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Theoretical Foundations of Chemical Engineering, Vol. 35, No. 6, 2001, pp. 597603.

Translated from Teoreticheskie Osnovy Khimicheskoi Tekhnologii, Vol. 35, No. 6, 2001, pp. 636642.
Original Russian Text Copyright 2001 by Kharin, Agafonov, Bardakov.

Steady-State Heat Transfer through an Iced Wall


V. M. Kharin, G. V. Agafonov, and V. I. Bardakov
Voronezh State Technological Academy, pr. Revolyutsii 19, Voronezh, 394017 Russia
Received May 27, 1999

AbstractThe problem of steady-state heat transfer in a cocurrent and a countercurrent apparatus with an iced
wall is solved analytically. The problems in heat transfer optimization are considered. An example of heat trans-
fer calculations is given.

Continuous recuperative heat exchangers, where the For steady-state heat transfer,
liquid heat-transfer agent is cooled to a temperature
close to its freezing point T* are widely used in the dQ = 1 ( F/L ) [ T 1 ( X ) T F ( X ) ]dX, (3)
chemical, food, and microbiological industries, and
cryogenics. In these apparatuses, cooling is often inten- where TF(X) is the local wall temperature on the heat-
sified by using a coolant with a temperature below T*. carrier side. As follows from Eqs. (1)(3),
However, the possibility of icing of the heat-transfer
wall on the coolant side poses the following questions. T F ( X ) = T 1 ( X ) [ T 1 ( X ) T 2 ( X ) ]k/ 1 . (4)
Under what conditions does icing occur? What are the
ice thickness and distribution? What are the effects of The temperatures T1(X) and T2(X) involved in Eq. (4)
icing on heat transfer in apparatuses with various heat- can be calculated from the data reported in [1].
carrier and coolant flow directions, cocurrent and coun- It is clear from simple physical considerations that,
tercurrent heat exchangers in particular. It is obvious when there is no icing, the total heat flux Q from the
that, without answering these questions, it is impossible heat carrier to the coolant increases with decreasing TF .
to find a way of optimizing heat transfer in the appara- However, when TF < T*, the heat carrier freezes on the
tuses considered. This challenging problem has so far wall (if only no special measures are taken to break the
been poorly investigated. forming ice layer). In an unsteady-state process, the ice
Conditions of icing and formulation of the prob- layer thickness varies with the longitudinal coordinate
lem. Let us consider the simplest apparatus with a flat X and time ; that is, * = *(X, ). If the inlet heat-car-
heat-transfer wall that separates the heat carrier and rier and coolant temperatures are constant, the growth
coolant flowing at the rates G1 and G2, respectively rate of the ice layer decreases in time because of the
(Fig. 1). growth of its heat-transfer resistance. Finally, a steady
When there is no icing, the heat flux through an ele- state is reached, in which ice no longer forms and the
mentary area of the heat-transfer wall, (F/L)dX, is thickness of the ice layer depends only on the coordi-
expressed as nate: *(X). It is this mode of heat transfer that is con-
sidered in the present paper.
dQ = k ( F/L ) [ T 1 ( X ) T 2 ( X ) ]dX, (1)
In a steady state, the heat-transfer wall surface may
where be fully or partially covered with an ice layer. Obvi-
1 1
ously, TF T* for the ice-free areas and TF < T* for the
k = ( 1 + w / w + 2 ) .
1
(2) iced areas. However, in the iced areas, the heat carrier

(a) (b)
G1, T1' G1, T1'' G1, T1' G1, T1''
G2, T2' G2, T2'' G2, T2'' G2, T2'

0 X 0 X
L L

Fig. 1. (a) Cocurrent and (b) countercurrent heat exchangers.

0040-5795/01/3506-0597$25.00 2001 MAIK Nauka /Interperiodica


598 KHARIN et al.

is in contact with not the wall surface F but the ice layer for a countercurrent apparatus,
surface F* with the temperature
F 1 * T 1 G 1 c 1 T 1 + q 1 1 F 1
2
1
T F* = T *. (5) (18)
Therefore, the maximum heat flux from heat carrier to = k* ( F/L ) ( T 1 T 2 ),
the coolant is reached once the condition
F 2 2* T 2 + G 2 c 2 T 2 + q 2 2 F 2
2

T F( X ) T * (6) (19)
= k* ( F/L ) ( T 2 T 1 ),
is satisfied throughout the range 0 X L. The inequal-
ity TF(X) < T* implies the icing of the whole heat-trans- G 1 c 1 [ T '1 T 1 ( 0 ) ] = F 1 *T
1 1 ( 0 ), (20)
fer wall.
In this paper, we consider the problem of heat trans- T 1 ( L ) = 0, (21)
fer in apparatuses under condition (6). It is assumed G 2 c 2 [ T '2 T 2 ( L ) ] = F 2 *T
2 2 ( L ), (22)
that an ice layer on the heat-transfer wall does not influ-
ence the heat-carrier flow and T 2 ( 0 ) = 0. (23)
F* = F. (7) The problem is to solve the sets of Eqs. (14)(17)
Obviously, the thinner the ice layer, the more reason- and (18)(23) for Tk(X) and *(X) and to determine the
able these assumptions. total heat flux Q* across the heat-transfer wall.
Taking into account Eq. (7), we can write the General solution of the problem. With the help of
expression for the heat flux across an elementary area formula (11), we eliminate the unknown coefficient k*
of the iced wall: (which depends on X) from Eqs. (14), (15), (18), and
(19). We introduce the dimensionless variables
dQ* = k* ( X ) ( F/L ) [ T 1 ( X ) T 2 ( X ) ]dX, (8)
x = X/L, t k = T k /T '
where
and dimensionless constants
1 1
k* ( X ) = [ 1 + * ( X )/* + w / w + 2 ] .
1
(9) A k = 1 F/ ( G k c k ), P k = k*F/ ( LG k c k ),
In view of Eq. (5), the same flux can be represented as R k = LF k k q k / ( G k c k T ' ),
dQ* = 1 ( F/L ) [ T 1 ( X ) T * ]dX. (10) where
Equating the right-hand sides of Eqs. (8) and (10), we T ' = T '1 T '2 , t* = T */T '.
obtain
Equations (14)(23) will appear as follows:
k* ( X ) [ T 1 ( X ) T 2 ( X ) ] = 1 [ T 1 ( X ) T * ]. (11)
for a cocurrent apparatus,
In view of formula (2),
P k t k t k = A k ( t 1 t* ) R k ,
2
1
dQ* = ------------------- ( F/L ) [ T F ( X ) T 2 ( X ) ]dX. (12)
1 /k 1 t k' t k ( 0 ) = P k t k ( 0 ), t k ( 1 ) = 0;
Equating the right-hand sides of Eqs. (10) and (12), we for a countercurrent apparatus,
arrive at
Pk tk
+ t k = A k ( t 1 t* ) R k ,
2
T F ( X ) = T 2 ( X ) + ( 1 /k 1 ) [ T 1 ( X ) T * ]. (13)
t 1' t 1 ( 0 ) = P 1 t 1 ( 0 ), t 1 ( 1 ) = 0,
The differential heat transfer equations and the rele-
vant boundary conditions for cocurrent and countercur- t '2 t 2 ( 1 ) = P 2 t 2 ( 1 ), t 2 ( 0 ) = 0.
rent apparatuses are derived here as in [1], with allow-
ance made for longitudinal thermogradient heat trans- All these equations are linear and have the following
fer and internal heat sources. For a cocurrent apparatus, analytical solutions (obtained by the operator method
[2]):
F 1 1* T 1 G 1 c 1 T 1 + q 1 1 F 1
2
for a cocurrent apparatus,
(14)
= k* ( F/L ) ( T 1 T 2 ), 2

F 2 * T 2 G 2 c 2 T 2 + q 2 2 F 2
2
t1 ( x ) = D1 + B 1i exp ( s i x ), (24)
2 i=1
(15)
= k* ( F/L ) ( T 2 T 1 ), t 2 ( x ) = t 2' A 2 D 2 P 2 + Cx
G k c k [ T k' T k ( 0 ) ] = F k k*T k ( 0 ), (16) 3
(25)
T k ( L ) = 0; (17)
+ [ t 2 ( 0 ) t '2 + A 2 D 2 P 2 ] exp ( s 3 x ) A 2 B 2i exp ( s i x ),
i=0

THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING Vol. 35 No. 6 2001


STEADY-STATE HEAT TRANSFER 599

where Q* = G 1 c 1 ( T '1 T ''1 ) + q 1 1 F 1 L


(28)
B ki = [ a ki t 1 ( 0 ) + d ki ]/z ki , = G 2 c 2 ( T 2'' T 2' ) q 2 2 F 2 L,
2
a 1i = P 1 s i , d 1i = t '1 s i A 1 D 1 , and the relative value of this flux is
2 q *0 = Q*/ ( kFT ' )
z 1i = 3P 1 s i 2s i A 1 , (29)
= K 1 ( t '1 t ''1 + R 1 ) = K 2 ( t ''2 t '2 R 2 ),
1 1
a 2i = P 1 s i ,
where
d 2i = D 1 [ ( P 1 s i 1 ) ( P 2 s i 1 ) A 1 P 2 ] t 1' ,
K k = kF/ ( G k c k ), T 1'' = T 1 ( L ),
z 2i = 4P 1 P 2 s i 3 ( P 1 + P 2 )s i + 2 ( 1 A 1 P 2 )s i + A 1 ,
3 2

t ''1 = T 1 ( L )/T ' = t 1 ( 1 ).


1 1
s 0 = 0, s 1, 2 = --- P 1 ( 1 1 + 4 A 1 P 1 ), s 3 = P 2 ,
1
For a cocurrent apparatus,
2
C = R 2 + R 1 A 2 / A 1 , D k = t* R k / A k , T 2'' = T 2 ( L ), t 2'' = T 2 ( L )/T ' = t 2 ( 1 ),

2 2
for a countercurrent apparatus,
t1( 0 ) = (d 1i z 1i s i exp s i )/ a T ''2 = T 2 ( 0 ), t ''2 = T 2 ( 0 )/T ' = t 2 ( 0 ).
1 1
1i z 1i s i exp s i ,
i=1 i=1
Thus, the problem is solved.
t 2 ( 0 ) = t '2 A 2 D 2 P 2 Particular cases. Below, we present the solutions
3
for the most important particular cases, namely, the
cases of one or both parameters Pk being zero or infi-
C A2 B 2i s i exp s i / ( s 3 exp s 3 ); nitely large. These cases correspond to ideal flow pat-
i=1 terns, namely, plug flow and perfect mixing [3, 4]. For
an ice-free wall, the solutions of the problem of heat
for a countercurrent apparatus, the function t1(x) is transfer in these cases are given in [1, 5].
given by expression (24) and expression (25) is
replaced with If P2 = 0, the solution for the function t1(x) is given
by formula (24) for both the cocurrent and countercur-
3 rent apparatuses. For the cocurrent apparatus, we have,
t 2 ( x ) = t 2 ( 0 ) Cx + A 2 B 2i exp ( s i x ), (26) instead of (25),
i=0 2

where t 2 ( x ) = t '2 + Cx + A 2 B 2i exp ( s i x ),


i=0
t 2 ( 0 ) = t '2 + C ( 1 A 1 )
1
where
3

+ ( t '1 D 2 ) A 2 / A 1 A 2 B 2i ( P 2 s i + 1 ) exp s i , [ t 1 ( 0 ) D 1 ]P 1 s i + D 1 t '1


B 2i = -------------------------------------------------------------
2
-;
i=1 3P 1 s i 2s i A 1
a 2i = P 1 s i , d 2i = t '1 + D 2 ( P 1 s i 1 ) for a countercurrent apparatus, we obtain, instead of
(26),
C A2 [ ( P1 si 1 ) ( P 2 s i + 1 ) A 1 P 2 ],
1
+
2

z 2i =
3
4P 1 P 2 s i + 3 ( P1 P 2 )s i
2
2 ( 1 + A 1 P 2 )s i A 1 , t 2 ( x ) = t 2 ( 0 ) Cx A 2 B 2i exp ( s i x ),
i=0
1
s3 = P2 .
where
From expressions (2), (9) and (11), we derive the 2
formula t 2 ( 0 ) = t 2' + C + A 2 B 2i exp s i .

* k t 1 ( x ) t 2 ( x ) i=0
* ( x ) = ------ ----- ----------------------------
-1 , (27)
k 1 t 1 ( x ) t* When P1 = P2 = 0, we obtain the following solu-
tions:
which is applicable to both cocurrent and countercur-
for the cocurrent and countercurrent apparatuses,
rent apparatuses.
The total heat flux from heat carrier to the coolant is t 1 ( x ) = D 1 + ( t 1' D 1 ) exp ( A 1 x ), (30)

THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING Vol. 35 No. 6 2001


600 KHARIN et al.

for the cocurrent apparatus, block the channel. Therefore, there exists an optimal
heat transfer, which takes place when condition (6) is
t 2 ( x ) = t 2' + Cx fulfilled and wall icing is minimum. Consequently, it is
(31)
+ A 1 A 2 ( t '1 D 1 ) [ 1 exp ( A 1 x ) ],
1 reasonable to set up an optimization problem, whose
general solution is of particular interest and requires a
for the countercurrent apparatus, special analysis. Here, we consider only particular
cases that are of great importance in practice.
t 2 ( x ) = t 2' C ( 1 x )
(32) By way of example, let us consider the case when
A 1 A 2 ( t '1 D 1 ) [ exp ( A 1 ) exp ( A 1 x ) ].
1
thermogradient heat transfer along the coolant and heat-
carrier flow directions can be ignored (P1 = P2 = 0) and
In the case of P1 , in view of Eq. (29) and the when there are no internal heat sources (R1 = R2 = 0).
relationship K2/K1 = A2/A1, we have In this case, the coefficients in formulas (30)(32) are
t 1 = ( t '1 + A 1 t* + R 1 )/ ( 1 + A 1 ), (33) C = 0 and D1 = t*.
First, we will found out if it is possible to satisfy the
for a cocurrent apparatus, optimum condition
t2( x ) = t2( 1 )
T F = T *, (35)
[ t 2 ( 1 ) t '2 ] { 1 x P 2 [ 1 exp ( ( x 1 )/P 2 ) ] },
which implies the maximum cooling capacity of the
where apparatus and no wall icing (* = 0).
t 2 ( 1 ) = t '2 + R 2 + A 2 ( t '1 t* + R 1 )/ ( 1 + A 1 ); (34) For a cocurrent flow apparatus, in view of formulas
for a countercurrent apparatus, (13), (30), and (31) and condition (35), we obtain
t2( x ) = t2( 0 ) t* t 2' ( t 1' t* ) A 2 / A 1
[ t 2 ( 0 ) t 2' ] { x P 2 [ 1 exp ( x/P 2 ) ] }, = ( t '1 t* ) ( A 2 / A 1 1 /k + 1 ) exp ( A 1 x ).
where t2(0) coincides with t2(1). This equation is satisfied in the case of t 2' = t 1' = t*
In the case of P1 and P2 = 0, t1 is expressed
which is of no interest, or under the conditions
by formula (33); for a cocurrent apparatus,
t 2 ( x ) = t 2' + [ A 2 ( t 1 t* ) + R 2 ]x; t* t 2' ( t 1' t* ) A 2 / A 1 = 0
for a countercurrent apparatus, and
t 2 ( x ) = t '2 + [ A 2 ( t 1 t* ) + R 2 ] ( 1 x ). A 2 / A 1 1 /k + 1 = 0,
Finally, in the case of P1 and P2 the which, in terms of the dimensional parameters, appear
solutions of the problem are identical for countercur- as
rent and cocurrent flows and t1 and t2 are given by for-
mulas (33) and (34), respectively. In this case, the ice T 2' = T * ( T 1' T * ) ( 1 /k 1 ), (36)
layer thickness is constant throughout the heat-transfer
wall and, in view of expression (27), G 2 = G 1 ( c 1 /c 2 )/ ( 1 /k 1 ). (37)
* k t 1 t 2 Relationships (36) and (37) determine the values of
* = ------ ----- -------------- 1 .
k 1 t 1 t* adjustable coolant parameters that correspond to the
regime considered.
The total heat flux is For a countercurrent apparatus, in view of formulas
Q* = 1 F ( T 1 T * ). (13), (30), and (32) and Eq. (35), we obtain
Heat transfer optimization. It is clear from the t* t '2 + ( t '1 t* ) ( A 2 / A 1 ) exp ( A 1 )
above that, if condition (6) is satisfied, the total heat = ( t 1' t* ) ( A 2 / A 1 + 1 /k 1 ) exp ( A 1 x ).
flux across the heat-transfer wall reaches its maximum
Q* and no longer depends on the flow direction or other This equality is not satisfied under any real conditions
parameters of the coolant. That is, neither reducing the except t 2' = t 1' = t*. Consequently, condition (35) can
inlet coolant temperature T '2 nor raising the coolant not be satisfied in a countercurrent apparatus. There-
flow rate G2 increases Q* or reduces the onlet heat-car- fore, we have to find the minimum icing conditions for
rier temperature. They only thicken the ice layer on the the heat-transfer wall. After combining expressions
wall. The decrease of T '2 and the growth of G2 under (13), (30) and (32), we find the derivative
these conditions obviously reduce the energy efficiency t F ( x ) = t 2 ( x ) + ( 1 /k 1 )t 1 ( x )
of the apparatus. Excessive thickening of the ice layer
may obstruct the heat-carrier flow or even completely = ( t 1' t* ) [ A 2 + A 1 ( 1 /k 1 ) ] exp ( A 1 x ).

THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING Vol. 35 No. 6 2001


STEADY-STATE HEAT TRANSFER 601

Taking into consideration that by definition A1 > 0 and ing to reference data [6] for these temperatures, 1 =
A2 > 0 and 1/k > 1, we find that tF < 0. Consequently, 1000 kg/m3, c1 = 4224 J/(kg K), 1 = 0.563 W/(m K),
if condition (6) is satisfied, the minimum icing is 1 = 1.54 106 m2/s, 2 = 1185 kg/m3, c2 = 3330 J/(kg K),
observed at 2 = 0.506 W/(m K), and 2 = 3.86 106 m2/s.
T F ( 0 ) = T *. (38) In this case, there is no internal heat source, so q1 =
0, q2 = 0, R1 = 0, and R2 = 0. Heat exchange with the
From expressions (13), (30), (32), and (38), we obtain
the formula environment can be neglected. We specify the heat-car-
rier mass flow rate, G1 = U11 = 2 kg/s, and, using
T 2' = T 1' Eq. (28), calculate the cooling capacity of the appara-
(39) tus:
( T '1 T * ) { 1 /k + ( A 2 / A 1 ) [ 1 exp ( A 1 ) ] },
Q* = G 1 c 1 ( T '1 T ''1 ) = 76032 W.
which relates the optimal inlet coolant temperature to
the coolant flow rate and other process parameters. According to [7], the optimal flow velocity of low-
viscosity liquids in heat-exchanger channels fall
' , which are
It is interesting to compare T '2I with T 2II within the range of 1 to 3 m/s. We choose the value of
given by formulas (36) and (39) for cocurrent and coun- u1 = 1.6 m/s from this range to calculate the internal
tercurrent flows, respectively. The difference between diameter of the tube:
these values is
d 1 = 2 U 1 / ( u 1 ) = 0.04 m.
T '2I T '2II = ( T '1 T * ) [ 1 exp ( A 1 ) ] A 2 / A 1 . (40)
The Reynolds and Prandtl numbers are
Since T 1' > T* and 1 exp(A1) > 0, it follows from
Re 1 = u 1 d 1 / 1 = 41449, Pr 1 = 1 1 c 1 / 1 = 11.55.
' > T 2II
(40) that T 2I ' .
Using the dimensionless equation [8]
From our analysis, it is evident that, to ensure the
maximum cooling capacity that is equal to that of the 0.8 0.43
Nu = 0.021Re Pr , (42)
cocurrent apparatus, the countercurrent apparatus
needs to be operated at a lower coolant temperature we calculate the Nusselt number and the heat transfer
(under equal conditions). Furthermore, it is prone to coefficient:
icing. Therefore, under the conditions considered,
1 = 4195.7 W/ ( m K ).
2
cocurrent heat exchangers are more advantageous than Nu 1 = 297.3,
countercurrent ones. Since the value of T '2 is specified, we find, from for-
In the case of perfect mixing in the coolant and heat- mula (36), the value of k for optimal heat transfer:
carrier flows (P1 , P2 ), in view of formulas
(13), (33), and (34) and Eq. (35) for the optimal regime, k = 1 / [ 1 + ( T * T '2 )/ ( T '1 T * ) ]
we obtain
= 1613.7 W/ ( m K ).
2

t '2 = t* R 2 By formula (37), we find the corresponding coolant


(41)
( t '1 t* + R 1 ) ( A 2 + 1 /k 1 )/ ( 1 + A 1 ). flow rate G2 = 1.586 kg/s and the volumetric flow rate
U2 = G2/2 = 1.338 103 m3/s.
If the coolant flow parameters are chosen according to
Eq. (41), the heat-transfer wall will not ice. Let the internal tube of the heat exchanger have a
wall thickness of w = 2.5 103 m and be made of cop-
Example. Let us calculate the basic parameters of a
cocurrent tube-in-tube heat exchanger for cooling water per. According to [7], the heat conductivity of copper is
from the inlet temperature T '1 = 10C to the outlet tem- w = 384 W/(m K). From formula (2), we find
perature T 1'' = 1C with the capacity U1 = 7.2 m3/h = 2 2 = ( k 1 w / w )
1 1 1
= 2667.8 W/ ( m K ).
2

103 m3/s. A 22.4 wt % aqueous solution of sodium chlo-


ride with the inlet temperature of T '2 = 16C is used as Now we determine the internal diameter d2 of the
a cooling agent. Water flows in the internal tube, and the external tube. To do this, we rewrite Eq. (42) as
sodium chloride solution flows in the intertubular chan- 2 d eq / 2 = 0.021 ( u 2 d eq / 2 ) Pr 2 ,
0.8 0.43
(43)
nel.
It is required to determine the coolant flow rate U2 where deq = 4F2/ is the equivalent channel diameter
and the basic design parameters of the heat exchanger [8]. F2 and are the cross-sectional area and the wetted
that will ensure its optimal operation. channel perimeter, respectively. For an annular cross
To specify the thermophysical characteristics of section,
the coolant and heat carrier, we take T 1 = 5C and 2
F 2 = --- [ d 2 ( d 1 + 2 w ) ], = ( d 2 + d 1 + 2 w ) . (44)
2

T 2 = 10C as the average temperature values. Accord- 4

THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING Vol. 35 No. 6 2001


602 KHARIN et al.

(a) (b) According to Eq. (43), F2 = 1.122 103 m2 and u2 =


T1, T2, C T1, T2, C U2/F2 = 1.19 m/s. The u2 value falls within the recom-
10 10 mended velocity range [7].
1, 1'
1 The functions T1(x), T2(x), TF(x), and *(x) calcu-
3 lated by formulas (30), (31), (13), and (27), are pre-
0 0
x 1 x 1 sented in Fig. 2a to show that, throughout the range
3' 0 x 1, TF = T* and * = 0. These functions are also
3
10 10 plotted for T 2' = 30C and the same values of the other
2
parameters. In this case, TF < T* and condition (6) is
thus satisfied; therefore the function T1(x) and the heat
20 20 flux Q* remain the same. However, wall icing occurs and
2' 2
the ice layer reaches 7.5 mm in thickness at the channel
outlet (in our calculations, we take * = 2.25 W/(m K)
30 30 according to [9]).
For comparison, we plot, in Fig. 2b, the calculated
*, mm (c) *, mm (d) curves for the countercurrent apparatus, that corre-
20 20 spond to the same parameters except T '2 , which is cal-
4'
culated by formula (39) ( T '2 = 30.4C). These condi-
4
4 tions ensure the same maximum heat flux Q* as in the
0 x 1 0 x 1 cocurrent apparatus and minimum wall icing. However,
the ice layer at the outlet of the heat-carrier channel is
Fig. 2. Longitudinal distribution of the temperatures (1, 1')
15.5-mm-thick and almost completely blocks the chan-
T1(x), (2, 2') T2(x), and (3, 3') TF(x) and (4, 4') the ice layer nel. The above calculations prove the inference that,
thickness *(x) in (a, c) a cocurrent and (b, d) countercur- under the conditions examined, cocurrent heat exchang-
rent apparatus: (14) the optimal heat transfer mode and ers are more efficient than countercurrent ones.
(1'4') a nonoptimal heat-transfer mode in the cocurrent
apparatus.
NOTATION
ckspecific heat at a constant pressure, J/(kg K);
Consequently, deq = d2 d1 2w. In view of u2 = U2/F2, d1, d2internal diameters of the tubes of the tube-
Eq. (43) appears as in-tube heat exchanger, m;
deqequivalent diameter of the channel, m;
d 2 /d 1 = a + b ( a + d 2 /d 1 )
0.8
, (45)
F, F*heat-transfer surface area and the external
where surface area of the ice layer, respectively, m2;
a = 1 + 2 w /d 1 , Fkcross-sectional area of the channel, m2;
2 4U 2 0.8 0.43 Gkflow rate of the heat carrier or coolant, kg/s;
b = 0.021 ----------
- -------------- Pr 2 .
2 d 1 d 1 2 k, k*(X)coefficient of heat transfer across the ice-
free and the iced wall, respectively, W/(m2 K);
Next, we find Pr2 = 22c2/2 = 30.1. The other values Lheat-transfer length, m;
in the formulas for a and b are already known. We Q, Q*total heat flow across the ice-free and the
obtain a = 1.125, b = 0.7417. Equation (45) is easily iced wall, respectively (cooling capacity of the appara-
solved for d2/d1 by a numerical method. We find d2/d1 = tus), W;
1.471 and, therefore, d2 = 1.471d1 = 0.059 m. qkspecific internal flux of the liberated (absorbed)
Now we have to determine the heat-transfer surface heat, W/kg;
area F and the corresponding length L. For x = 1, we Tk(X)heat-carrier (coolant) temperature averaged
derive, from Eq. (30),
over the channel cross section, ;
T ''1 = T * + ( T '1 T * ) exp ( A 1 ), T 'k , T ''k heat-carrier (coolant) temperature at the
from where, apparatus inlet and outlet, respectively, ;
T*heat-carrier freezing temperature, ;
A 1 = ln [ ( T 1' T * )/ ( T 1'' T * ) ] = 2.3026.
TF(X)heat-transfer wall temperature, ;
Next, we find F = A1G1c1/1 = 4.636 m2 and L = TF*temperature of the ice surface on the heat-car-
F/(d1) = 37 m. rier side, ;

THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING Vol. 35 No. 6 2001


STEADY-STATE HEAT TRANSFER 603

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Promst., 2001.
ukheat-carrier (coolant) velocity in the apparatus
2. Korn, G. and Korn, T., Mathematical Handbook for Sci-
channel, m/s; entists and Engineers, New York: McGrawHill, 1961.
Xcurrent coordinate counted from the mouth of 3. Kafarov, V.V., Metody kibernetiki v khimii i khimicheskoi
the heat-carrier pipe, m; tekhnologii (Methods of Cybernetics in Chemistry and
kheat transfer coefficient, W/(m2 K); Chemical Engineering), Moscow: Khimiya, 1976.
w, *(X)wall and ice thicknesses, respectively, 4. Zakgeim, A.Yu., Vvedenie v modelirovanie khimiko-
tekhnologicheskikh protsessov (Introduction to the Mod-
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THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING Vol. 35 No. 6 2001

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