode Approximations
The Complete Diode Model
Example 2:
Determine the currents I1, I2, and ID2 for the network of Figure shown.
Diode Models
Diode Approximations
The Complete Diode Model
Homework:
Determine I, V1, V2, and Vo for the series dc configuration of Figure shown below.
Load Line Analysis
In General
The applied load will normally have an important impact on the point
or region of operation of a device.

If the analysis is performed in a graphical manner, a line can be drawn


on the characteristics of the device that represents the applied load.

The intersection of the load line with the characteristics will determine
the point of operation of the system.

Such an analysis is called load-line analysis.


Load Line Analysis
In the Diode
Analysis means finding the current and voltage
levels.
Load line analysis means using the diode actual
characteristics.
Consider the network of Fig. (a) employing a
diode having the characteristics of Fig. (b)
Applying Kirchhoffs voltage law to the series
circuit of Fig. (a) will result in
= 0
= +
The two variables of the load-line equation (VD
and ID) are the same as the diode axis variables
of Fig. (b).
On the horizontal axis ID = 0 A
On the vertical axis VD = 0 V.
Load Line Analysis
If we set VD = 0 V in the load-line Equation and solve for ID, we have the
magnitude of ID on the vertical axis.
Therefore, with VD = 0 V, the load-line equation becomes

If we set ID = 0 A in the load-line and solve for VD, we have the magnitude
of VD on the horizontal axis.
Load Line Analysis
We now have a load line defined by the network and a characteristic
curve defined by the device.
The point of intersection between the two is the point of operation for this
circuit .
The point of operation is usually called the quiescent point (Q-point)
Load Line Analysis
Example
For the series diode configuration of Fig. (a) employing the diode
characteristics of Fig. (b) determine:
1. VDQ and IDQ.
2. RD
3. VR
Load Line Analysis
Homework:
Repeat the analysis of the pervious example with R = 1.5 K

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