(Power Plant Engineering)

.


ii

.. 2558


(Power Plant Engineering)
E-book 4 e-mail

e-mail

2558
(1)
(2) (3) 13
13 4
4

e-mail: somchart@engr.tu.ac.th
2558

iii
iv


1 1
1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2 9
2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

3 27
3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

4 41
4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

5 67
5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

v
vi

5.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
6 95
6.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
6.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
6.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
6.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
6.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
6.10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
6.11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
7 121
7.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
7.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
7.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
7.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
7.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
7.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
7.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
7.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
7.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
7.10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

8 151
8.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
8.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
8.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
8.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
8.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
9 167
9.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
9.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
 vii

9.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
9.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
9.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
9.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
9.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

10 195
10.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
10.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
10.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
10.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

11 221
11.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
11.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
11.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
11.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
11.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
11.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

12 237
12.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
12.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
12.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
12.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
12.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
12.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
12.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
12.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
12.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
12.10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
12.11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
12.12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256

13 261
13.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
13.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
13.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
13.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
viii

13.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
13.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
 1

1.1



1.1
.. 2555 2557

(power generation system)



(power transmission system)


(substation)



2 1.

1.1: .. 2548
(W/)
1683
1114
804
774
622
581
458
377
286
225
147
131
75
52
39
28

69 kW 115 kW 230 kW 500 kW

(power distribution system)



11 kW 12 kW 22 kW 24 kW 33 kW

380/220 V
3
(1) (.)

(2) (.)
.
1.2. 3

(3) (.)
. .
.

1.2



(thermal power plant)



(gas turbine power plant)


(combined-cycle power plant)



(nuclear power plant)



(hydroelectric power plant)



(diesel power plant)


(renewable energy)

4 1.

1.3
MW
MW 1.2 ..
2558

1.2: .. 2558
(MW) (%)
23313 53.5
8176 18.7
3406 7.8
8741 20.0

(1) . (2)
(independent power producer) IPP (3) (small power producer)
SPP
.
.
IPP
SPP
IPP . .
IPP (1)
(2)
. (3) .
(4)
SPP .
90 MW SPP

1.4. 5

(cogeneration)

10%
45%
1.3 ..
2557 IPP

1.3: .. 2557
(MW) (%)
. 15482 45
13167 38
3615 10
() 2404 7

1.4

6 1.

(environmetal impact assessment EIA)

(.)
EIA
1. 100 MW
2. 150 MW
3. 3000 MW
4.



EIA .
EIA
EIA

1.4. 7

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9. (IPP) (SPP)
10. EIA
8 1.
 2

2.1

(discount
rate) (future value)
(present value)
P V = fP V F V (2.1)
P V , F V n
1
fP V =
(1 + i)n
(2.2)

(present worth factor) i fP V

1 3
1.1

P V = 1000000 F V = 1100000
PV
fP V =
FV
= 0.909
1
=
(1 + i)3
10 2.

i = 0.0323

(series payment)
(2.1) (2.2)

500000 600000 5%
700000 4.5%

P V = P V0 + P V1 + P V2
P V0 = 500000
600000
P V1 =
(1 + 0.05)
= 471729
700000
P V2 =
(1 + 0.045)2
= 641011
= P V = 1612740

n


F Vk k
F Vk+1 = (1 + r)F Vk

100r (r > 0) (r < 0)

[ ( ) ]
F V1 1+r n
PV =
ir
1
1+i
(2.3)

r = i (2.3) P V
nF V1
PV =
1+i
(2.4)
2.1. 11

1000000
5% 5
7%

F V1 = 1000000 , r = 0.05 i = 0.07
[ ( ) ]
1000000 1.05 5
PV = 1
0.07 0.05 1.07
= 4501444

(optimization
process)
(levelized value)

(annual value)

n
(fP V 1 , fP V 2 , ..., fP V n ) (2.2)
(P V1 , P V2 , ..., P Vn ) (2.1) AV
P V1 + P V2 + + P Vn
AV =
fP V 1 + fP V 2 + + fP V n
(2.5)

50 /GJ 2-5
5% 5
4.5%

(2.1)
12 2.

FV fP V i P Vi
1 50.00 0.9569 47.85
2 52.50 0.9157 48.07
3 55.13 0.8763 48.31
4 57.88 0.8386 48.54
5 60.78 0.8025 48.78
P Vi fP V i (i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5) (2.5)
47.85 + 48.07 + 48.31 + 48.54 + 48.78
AV =
0.9569 + 0.9157 + 0.8763 + 0.8386 + 0.8025
= 55.02 /GJ

(net present value) (internal
rate of return)

1500
150 20
8%

1500 (P Vout )
1500 20 (P Vin )
(2.3) r = 0
[ ( ) ]
150 1 + 0 20
P Vin = 1
i0 1+i

i P Vin = P Vout = 1500

[ ( )20 ]
1 1
1 = 10
i 1+i
= i = 0.078

i = 0.08 1500

2.2. 13

2.2

(load curve)
2.1

2.1
(load) 2.1
(load curve) 1
1 1

2.1: 12

14 2.

(peak load)
(load factor)
2.2




(blackout)


15-20%

2.2:

2.1 93 MW 7
2.1

.. 2548-2557

kW kW.h 1
(average load)
(Pave ) (Pmax ) (LF)
Pave
LF =
Pmax
(2.6)
2.2. 15

2.1: .. 2548-2557
.. (MW) (MW)
2548 20538 26450
2549 21064 27106
2550 22586 28530
2551 22568 29892
2552 22045 29212
2553 24010 30920
2554 23900 31447
2555 26121 32600
2556 26598 33681
2557 26942 34668

2.1
2.1

2.1
(rated capacity)
(capacity factor)
Pave
CF =
Prated
(2.7)
Pave (2.7)
Prated Pmax (2.6)

Pave (2.6)
(2.7)
LF.Pmax
CF =
P
(2.8)
rated

16 2.

(h) 0-6 6-10 10-12 12-16 16-20 20-22 22-24

(MW) 30 70 90 60 100 80 60

.
.
100 MW
.
70 MW 70 MW 24
30 MW 70 MW

2.3
30 6 + 70 4 + 90 2 + 60 4 + 100 4 + 80 2 + 60 2
Pave =
24
= 65 MW
65
LF = 100 = 0.65

2.3:

CF = LF Pave
Prated = Pmax = 100 MW

2.3
2.3. 17

30 6 + 70 6 + 60 4 + 70 6 + 60 2
Pave,1 =
24
= 57.5 MW
57.5
CF1 = = 0.82
70

70 MW 24 h

20 2 + 30 4 + 10 2
Pave,2 =
24
= 7.5 MW
7.5
CF2 = = 0.25
30

2.3


(variable cost) (xed cost)



2.4

(fuel cost) (operation and maintenance cost)
(construction cost)

2.3.1



18 2.

2.4:

(cf ) (Cf )
(E ) E kJ cf (kW.h) cf
3600Cf
cf =
E
(2.9)

E = .Q (2.10)
Q
(HHV) kJ/kg (mf ) /kg
Q = mf .HHV (2.11)
(Ff )
Cf = mf .Ff (2.12)
E Cf (2.9)
3600Ff
cf =
.HHV
(2.13)

4 -
1000, 1500, 1300 1100
4 20, 22, 18 15 MJ/kg

2.3. 19

(2.12) cf
Ff /HHV Ff /HHV 4
Ff (/kg) HHV (MJ/kg) Ff /HHV (/MJ)
1.0 20 0.050
1.5 22 0.068
1.3 18 0.072
1.1 15 0.073

800 MW 38%
82% 20000 kJ/kg 0.5

Ff (2.13)

cf ..HHV
Ff =
3600
0.5 0.38 20000
=
3600
= 1.06 /kg

2.3.2

Com
com =
E
(2.14)
20 2.

Com E
8760

E = 8760Pave (2.15)
Pave (2.7)
(2.14)
Com
com =
8760.CF.Prated
(2.16)

600 MW 500
35%

500 106
com =
8760 0.35 600 103
= 0.27 /kW.h

2.3.3


(depreciation)


30-40
(salvage value)
(A) (G) (D)
N

(staight-line method)
AG
D=
N
(2.17)


2.3. 21

(sinking-fund method)
(A G)i
D=
(1 + i)N 1
(2.18)

i


(xed-charge rate)
Cc I

ICc
cc =
8760.CF.Prated
(2.19)

Cc = Fc Prated (2.20)
Fc Fc

65 15

5% 5

A = 65 G = 5 N = 15
65 5
D=
15
= 4

150 MW
20000 /kW 10%
120 MW 50%
22 2.

20000 150 103 = 3000 I = 0.1 (2.8)

0.5 120
CF =
150
= 0.4

0.1 3000 106

cc =
8760 0.4 150 103
= 0.57 /kW.h

2.3.4

2.5 1
1
2
2
3
3
1 ()
2 (
) 3
()
2.1 %
(load distribution curve)
2.6
(base load) (intermediate load)
(peak load)
2.6
1
2.5 1
2
3
1, 2 3

2.3. 23

2.5:

2.6:

24 2.

2.3.5

(http://www.mea.or.th)
(http://www.pea.or.th)

(1) (2) (3)

(4) (5) () (6)
(7)



(energy charge)
(kW.h) (demand charge)
15

(supply and demand)
(peak period)
(off-peak period) 9.00-22.00 .

2.3. 25

(time of use TOU)


26 2.

1. 3
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

8. TOU
9. 50 /GJ 5%
2 5 5% 5
10. 6000 500
30
(internal return rate)
11. 800 MW
(peak load) 750 MW 8760
5 (capacity factor)
12. 42% 22000 kJ/kg
1500
13. 0.31
700 MW 8600 45%

14. 800 20

4% (salvage value) 60
(sinking-fund method)
15. 450 MW 18000 /kW
24 365 9%
37%
 3

3.1



(coal)
(biomass)

3.1.1



4 (Anthracite)
(Bituminous) (Sub-bituminous) (Lignite)

(proximate analysis) (ultimate analysis)
4
(moisture) (volatile matter) (ash) (free carbon)
3.1
28 3.

(mi )
(mM )
(coke)
(mV M )
mA (mF C )


mF C m m m
xF C =
mi
; xV M = V M ; xM = M ; xA = A
mi mi mi
(3.1)

50%
(bound water)
(free water)



(uniform burning)
(tempering process)
3.1
954 C
CH4 CO2

3.1:
3.1. 29

(spontaneous combustion)

Al2 O3 , Fe2 O3 , CaO, P2 O5
(ash fusion temperature)
(slag)

3.1 4

3.1:
(%) (%) (%) (%)
4.3 9.6 5.1 81.0
8.5 10.8 36.4 44.3
22.2 4.3 33.2 40.3
36.8 5.9 27.8 29.5

(C) (H) (O) -

(N) (S)

(dry ash-free coal)

m = mF C + mV M (3.2)
30 3.

5
mC m m m m
xC =
m
; xH = H ; xO = O ; xN = N ; xS = S
m m m m
(3.3)

5 1
(3.1) mi
(as-received coal) mi m

mi m = mM + mA (3.4)

m = mi (1 xM xA ) (3.5)
C, H, O, N, S (3.3)
(3.1) C, H, O, N, S

xC,ar = xC (1 xM xA ) (3.6)

mC
xC,ar =
mi
(3.7)
xH,ar , xO,ar , xN,ar xS,ar
C 39.58%, H 2.57%, O 9.70%, N
0.67%, S 0.49%, 33.54% 13.46% C, H, O, N, S

xH,ar , xO,ar , xN,ar xS,ar (3.6)

xC,ar
xC =
(1 xM xA )
0.3958
=
(1 0.3354 0.1346)
= 0.7468

xH = 0.0485, xO = 0.1830, xN = 0.0126 xS = 0.0092

3.1. 31

(calorimeter)







(grindability)

(Hardgrove machine)
(Hardgrove index)





(abrasivity)
(carbon steel)




(swelling index)

(stationary grate)
32 3.

800 C
1 9

0

3.1.2

3.2 (
)

3.2:

(%) (%) (%) (%) (kJ/kg)
12.00 12.65 56.46 18.88 14,755
10.00 10.39 60.70 18.90 13,650
50.73 1.43 41.98 5.86 9,243
40.00 0.90 45.42 13.68 11,298
59.40 1.50 31.00 8.10 7,451

3.2. 33

3.2

C 84-89%, H 12-14%, O 2-3% N 0-1%
S 0-3%
(fractional distillation process)

(liquidied petroleum
gas LPG) (gasoline) (kerosene) (diesel)
(fuel oil)

3.2.1

40705 45520
kJ/kg 1, 2, 4,
5 6 ( 3 )

3.2.2

80% 20%

(emulsied diesel)

34 3.

3.2.3

(specic gravity)

15.6 C
s=
15.6 C
API (American Petroleum Insti-
tute) API s API
141.5
s=
131.5 + API

(viscosity)

ASTM Standard D445 (centis-
toke)
(viscometer)




(pour point)




3.3. 35

(ash point)


4-5 C

6
1% 3-4% 2%
SO3




(steam coil)

(1)
(2) (3)

3.3




(natural gas) (synthetic gas) (biogas)

3.3.1

(CH4 )
CO2
36 3.

(H2 S)

CO2

-



(methyl alcohol)

(ethyl alcohol)
(propylene)
(polypropylene)

(liqueed petroleum gas LPG)
LPG
LPG

(natural gasoline NGL) -
5 NGL
NGL



100%

(ideal gas)

Mi V
yi = = i
M V

Mi Vi i M V

3.3. 37

MBtu (1 Btu = 1.055 kJ)

3.3.2

(coal gasication) (coke-oven gas) (pro-
ducer gas) (water gas) (synthetic natural gas SNG)

(coke)
+ + +
H2 CH4
(exothermic)

+ CO + N2 +
CO N2 CO

CO H2
(endothermic)
+ + CO + H2

SNG N2 CO

CO + H2 O CO2 + H2
SNG SNG H2
CO CH4
CO + 3H2 CH4 + H2 O
(catalyst)

(blast-furnace gas) CO2
(sewer gas) CH4
38 3.

3.3.3
(biogas) (anaerobic diges-
tion) 5 C, H,
O, N S
Ca Hb Oc Ne Se
( )
b c 3d e
Ca Hb Oc Nd Se + a 4 2 + 4 + 2 H2 O
( ) ( )
a b c 3d e a b c 3d e
+
2 8 2 8

4
CH4 + 2 8 + 4 + 8 + 4 CO2
+ dNH3 + eH2 S

CO2 , NH3 H2 S

BOD (biochemical
oxygen demand) COD (chemical oxygen demand) BOD
80% COD BOD COD

3.4
7



(proven reserve) (probable
reserve) (possible reserve)
3.3
(
)




3.4. 39

3.3:
()
P1 P1+P2 P1+P2+P3 P1 P1+P2 P1+P2+P3
223 553 741 4 11 15
()
LPG 182 411 476 5 12 14
()
7752 15560 18885 6 13 16
()
1181 2007 2007 18 65 111
()

P1
P2
P3

3.4
20

3.4: .. 2549 2529

.. 2549 .. 2529
5.6% 21.8%
5.5% 13.1%
17.2% 21.8%
66.5% 40.3%
5.2% 3.0%

70%

40 3.

1.
2. 4
3.
4.
5.
6. (coke)
7. (ultimate analysis)
8.
9.
10. (water gas)
11. (biogas)
12.
13.
14.

15. (proximate analysis) 15%
5% (dry, ash-free basis)
(ultimate analysis) H 3% H
(as-received coal)
 4

4.1

(ue gas)

3


C + O2 CO2 (4.1)
H2 + 12 O2 H2 O (4.2)
S + O2 SO2 (4.3)

(CH4 )

CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2 O (4.4)

(4.1) - (4.4)
(reactant)
(product)
(ignition temperature)

O2
N2 , O2 , Ar CO2
42 4.

28.0134, 31.9988, 39.9480 44.0095 4.2

28.97
(theoretical air)
N2 79% O2 21% 28.84 4.76
N2 3.76 O2 1 N2 O2 0.767
0.233

4.1:
(%)

N2 78.084 79
O2 20.946 21
Ar 0.934 0
CO2 0.036 0

(complete combustion)
(stoichiometric combustion)
C, H, S CO
(incomplete combustion)
O2 O2
(stoichiometric air) (theoreti-
cal air) H2 O, CO2 N2
O2
(Cm Hn )
Cm Hn + (m + n4 )(O2 + 3.76N2 ) mCO2 + n2 H2 O + 3.76(m + n4 )N2 (4.5)

CO CO
CO + 12 (O2 + 3.76N2 ) CO2 + 1.88N2 (4.6)

CO

CO
4.2. 43

4 (1) (2)
(3) (4)

(excess air)

4.2

(theoret-
ical air-fuel ratio) AF RT
AF RT kgair /kgfuel
molair /molfuel
= 28.84
Mf uel
(4.7)

28.84 Mf uel
C, H S (4.1)-(4.3)
O N
Ca Hb Sc Od Ne
C
( )
b d
Ca Hb Sc Od Ne +
a+ +c
4 2
(O2 + 3.76N2 )
[ ( ) ]
b b d e
aCO2 + H2 O + cSO2 + 3.76 a + + c + N2 (4.8)
2 4 2 2

(4.8)
( )
b d
AF RT = 4.76 a + + c
4 2
molair /molfuel (4.9)

4.2 AF RT (4.9)
N, O2 CO2 AF RT
AF RT
k y1 , y2 , ..., yk
AF RT AF RT,1 , AF RT,2 , ..., AF RT,k AF RT

AF RT = y1 AF RT,1 + y2 AF RT,2 + ... + yk AF RT,k (4.10)

44 4.

4.2: AF RT
AF RT (molair /molfuel )
C 4.76
H 1.19
S 4.76
CH4 9.52
C2 H6 16.66
C3 H8 23.8
CO 2.38

AF RT C3 H8 40% C4 H10 60%

C3 H8 1 C4 H10 2 y1
= 0.4, y2 = 0.6, AF RT,1 = 23.8, AF RT,2 = 30.94
AF RT = 0.4 23.8 + 0.6 30.94
= 28.1 molair /molfuel

AF RT CH4 70%, C2 H6 10%,

C3 H8 10% CO2 10%

CH4 , C2 H6 , C3 H8 CO2 1, 2, 3 4
y1 = 0.7, y2 = 0.1, y3 =
0.1, y4 = 0.1, AF RT,1 = 9.52, AF RT,2 = 16.66, AF RT,3 = 23.8, AF RT,4 = 0
AF RT = 0.7 9.52 + 0.1 16.66 + 0.1 23.8 + 0.1 0
= 10.7 molair /molfuel

AF RT
(4.9)
(4.7)
( )
28.84 4.76 b d
AF RT =
Mf uel
a+ +c
4 2
kgair /kgfuel (4.11)
4.2. 45

Ca Hb Sc Od Ne
Mf uel = 12a + b + 32c + 16d + 14e (4.12)
C, H, S O
12a
xC =
Mf uel
(4.13)
b
xH =
Mf uel
(4.14)
32c
xS =
Mf uel
(4.15)
16d
xO =
Mf uel
(4.16)

xC , xH , xS xO a, b, c d (4.11)
AF RT = 11.44xC + 34.32xH + 4.29xS 4.29xO kgair /kgfuel (4.17)
xM
xA
AF RT = (11.44xC + 34.32xH + 4.29xS 4.29xO )(1 xM xA ) (4.18)
xC , xH , xS xO
(3.6) (4.18)
AF RT = 11.44xC,ar + 34.32xH,ar + 4.29xS,ar 4.29xO,ar (4.19)
xC,ar , xH.ar , xS,ar xO,ar

4% 5%
C 83.1%, H 5.5%, O
7.4%, N 2.1% S 1.9% AF RT

(4.18) AF RT
AF RT = (11.44 0.831 + 34.32 0.055 + 4.29 0.019 4.29 0.074)
(1 0.04 0.05)
= 10.2 kgair /kgfuel
46 4.

4.3

(formation enthalpy)

(adiabatic ame
temperature)



(heating value)

1 kg 1 m3 (bomb
calorimeter)
(higher heating value)
(lower heating value)

4.3 C

4.3: C H S
HHV (kJ/kg)
C C + O2 CO2 33700
H H + 0.25O2 0.5H2 O 144200
S S + O2 SO2 9300

S 4.3 H
1 kg O 8 kg

( x )
HHV = 33700xC + 144200 xH O + 9300xS
8
(4.20)
(Dulongs formula) (4.20)

( x )
HHV = (33700xC + 144200 xH O + 9300xS )(1 xM xA )
8
(4.21)
4.3. 47

( xO,ar )
HHV = 33700xC,ar + 144200 xH,ar
8
+ 9300xS,ar (4.22)

4.3 C S H
9 kg 1 kg H

9

25 C 2442 kJ/kg
LHV = HHV 2442(9xH,ar + xM ) (4.23)

Cm Hn Cm Hn , CO H2
4.4

4.4:
HHV (kJ/m3 ) HHV (kJ/kg)
CH4 CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2 O 39700 55600
C2 H6 C2 H6 + 72 O2 2CO2 + 3H2 O 69600 52000
C3 H8 C3 H8 + 5O2 3CO2 + 4H2 O 99100 50500
H2 H2 + 2 O2 H2 O
1 12700 142200
CO CO + 12 O2 CO2 12600 10100

k y1 , y2 , ..., yk
HHV1 , HHV2 , ..., HHVk

HHV = y1 HHV1 + y2 HHV2 + ... + yk HHVk (4.24)

k x1 , x2 , ..., xk
HHV1 , HHV2 , ..., HHVk

HHV = x1 HHV1 + x2 HHV2 + ... + xk HHVk (4.25)

48 4.

4.4
CO Vi i 1
m3 1 m3 k

V = y1 V1 + y2 V2 + ... + yk Vk (4.26)

25 C 1962 kJ/m3

LHV = HHV 1962V (4.27)

(4.20) xM = 0

C 70%, H 5%, O 4%, S 1%, 10% 10%

4 100%
xC,ar
= 0.70, xH,ar = 0.05, xO,ar = 0.04, xS,ar = 0.01, xM = 0.10 xA = 0.10
(4.22)
HHV = 33700(0.7) + 144200(0.05 0.04/8) + 9300(0.01)
= 30172 kJ/kg

(4.23)
LHV = 30172 2440(9 0.05 + 0.1)
= 28828 kJ/kg

CH4 80%, H2 15% CO 5%

(4.24) 4.4
HHV = 39700(0.8) + 12700(0.15) + 12600(0.05)
4.4. 49

= 34295 kJ/m3

1 m3 (4.26) 4.4
V = 2 0.8 + 1 0.15
= 1.75 m3

(4.27)
LHV = 34295 1960 1.75
= 30865 kJ/m3

4.4

2



(Orsat apparatus)
CO2 , CO O2
(CO2 , CO, O2 N2 )
N2
yN2 = 1 yCO2 yCO yO2 (4.28)

(AF RA )

4.4.1
AF RA
AF RA

AF RA =

(
)
=
1 N 2
0.767
50 4.
( )
=
1 N2 N2
0.767
(
)
1 28( N2 )
= xN,ar (4.29)
0.767
xN N C CO CO2
xcb C 1 kg
CO CO2
xcb =

12()(yCO + yCO2 )
=

12(yCO + yCO2 )()
= = (4.30)
xcb

xcb C (4.30)
(4.29)
( )
1 28xcb yN2
AF RA =
0.767 12(yCO + yCO2 )
xN,ar (4.31)

xcb

xcb
(xA )
(refuse)
(xcr ) xcb
= 1 x
cr

= x
A

= xA
(1 xcr ) ( )
=

xcr xA
=
1 xcr

xcb =


4.4. 51

xcr xA
xcb = xC,ar
1 xcr
(4.32)

C 36%, H 3%, O 8%, S 0.64%,

N 0.84%, 36% 15.52%
CO2 18.57%, O2 5.84%, SO2 0.13% CO 0.66%
7.18%

yN2 = 1 yCO2 yO2 ySO2 yCO
= 0.748
0.0718 0.1552
xcb = 0.36
1 0.0718
= 0.348
( )
1 28 0.348 0.748
AF RA = 0.0084
0.767 12(0.0066 + 0.1857)
= 4.11 kgair /kgfuel

4.4.2

Ca Hb Sc Od (4.8)
( )
b d
Ca Hb Sc Od +
a+ +c
4 2
(O2 + 3.76N2 )
( )
b b d
aCO2 + H2 O + cSO2 + 3.76 a + + c N2 (4.33)
2 4 2

O2
CO
( )
b d
Ca Hb Sc Od + a + 4 + c 2 (O2 + 3.76N2 ) (a )CO2 + CO +
[ ( ) ]
b b d
2
H2 O + cSO2 + ( 1) a + 4 + c 2 + 2 O2 +
52 4.
( )
b d
3.76 a + + c
4 2
N2 (4.34)
(air ratio) AF RA AF RT
O2 , CO N2 (4.29)
( 1)(a + b/4 + c d/2) + /2
yO2 =
Ntotal
(4.35)

yCO =
Ntotal
(4.36)
3.76(a + b/4 + c d/2)
yN2 =
Ntotal
(4.37)
Ntotal (4.30) (4.31)
1 ( 1)(a + b/4 + c d/2)
yO2 yCO =
2 Ntotal
(4.38)
(4.32) (4.33)
yN2 3.76
=
yO2 0.5yCO ( 1)

yN2
=
yN2 3.76(yO2 0.5yCO )
(4.39)
AF RA
AF RA = AF RT (4.40)

C3 H8 CO2 , O2
CO 11.5%, 2.7% 0.7%

AF RT C3 H8 23.8 / (4.31)
N2
yN2 = 1 yCO2 yO2 yCO
= 0.851

N (e = 0)
0.851/(0.027 007/2)
=
0.851/(0.027 007/2) 3.76
= 1.116
= AF RA = 1.116 23.8 = 26.56 molair /molfuel
4.5. 53

4.5


(lean mixture) (rich mix-
ture)

20% 20%
(e)
( )
AF RA AF RT
e=
AF RT
100 (4.41)

N2 O2

(burner)
15-30% 5-10%
3-15%

O2 CO2
Cm Hn O2
( n) [ ( n )]
Cm Hn + m+
4
(O2 + 3.76N2 ) mCO2 + ( 1) m +
4 )
O2
n ( n
+ H2 O + 3.76 m + N2 (4.42)
2 4

O2 , CO2
[( 1)(m + n/4)
yO2 =
4.76(m + n/4) n/4
m
yCO2 =
4.76(m + n/4) n/4
e = 100( 1)

yO2 yCO2 e
0.01e
yO2 =
4.76(1 + 0.01e) n/(4m + n)
54 4.
4m/(4m + n)
yCO2 =
4.76(1 + 0.01e) n/(4m + n)

4.1 yO2 yCO2 e Cm Hn m

n yO2
yCO2 CO2
CO2

4.1: yO2 yCO2 e

O2 CO2 O2

O2

CO2
CO2 O2 CO2
O2
CO2 O2 CO2

4.2 CO2 , O2 CO
CO2
O2

O2
O2
4.6. 55

4.2: O2 CO2 CO

O2 O2
O2

CO
O2 CO


O2
CO CO

4.6
SO2

S + O2 SO2
SO2 O2 SO3
SO2 + 12 O2 SO3
SO3 (sulfuric acid)
SO3 + H2 O H2 SO4
56 4.

SO2
SO2
(p) 1 atm
(partial pressure) (pH2 O )
pH2 O = yH2 O p

yH2 O
1 atm (dew-
point temperature) pH2 O

4.7

1. (ignition temperature)

4.5

4.5:

( C)
C 700
S 243
H2 500
CO 609
CH4 580
C2 H6 515
C3 H8 480
4.7. 57

2.



3.


(furnace)

(1) (2)
(3)

4.7.1
(burner)
4.3


4.3

4.3:

11 kV (pilot ame)
58 4.

(main ame)






(turndown ratio)

(atomizer)


(1) (2)

(3)

4.7.2

H2 , CH4 CO





(mechanical stoker)
(pulverizer-burner system) (uidized bed combustion system)

(grate)


4.7. 59

(spreader)


(arch)

4.4 (spreader
stoker)

4.4:

(pulverizer)
3


26 112

60 4.

85% 200 (200 mesh)

74 60% 200

4.3
4 (1)
(2) (3)
(ashback)
(4)

4.5

4.5:

32 mm
0.6-4.6 m/s
4.7. 61

(CaCO3 )
MgCO3 CaCO3 CaO CO2
CaCO3 CaO + CO2
CaO SO2 O2
CaO + SO2 + 0.5O2 CaSO4
SO2 815 C 870 C
CaSO4

900 C

NOx

(bubbling uidized bed combustion) (bub-
bling uidized bed combustion) 4.6







4.7



62 4.

4.6:

(SH) (RH)
(Eco) (AH)

4.7:

SO2
4.7. 63

64 4.

1.
2. (stoichiometric combustion)
(complete combustion)
3.
4. H xH O xO
(free hydrogen)
5. (air ratio)
6. Orsat apparatus

7.
8.

9.
10. O2
11. CO2 O2

12.
13.
14.
15.
16. (uidized-bed combustion system)
17. (uidized bed) SO2

18. NOx
19. (HHV) C4 H10 128400 kJ/m3
1960 kJ/m3 (LHV) C4 H10
4.7. 65

20. (as-received basis) C

70%, H 3%, O 4%, N 2%, S 1%, 15% 5% AFRT
21.
22. C5 H12
23. C4 H10 1 m3
24. CH4 74%, C2 H6 17% CO 9% HHV
41475 kJ/m3 1960 kJ/m3
LHV
25. 30%
AF RT = 10 kgair /kgf uel AF RA
66 4.
 5

5.1



5.1
(compressed liquid
subcooled liquid)
(saturated liquid)
(saturated vapor) (superheated vapor)

5.1:
68 5.

5.1 5.2
(saturated liquid
line) (saturated vapor line)
374 C 22 MPa
(vapor dome)

5.2

5.2:

(T ) (p) (v) (h) (s)


(steam table) (steam chart)
5.3 h-p
(steam quality)

5.1. 69

5.3: h-p

x x = 1 x = 0


5.3
70 5.

5.4:

5.2

(Carnot cycle) 5.4

1-2 (boiler)
2-3 (turbine)
3-4 (condenser)
4-1 (compressor)
1-2 3-4
1-2
3-4
T4
=1
T1
(5.1)

5.2. 71

(Rankine cy-
cle) 5.5

5.5:

1-2
2-3
3-4
4-1
T-s 5.4 5.5
4-1

wnet
=
qin
(5.2)
wnet = (h2 h3 ) (h1 h4 ) (5.3)
qin = h2 h1 (5.4)
72 5.

5.3
5.5

(5.1)

5 (1)
(2) (3)
(4) (5)

5.3.1
5.6
T-s
( 5.6)
(heat sink)


15%

5.6:

5.3.2
1-2 5.5 (superheater)
(superheated steam) 5.7

5.3. 73

5.5



650 C

5.7:

5.3.3

5.8 T-s

( )

(22.1 MPa)
5.9
(supercritical Rankine cycle)

74 5.

5.8:

5.9:

5.3.4
3
(reheat)
5.10
(reheater)





20%

5.3. 75

5.10:

850 K 15 MPa 0.01 MPa
0.9

5.11:

5.11 T-s
6 h6 = 192 kJ/kg
p6 p1 h1 = h6
2 h2 = 3510 kJ/kg.K
5 0.01 MPa 0.9 h5 = 2340 kJ/kg.K 5.11 s4 =
s5 T4 = T2 (s4 T4 )
4 h4 3620 kJ/kg p4 = 3.5 MPa
76 5.

3 p3 =
p4 s3 = s2 h3 = 3090 kJ/kg

wnet = wt
= h2 h3 + h4 h5
= 1700 kJ/kg
qin = h2 h1 + h4 h3
= 3848 kJ/kg
1700
= = 0.44
3848

5 s5 = s2
p5 = 0.01 MPa h5 = 2100 kJ/kg
wnet = h2 h5
= 1410 kJ/kg
qin = h2 h1
= 3318 kJ/kg
1410
= = 0.42
3318

5.3.5

(feed
water)
5.12


(regeneration)


(1-2-3-4-5-1) (1-2-3 -4 -
1)

5.3. 77

5.12:

(feed water
heater)
2 (1) (open feed water
heater) (2) (closed feed water heater )
5.13


5.14 T-s

5.13:

(5.2)
5.14

78 5.

5.14:

wnet
=
qin
(5.5)

wnet qin
wnet = h1 h2 + (1 m)(h2 h3 ) (1 m)(h5 h4 ) (h7 h6 ) (5.6)
qin = h1 h7 (5.7)
m
1 kg/s m

h6 h1
m=
h2 h5
(5.8)

(shell-and-tube
heat exchanger)
5.15
(drain)


TTD (terminal temperature difference)

5.16
()
5.3. 79

5.15:

(throttle valve)
()

5.16: ()
()

5.17 T-s

(5.5) wnet , qin m
wnet = h1 h2 + (1 m)(h2 h3 ) (h7 h4 ) (5.9)
qin = h1 h8 (5.10)
h8 h7
m=
h2 h5
(5.11)

TTD (terminal temperature difference)

(Tsat )
80 5.

TTD T8
T8 = Tsat TTD (5.12)
Tsat p2

5.17:

5.18 T-s

5.14 5.14
(feed water pump) 5.16
5.14 (5.5) wnet
qin

wnet = h1 h2 + (1 m)(h2 h3 ) (1 m)(h5 h4 ) m(h8 h6 ) (5.13)

qin = h1 h9 (5.14)
m h9 (5.13) (5.14)
(mixing chamber)
h7 h5
m=
h2 h6 + h7 h5
(5.15)
h9 = (1 m)h7 + mh8 (5.16)
TTD T7
T7 = Tsat TTD (5.17)
Tsat p2
5.3. 81

5.18:

70 bar 540 C
7 bar 0.07 bar TTD = 3 C


5.18
h1 = 3500 kJ/kg
h2 = 2860 kJ/kg
h3 = 2150 kJ/kg
h4 = 163 kJ/kg
h5 = h4
h6 = 697 kJ/kg
h8 = h6

7 h7 p7 T7 5.18 p7 = p1 = 70
bar T7 (5.17) 7 bar Tsat = 165 C
T7 = 162 C

h7 162 C
h7 = 684 kJ/kg
82 5.

m (5.15)
684 163
m=
2860 697 + 684 163
= 0.194 kg

h9 (5.16) (mixing chamber)

h9 = (1 0.194) 684 + 0.194 697
= 689 kJ/kg

1 kg/s (5.13), (5.14) (5.5)

wnet , qin
wnet = (h1 h2 ) + (1 m)(h2 h3 )
= 1212 kg/s
qin = 3500 689
= 2811 kg/s
= = 0.43

5.4

(pump efciency, p ) (turbine ef-
ciency, t )
wps
p =
wp
wt
t =
wts

wps wp wps
(isentropic process)
wp wt wts

5.5. 83

5.19: (4-1, 2-3)

(4-1s, 2-3s)

5.19 T-s

h1s h4
p =
h1 h4
h2 h3
t =
h2 h3s

5.5
5.20




(o )

Pe
o =
m .HV
(5.18)
f

Pe , mf HV (heating value)
HV (HHV ) (LHV )
HV HV

o = b ..g (5.19)
84 5.

5.20:

b (boiler efciency)

ms (hout hin )
b =
mf .HV
(5.20)

ms , hin
hout

(Pnet ) (Qin )
Pnet
=
Qin
(5.21)

Qin (5.20)
g (Pe )

Pe
g =
Pnet
(5.22)
1 kW.h
(heat rate)
mf .HV
HR =
Pe t
(5.23)
5.6. 85

t mf
HR kJ/kW.h HR o
3600
HR =
o
(5.24)

5.6
5.21
(5.20)

(input-output method)
(heat-loss method) (5.20)



(Ql )

Ql
b = 1
mf .HV
(5.25)

5.21

6
Ql,i
Li =
mf .HV
(5.26)

b = 1 (L1 + L2 + L3 + L4 + L5 + L6 ) (5.27)
6
86 5.

5.21:

1.
Ta Tg

xdg .cpg (Tg Ta )
L1 =
HHV
(5.28)

xdg

cpg ( 1.0 kJ/kg. C)

Tg

Ta

CO2 , CO, O2
N2 NCO2 , NCO , NO2 NN2

mdg = 44NCO2 + 28NCO + 32NO2 + 28NN2 (5.29)
(4.30)
12(yCO + yCO2 )Ndg
mf =
xcb
(5.30)

Ndg (5.29) (5.30) xdg

(11yCO2 + 7yCO + 8yO2 + 7yN2 )xcb
xdg =
3(yCO + yCO2 )
(5.31)
5.6. 87

2.
H
O
(xM + 9xH,ar )[2442 + cpv (Tg Ta )]
L2 =
HHV
(5.32)

cpv ( 1.9 kJ/kg. C) 2442 kJ/

kg 25 C
H

3.
.AF RA .cpv (Tg Ta )
L3 =
HHV
(5.33)

L3
L2
L3 -
L3 = 0
4.
(refuse)


xuc .HHVC
L4 =
HHV
(5.34)

xuc HHVC
(32800 kJ/kg)
5. CO

L5 =
CO CO

=
CO
C
C
88 5.

CO

MCO yCO xcb HHVCO
=
MC (yCO + yCO2 )HHV
(5.35)

xcb CO
(MCO ) 28 C (MC ) 12 CO (HHVCO )
10100 kJ/kg
6.





1%

L6

180 ton/h 170 ton/h

4 MPa 405 C 124 C
C 73%, H 5%, O 8%, N 2%, 6% 6%
17600 kg/h 30% 27 C
1232 kg/h 14.3% 167 C
CO2 13.65%, CO 0.47% O2 5.18% N2

L6 = 0.5%


hout 4 MPa 405 C hin
124 C hin
124 C hout = 3225.3
kJ/kg hin = 520.0 kJ/kg (4.22) 30369 kJ/kg
(5.20) HV = HHV
170 103 (3225.3 520.0)
b =
17600(30369)
= 0.860
5.6. 89

1232 kg/h 0.143 1232 = 176 kg/h
(xuc ) 0.01 (xcb ) 0.72
N2 1 - 0.1365 - 0.0047 - 0.0518 = 0.807
(5.31)
[11(0.1365) + 7(0.0047) + 8(0.0518) + 7(0.807)] 0.72
xdg =
3(0.0047 + 0.1365)
= 12.9

(5.28)
12.9 1.0 (167 27)
L1 =
30369
= 0.0595

(5.32)
(0.06 + 9 0.05)[2442 + 1.9(167 27)]
L2 =
30369
= 0.0455

L3 = 0
0.01
(5.34)
0.01 32800
L4 =
30369
= 0.0108

CO (5.35)
28 0.47 0.72 10100
L5 =
12(0.47 + 13.65) 30369
= 0.0186

L1 L5 L6 (5.27)
b = 1 0.0595 0.0455 0 0.0108 0.0186 0.0050
= 0.861

90 5.

(4.23) HV
(5.20) (5.25) LHV
(L2 )
HHV
b = 1 (L1 + L3 + L4 + L5 + L6 )
LHV
(5.36)

(4.23)
b = 30369 2442(9(0.05) + 0.06)
= 29124

0.861 30369
b = = 0.898
29124

5.7
(cogeneration)


(bot-
toming system) (topping system) 5.22






(absorption chiller)
(trigeneration)
5.7. 91

5.22: () ()

5.23:

5.23


92 5.

(back-pressure turbine)

5.24
(extraction turbine)

5.24:
5.7. 93

1.
2.

3.
4.

5.

6. (
, , )
7.
8.
9. T-s -

10.
11. T-s
12.

13. 6 MPa 850 K
14. 900 K 12 MPa
TTD 5 K
15.
10 MPa 700 K 3 MPa
0.01 MPa (
)
94 5.

16.
8 MPa
850 K 0.8 MPa
0.01 MPa (drain cooler) TTD
5 C ()
17. 9000 kJ/kW.h

18. 180 ton/h 4 MPa
800 K 450 K
15000 kJ/kg 10 kg/s
19. 70%
CO2 10%, O2 5% SO2 1% CO 0.5% N2 83.5%
1 kg
20.
19600 kJ/kg
CO ( HHV CO 10080 kJ/kg)
 6

6.1



(process boiler)


(utility boiler)

2
(re-tube boiler) (water-tube boiler)


18 bar
6.2 kg/s

(boiler shell)



(tensile stress)

pD
=
2t
(6.1)
96 6.

p D t

(D )

6.2


(steam generator)
(drum-type steam generator)
(once-through steam generator) 6.1
(furnace) (evaporator) (drum)
(superheater) (reheater) (economizer)
(air heater)

22.1 bar

( 5.11)


6.3. 97

6.1:

6.1


(steam separator)

6.3

(refractory)
98 6.

(water wall) 6.2

(membrane)

6.2:

6.3

(convection)
(bubbly
ow)
(slug ow)
(annular ow)


(mist ow) 6.3
(h) h
h
h

h


h

6.4. 99

6.3:

6.4
(pressure vessel)
(6.1) 30
m 4.5 m 30
(riser) (downcomer)
6.4

100 6.

6.4:

6.5 (bafe)
(screen)






(cyclone separator)

(d ) (r )
(p) p (H )
d r
(natural circulation)
d r
H r
d
6.5. 101

6.5:

H r
d


d r
180 bar
(forced circulation)
H

6.5

(total dis-
solved solid, TDS)
ppm (part per million)
102 6.

(blowdown)

(continuous blowdown) (inter-

mitten blowdown)


6.6
xd
xw xs
ms

( )
xw xs
mb = ms
xd xw
(6.2)

(xs = 0) (6.2)
( )
xw
mb = ms
xd xw
(6.3)

6.6:

mb d
(t)
xd1 xd2 xd2 xd1
6.7
ms (xw xs )(d + t)
mb =
[0.5(xd1 + xd2 ) xw ]d
(6.4)
6.6. 103

t = 0 xd1 = xd2 = xd (6.4)

(6.2)

6.7:

6.6





100 MW

(radiant superheater)
(convec-
tive superheater)






104 6.

6.8
(parallel ow)
(counter-ow)

6.8

6.8:

(6.1)

6.7. 105

20-30 C




(soot
blower)

6.7










5 C
4
(attemperation)
(gas recirculation)
1.






106 6.

6.9

6.9:

2. (attemperator)
6.10

(mw )

ms hs1 + mw hw = (ms + mw )hs2

3.

6.11 (Q)
(Qa ) (Qg )
(Qr )
6.7. 107

6.10:

6.11:

4.







108 6.

6.12

6.12:

6.8



-

(thermal stress)




30 C

6.9. 109

10-12 m/s

6.9



110 C 4%
280 C 11%
150-420 C
280-400 C
135-180 C

(recuperator)
(regenerator)
6.13
6.13()
6.13()

(hopper) -
30-60 W/m2 . C

50-65
mm
110 6.

6.13: () ()

(matrix)





6.14 -
(Ljungstrom regenerator) -
(Rothemuhle regenerator)

-
(effectiveness)

-
(self-cleaning)

6.10. 111

6.14: () ()

120 MW
10 m 0.5-3 rpm

6.10

112 6.

(soot blower)

(multi-nozzle soot blower)

(retractable soot blower)
50-64 mm
2 m


180
6.15
1000 C

6.15:

6.11. 113

6.16



50 cm

6.16:

6.11


(draft)
2 (natural
draft) (mechanical draft)

6.11.1


(stack) 6.17
114 6.

H (p) H

6.17:

6.11.2

(forced draft) (induced

draft)
p (PF D )
6.11. 115

mf .AF RA .va .p
PF D =
F D
(6.5)
va F D

(PID ) p
mf (1 + AF RA )vg .p
PID =
ID

vg ID

(balanced draft)

6.11.3



(axial type) (centrifugal type)

(single-stage axial fan) (two-
stage axial fan)

116 6.

(forward-curved)
(at) (backward-
curved) 6.18


6.1

6.18: ,


(characteristic curve)

(system resistance curve)

6.19


6.11. 117

6.1:


78-83% 84-91% 70-72%

6.19:

(inlet vane
control) 6.20
sp1 sp2
sp2 sp3 p1 p2
118 6.

p2 p3
a b b c
a p1 b p2
b p2 c p3

6.20:

(variable-speed
control) sp1 p1 sp2 p2
sp3 p3

6.21:
6.11. 119

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

11.
12.
13.
14.

15.
16.

17.
18.
19.

20.
120 6.
 7

7.1

(radial-ow turbine) (axial-ow turbine)

(stator) (rotor) 7.1

122 7.

7.1:

7.2
(stage)

7.2 4

(impulse stage)
(reaction stage)

7.2: 5
7.2. 123

7.2.1


7.3

7.3:

(pressure compound
stage) 7.4

7.4

(velocity compound stage) 7.5

7.2.2



124 7.

7.4:

(reaction degree)

hr
R=
hs + hr
(7.1)

hs hr
0 1 50%

7.6
50%
(air foil)

7.3

(nozzle)
7.3. 125

7.5:

7.6: 50%

(nozzle efciency)

126 7.

(isentropic ow)
h
N =
hs
(7.2)

(h0 ) (V0 ) (h1 )
(V1 )
V02 V2
h0 + = h1 + 1
2 2
V12 V2
= h = h0 h1 = 0
2 2

V0 V1
V12
h =
2
(7.3)

V1 = 2h (7.4)

0.4 MPa
0.1 MPa 90%

0.4 MPa h0 = 2740 kJ/kg
0.1 MPa s1s = s0 h1s = 2500 kJ/kg h (7.2)
h = 0.90(2740 2500) 103
= 2.16 105 J/kg
h (7.4)

V1 = 2 2.16 105
= 657 m/s

7.4

(velocity triangle)
7.4. 127

V
(absolute velocity) U W

=W
V +U
(7.5)
7.7

V1 (nozzle angle)
(1 ) (2 )

7.7: () ()

U = r (7.6)
rad/s r
N rpm
2N
=
60
(7.7)
128 7.

F = m(V1 cos 1 + V2 cos 2 ) (7.8)

P = mU (V1 cos 1 + V2 cos 2 ) (7.9)

[ )]
1( 2
P = m h1 h2 +
2
V1 V22 (7.10)

W1 W2

[ )]
1( 2 2
0 = m h1 h2 + W1 W2
2
1( 2 )
= h1 h2 =
2
W1 W22 (7.11)

h1 h2 (7.10)
m [( 2 ) ( )]
P =
2
V1 V22 W12 W22 (7.12)

(7.12)
V12 = W12 + U 2 + 2W1 U cos 1
V22 = W22 + U 2 2W2 U cos 2

(7.12)
P = mU (W1 cos 1 + W2 cos 2 ) (7.13)
7.4. 129

7.7
(7.9) (7.13)
(vertex)
7.8 50%
1 = 2
50%
50%
1 = 2 2 = 1 W1 = V2 W2 = V1

7.8: () 50% ()



(blade efciency)
P
B =
mh
(7.14)
h (7.3)
(7.14)
P
B = 1 2
(7.15)
2 mV1

h (h0 h1 )
(h1 h2 ) V12 /2 (7.3)
h1 h2 (7.11)
1 2
h = [V + (W22 W12 )]
2 1
(7.16)

P
B = (7.17)
1 m[V 2
2 1 + (W22 W12 )]
130 7.

3000 rpm
600 mm 800 mm

(rm ) (600+800)/2 = 700 mm
(7.6) (7.7)
2N rm
U=
60
2 3000 0.7
= = 220 m/s
60

50% 20 C
50 m/s 30 m/s
8 kg/s

(1 ) (1 )
W1 sin 1 = V1 sin 1
W1 cos 1 = V1 cos 1 U
[ ]
V1 sin 1
1 = tan1
V1 cos 1 U
[ ]
50 sin 20
= tan1
50 cos 20 30
= 45.2

W1
V1 sin 1
W1 =
sin 1
50 sin 20
=
sin 45.2
= 24.1 m/s

P (7.11) B (7.15)
50% (2 = 1 W2 = V1 )
P = 8 30(24.1 sin 45.2 + 50 sin 20 )
= 15.4 kW
7.5. 131
1.54 104
B = 1
2 8[502 + (502 24.12 )]
= 0.87

7.5
Pact
P (7.10)

7.5.1
(1 = 2 )
(W1 = W2 ) V2
(2 = 90 )
7.9 (Uopt )

Uopt = W2 cos 2

V1 cos 1 = W1 cos 1 + Uopt

V1 cos 1
Uopt =
2
(7.18)
Uopt (7.1)
m
Pmax =
2
(V1 cos 1 )2 (7.19)

Pmax (7.13)
B,max = cos2 1 (7.20)
132 7.

(7.16) 1 1 = 0

1 0

7.10

(Uopt )
Uopt = W4 cos 2

V3 cos 2 = W3 cos 2 + Uopt

(W3 = W4 )
V3 cos 2 = 2Uopt (7.21)
7.5 V2 V3
(V2 = V3 )
V2 cos 2 = 2Uopt (7.22)

7.9:
7.5. 133

7.10:

Uopt W2
W2 cos 1 = V2 cos 2 + Uopt
= 3Uopt

V1 cos 1 = W1 cos 1 + Uopt

(W1 = W2 )
V1 cos 1 = 4Uopt (7.23)

V1 cos 1
Uopt =
4

n

V1 cos 1
Uopt =
2n
(7.24)
134 7.

(P1 ) (P2 ) (7.7)
P1 = mUopt (V1 cos 1 + V2 cos 2 )
P2 = mUopt (V3 cos 2 )

V1 cos 1 , V2 cos 2 V3 cos 2 (7.21), (7.20) (7.19)

2
P1 = 6mUopt (7.25)
2
P2 = 2mUopt (7.26)
3 : 1

3
5 : 3 : 1 2

h n
h/n

2h
V1 =
n
(7.27)

(7.16) Uopt n
7.4

7.5.2
50%

7.11
Uopt = V1 cos 1 (7.28)
7.5. 135

Uopt 2 = 90 (7.11)
Pmax = m (V1 cos 1 )2 (7.29)
Pmax (7.27) (7.15)

2 cos2 1
B,max =
1 + cos2 1
(7.30)

7.11: 50%

W2 = kW1 k < 1
1

136 7.

7.13
V1 cos 1 = W1 cos 1 + Uopt
Uopt = W2 cos 2 = kW1 cos 1
Uopt
V1 cos 1 = + Uopt
(k )
k
= Uopt = V1 cos 1
k+1

7.12:

(7.7) (7.13)
P = mUopt (V1 cos 1 )
( )
k
= m (V1 cos 1 )2
k+1
( )
k
B = 2 cos2 1
k+1

7.6
mhs hs

1. (tur-
bulence) mhs
2.

7.6. 137

3. 7.7


(PS ) P (7.7) (7.11)
4.


5.
7.12
(W )
(Wm )
PS P

7.13:

(stage efciency)

PS
S =
mhs
(7.31)

(7.29)
( ) ( ) ( )
h P PS
S = . .
hs mh P

1
138 7.

2 3-5

PS
P
= 1 fL (7.32)

fL (energy loss factor)

S = N B (1 fL ) (7.33)

S N , B fL
hs () ( ) PS /m
PS
m
= (7.34)

S =
hs
(7.35)

0.7 MPa 800 K

0.4 MPa 1500
rpm 1000 N.m

0.7 MPa h0 = 3540 kJ/kg
0.1 MPa s1s = s0 h1s = 3340 kJ/kg
hs = (3540 3340) 105 = 2.00 105 J/kg

(N ) rpm
2N
= = 157 rad/s
60

(7.33)
1000 157
S = = 0.785
2.00 105
7.7. 139

7.7


PT

PT
n=
PS
(7.36)

S 4
7.14 1 2s, 3ss, 4ss
5ss 1 2, 3, 4 5

PT
T =
m(h1 h5ss )
(7.37)

PT 4
PT = PS1 + PS2 + PS3 + PS4

S
PT = mS [(h1 h2s ) + (h2 h3s ) + (h3 h4s ) + (h4 h5s )]

PT (7.35)
[ ]
(h1 h2s ) + (h2 h3s ) + (h3 h4s ) + (h4 h5s )
T = S
h1 h5ss

7.14
(h1 h2s ) + (h2 h3s ) + (h3 h4s ) + (h4 h5s ) > h1 h5ss

T S
T = fR S (7.38)
fR (reheat factor) 1
140 7.

7.14: 4

2 2
50% 2
(1 )

h(1) 2
h(1) /2 (7.4)

V1 = h(1)

(7.16)
2U
V1 =
cos 1
( )2
U
= h(1) =4
cos 1

h(2)
(7.4)

V1 = 2h(2)
7.7. 141

(7.22)
4U
V1 =
cos 1
( )2
U
= h(2) = 8
cos 1

h(3)
h(3) /2 50%


h(3)
V1 =
2

(7.23)
U
V1 =
cos 1
( )2
U
= h(3) =2
cos 1

h(1) : h(2) : h(3) = 2 : 4 : 1

50%
50%

7.15

7.15






142 7.

7.15:

7.8
P F

(axial thrust)

T = (p1 p2 )A m(W1 sin 1 W2 sin 2 ) (7.39)

A (7.31)
7.3 p1 p2
7.9. 143

7.6 p1
p2




7.16

7.16:

7.9

(high-pressure sec-
tion) (low-pressure sec-
tion) 7.17


7.17
144 7.

7.17:

(back-pressure turbine)

7.18
(hp turbine)


(ip turbine)
(lp turbine)



7.19

7.17 (double-ow
turbine)
7.9. 145

7.18:

7.19: (extraction turbine)

7.20

7.20
3000 rpm
(tandem-compound turbine)
3000 rpm

1500 rpm
7.21 (cross-compound turbine)

146 7.

7.20: (triple-ow turbine)

(four-ow turbine)

7.21:

7.10

50% (7.29) U
7.10. 147

(Uopt = V1 cos 1 )

(governor)

7.22 (yball
governor) (sleeve)

(governor oil pump)

7.22:

10% 3000 rpm
3300 rpm

148 7.

1.
2.
3.
4. 50%
5.
6. 50%

7.
V1 1
8.
9.
10.
11.


12.
13.
14.
15. 3100 kJ/kg
3000 kJ/kg
16. 500 mm
3600 rpm
17. 900 m/s 20
300 m/s
7.10. 149

18. 150 kJ/kg

5 kg/s 20
19. 19

20. 50% 15

150 7.
 8

8.1

(cooling tower)

8.1

8.2



(shell-and-tube heat exchanger)

(one-pass)
(two-pass) 8.2

U (four-pass)

8.3
152 8.

8.1:

8.2:

8.2. 153

Q = U ATlm (8.1)
Tlm =
ITD TTD (8.2)
ln(ITD/TTD)

ITD TTD
U A
(8.1)
ITD TTD
Q

8.3:

8.1


(admilralty copper) 304 (304 stainless steel)


(fouling)

90-10

154 8.

4






8.4

8.4:

1.8
3 m/s


8.3. 155

(vacuum pump) (ejector)

8.3

8.3.1
-

(deaerator)
O2 CO2
O2 CO2
8.5
(heater) (vent condenser) (storage tank)



(trays)

156 8.

8.5:

8.3.2


(LP heater) (HP heater)

(desuperheater) (condensing section)
(drain cooler)

8.6

8.3. 157

8.7

8.6:

8.7:

158 8.

8.3.3




8.1
200 MW 3 8
200 MW

8.1:

(MW)
0 50 3 5
50 100 5 6
100 200 5 7
200 6 8

8.4



(once-through system)
(thermal pollution)
(closed-loop system)
(cooling tower)
8.4. 159

2
(wet cooling tower) (dry cooling tower)

8.4.1



(approach) (range)
(wet-bulb temperature)

(natural draft) (mechanical
draft)

(i ) (o ) H (p)

p = (o i )gH (8.3)
p




(hyperbola)

8.8
150 m 2.5-5

160 8.

8.8:

(forced draft)




(induced
draft)
(counter-ow) 8.9
(cross-ow) 8.10
8.8-8.10
(ll)
(packing)



(makeup water)
1-
1.5%

8.4. 161

8.9:

8.10:

(drift) (drift elim-
inator)
162 8.

0.03% (bafe)


(blowdown)

1-1.5%



(recirculation)
(interference)

8.4.2

8.11
8.12

8.5
(blowdown)

(makeup
8.5. 163

8.11:

8.12:

water) 1.5-2%

-

3 Ca+ , Mg2+ , Na+
3 HCO3 , Cl , SO2
4
164 8.

(scale)



CO2 O2

(sedimentation)

(coagulation)

(internal treatment)
(external treatment)




(ion
exchange process) (cation resin) (anion
resin) ( Ca+ , Mg2+ , Na+ ) ( HCO3 , Cl , SO2 4 )

R H+ + C+ R C+ + H+
2R H+ + C2+ R
2C
2+
+ 2H+

R+ OH + A R+ A + OH
2R+ OH + A2 R+
2A
2
+ 2OH

R
C Ca+ , Mg2+ , Na+
A HCO3 , Cl , SO2
4
H+ OH (H2 O)

8.5. 165

-
(regeneration)

2R C+ + H2 SO4 2R H+ + C+
2 SO4
2

R2 C2+ + H2 SO4 2R H+ + C2+ SO2

4

R+ A + NaOH R+ OH + Na+ A
R+2 A2 + 2NaOH 2R+ OH + Na+2 A2

166 8.

1.
2.
3.
4.

5.
6.
7.
8. -

9.

10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.

 9

9.1




-

(open-loop control)
(closed-loop control) 9.1
(output) (input) (set point)
(controller) (control element)
(process equipment)




168 9.

(sensor)

(feedback)

9.1:

9.1 (feedback con-

trol) (disturbance)

(feedfor-
ward controller) 9.2
(cascade control) 9.3
1 (primary control loop)
1 2 (secondary control loop)
2 1 2
2 1 2
1
1
9.2. 169

9.2:

9.3:

9.2


170 9.

9.2.1

(manometer) (Bourdon gauge) (bellows
gauge) (diaphragm gauge)
(strain gauge)
9.4

p1
p2 p2
h p1
p2

p1 p2 = gh (9.1)

9.4:

p2 p1 p2

9.5


9.2. 171

9.5:

9.6

9.6:

9.7


9.8

172 9.

9.7:

9.8:

(differential pressure transmitter)

(block valve)
(equalizing valve) 9.9

9.2.2


(level gauge)
9.2. 173

9.9: (DPT)

(displacer level gauge) (differential pressure level

gauge)
9.10

9.10:

9.11




9.12

174 9.

9.11:

(9.1) (h)

DPT

9.12:

9.2.3



(bimetallic thermometer)
(lled-bulb thermometer) (resis-
9.2. 175

tance temperature detector RTD) (thermistor) (thermocou-

ple) (optical temperature sensor)
9.13

9.13:

9.14
(bellows)



RTD



RTD

-

176 9.

9.14:

(Seebeck effect)

9.15


9.16
V1 V2 V1 1 V2
2 2 0 C 2
V2 V1
1 2
2
1 0 C RTD
2 V2
V1 1

9.15:
9.2. 177

9.16:

9.17:

(thermowell) 9.17

9.2.4






178 9.

(pressure-difference ow meter)
(velocity-based ow meter)
(positive-displacement ow meter)

(DPT)


(orice meter) (Venturi tube) (ow nozzle) 90
(elbow meter) (Pitot tube) (averaging Pitot tube)
(Annubar)

9.18
9.19
9.20

(9.2)

p1 p2
Q=k

(9.2)
k
(d)
(D) ( = d/D)
9.21
(throat)


(9.2) k


9.22

90 9.23


9.2. 179

9.18:

9.19:

9.24
90 (p1 )

(total pressure)
1
p2 = p1 + V 2
2
(9.3)
180 9.

9.20:

9.21:

9.22:

V

2(p2 p1 )
Q=A

(9.4)
9.2. 181

9.23: 90

9.24:

9.25

90


9.26

182 9.

9.25:

9.26:

(turbine ow meter) (vortex ow meter)

(magnetic ow meter)
9.27




9.28
(vortex)




9.2. 183

9.27:

9.28:

9.29

(1)
(2) (3)

184 9.

9.29:

9.30 (gear ow meter)

9.30:

9.3




9.3. 185

50 Hz
50 Hz

50 Hz




(load demand signal)

(boiler-
following control) (turbine-following control)
(coordinated control)
9.31
(EC) (load set point)

(ET)
EC
(PC)
(pressure set point)
PC

(PT)

9.31:
186 9.

PT

PC
9.32 EC



PC

9.32:

9.33 -
EC

9.4




9.4. 187

9.33:

9.34
9.34
(cross-limited control) 9.35
(FT)
(FC)
(low select)

(high select)








188 9.

9.34:

9.35:

9.34
9.5. 189

9.34

9.5



9.36
(PT) (PC)

PC

PC

9.36

9.6

190 9.

9.36:

(single-element con-
trol) 9.37 (LT)
(LC)

(two-element control) 9.38
FT

9.6. 191

9.37:

9.38:

192 9.

(three-element control) 9.39

9.39:

9.7




6

9.40
(primary superheater) -
(secondary superheater)
9.7. 193

(attempetor)
-
1 ( TT1)
2 (TT2) -
1 (TC1) TT1

2 (TC2) TC2 TT2
TC2

9.40:
194 9.

1.
2.
10 cm
3.
4.
5.

6.

7.
8.
9.
10. RTD
11.
12.
13.
14. (total pressure)
(static pressure) (dynamic pressure)
15.
16.
17.

18.
19.
20.

 10

10.1
(gas turbine cycle)
10.1 (compressor)
(combustor)
(gas turbine)

10.1:


(open Brayton cycle) 10.2
(heater)

196 10.

10.2:
10.3 (closed Brayton cycle)
(cooler)
T1

(ideal gas)
T-s 10.3 4
1-2
2-3
3-4
4-1
(wnet ) (qin )
wnet = cp (T3 T4 ) cp (T2 T1 ) (10.1)
qin = cp (T3 T2 ) (10.2)
cp (B )

T4 T1
B = 1
T3 T2
10.1. 197

10.3:
T1 (T4 /T1 1)
=1
T2 (T3 /T2 1)

1-2 3-4
2-3 4-1
T2 T3
T
= rp
(k1)/k
=
T
(10.3)
1 4

k = cp /cv rp = p2 /p1

T1
B = 1
T2
1
=1 (k1)/k
(10.4)
rp

(10.4) k k
He Ar k 1.67
k 1.4
(T3 ) (T1 ) rp
rp
( )k/(k1)
T3
rp.max =
T1
(10.5)

T3 T1


(10.3) (10.1)
[ ( ) ]
1 ( )
wnet = cp T3 1 (k1)/k
T1
(k1)/k
rp 1 (10.6)
rp
198 10.

rp wnet (10.6)
( )k/2(k1)
T3
rp,opt =
T1
(10.7)

( )2
T1
wmax = cp T3 1
T3
(10.8)

10.4
1-2 3-4

T2s T1
c =
T2 T1
(10.9)
T3 T4
t =
T3 T4s
(10.10)

100%

10.4:

10.1. 199

-
(regenerator)

10.5
T-s

10.5:

10.5 -
(Tx ) (T4 )
Tx T4
(regenerator effectiveness, )
Tx T2
=
T4 T2
(10.11)

T4
T2
T4 T2 (reheating)
(intercooling) 10.6
(LC)
(HC) (LT)
200 10.

(HT)

10.6:

10.5 1 atm
15.6 C 1093.3 C 4

0.88 0.85 0.7

cp = 1.005 kJ/kg.K k = 1.4

( )(k1)/k
p2
T2s = T1
p1
= 288.6(4)0.4/1.4 = 429 K
T2s T1
= c = 0.85
T2 T1
= T2 = 454 K
( )(k1)/k
p4
T4s = T3
p3
10.2. 201

= 1366.3(4)0.4/1.4 = 919 K
T3 T4
= t = 0.88
T3 T4s
= T4 = 973 K
Tx T2
= = 0.7
T4 T2
= Tx = 817 K
wc = cp (T2 T1 )
= 166 kJ/kg
wt = cp (T3 T4 )
= 395 kJ/kg
qin = cp (T3 Tx )
= 552 kJ/kg
395 166
= = 41.5%
552

10.2

10.7
(heat recovery steam
generator HRSG)

wB + wR
cc =
qin
(10.12)

wB wR qin
(B )
(R )
wB = B qin
wR = R (1 B )qin

wB wR (10.12)
cc = R + B R B (10.13)
202 10.

-
R = 0.33 B = 0.26 0.5
cc 0.38 0.42

10.7:

HRSG
10.8
q1
q2
wB = B q1
wR = R [(1 B )q1 + q2 ]
wB + wR
cc =
q1 + q2
B q1 + R [(1 B )q1 + q2 ]
= cc =
q1 + q2
(10.14)

q2
x=
q1 + q2
= q2 = x(q1 + q2 )
10.2. 203

q2 (10.14)
cc = B + R B R xB (1 R ) (10.15)

10.8: HRSG

(10.13)
(10.12) wB , wR qin
wB = mg cpg (T3 T4 T2 + T1 ) (10.16)
wR = ms (ha hb hd + hc ) (10.17)
qin = mg cpg (T3 T2 ) (10.18)

mg ms
cpg mg ms
HRSG HRSG

mg cpg (T4 T5 ) = ms (ha hd ) (10.19)

204 10.

10.7
7.5 15 C
750 C 100 C
50 bar 500 C
0.1 bar 200 MW

cpg = 1.1 kJ/kg.K k = 1.4

( )(k1)/k
p2
T2 = T1
p1
= 288 (7.5)0.4/1.4 = 512.2 K
( )(k1)/k
p4
T4 = T3
p3
= 1023 (7.5)0.4/1.4 = 620.5 K

wB (10.16)
wB = 196.1mg (10.20)
qin (10.18)
qin = 561.9mg (10.21)

ha = 3670 kJ/kg
hb = 2305 kJ/kg
hc = 192 kJ/kg = hd

wR (10.17)
wR = 1365ms (10.22)

(wB + wR )
196.1mg + 1365ms = 200 103 (10.23)
10.3. 205

MW wB (10.20) wR
(10.22) kW kW
(10.19)
ms
mg
= 0.0712 (10.24)

(10.23) (10.24) mg ms
mg = 681.9 kg/s
ms = 48.6 kg/s

mg , ms (10.20)-(10.22) (10.12)
wB = 133.8 MW
qin = 383.2 MW
wR = 66.3 MW
cc = 0.52

10.3

10.3.1

(aeroderivative gas turbine)
(industrial gas turbine)

206 10.

10.1

10.1:

30 16
50 MW 300 MW

10.3.2
(compres-
sor) (combustor) (turbine) (casing)
10.9

(positive displacement)
(centrifugal ) (axial)

10.10 (lift)
() ()
10.3. 207

10.9:

(W ) (chord line) ()
10.11
(guide vane)

7

10.10:

(stall)


10.12
208 10.

10.11:

(V ) ()

(variable-angle guide vane)

10.12:

(low-
pressure compressor) (high-pressure compressor)
(low-pressure turbine)
(high-pressure turbine)
10.13

10.3. 209

10.13:

(compressor wash)

(, SNG) ( , , 2)
3 (tubular) (tuboannular)
(annular) 10.14
(ame tube)




10.15

(recirculation zone)


(burning zone)
(dilution zone)

NOx NOx
NOx
210 10.

10.14:

10.15:

(single-shaft gas turbine)

10.16 (two-shaft gas turbine)




10.3. 211

10.16:

(creep)

(Larson-Miller parameter)
LM LM ( K)
( )

LM = T (20 + log t) (10.25)

LM T1 = 900 K T2 = 890
K (10.1) t1 = 25000 T2 = 47000
10 K

10.17

212 10.

10.17:

10.3.3

ISO 15 C
60% 1 atm







1 atm









10.3. 213

NOx





100%

10.3.4
15 C

10.18

10.18:

(evaporative cooling system)

214 10.

(fogging system)



(absorption cooling system)


(vapor compression system)

10.19
(steam injection cycle)


10.1

10.19:

10.20 (evaporation cycle)

10.1

10.4. 215

10.20:

10.4
HRSG
HRSG
10.21

Ty Tx (pinch point)
HRSG Tx Ty

HRSG HRSG
5-30 C
HRSG (horizontal) (vertical)
(once-through) 10.22 HRSG





HRSG
HRSG
216 10.

10.21: HRSG

10.23 HRSG

HRSG
HRSG
HRSG HRSG HRSG
HRSG

HRSG 10.22 10.23 (single-pressure HRSG)

HRSG
HRSG (double-pressure HRSG)

10.22:
10.4. 217

10.23:

10.24

HRSG HRSG
HRSG (triple-
pressure HRSG)

10.24: HRSG

HRSG


HRSG

HRSG
218 10.

HRSG

HRSG

HRSG
HRSG

10.4. 219

1.
2.
3.
4. T-s

5.
6. B R

7.

8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13. NOx
14.
15.
16. ISO
17.
18.

19.
20.
220 10.

21.
22.

23.
24. 50% 300 C
200 C 100 C
25. 30 C 2000 C
4
26. 50%
( k = 1.4, cp = 1.005 kJ/kg.K)
27. 300 K 1 atm
80% 8 atm
( k = 1.4)
28. 1300 K 8 atm
80%
1 atm ( k = 1.4)
29.

2
300 K 1300 K
0.8 ( cp = 1.005
kJ/kg.K k = 1.4)
30. 200 MW 7.5
15 C 750 C
750 C HRSG
50 bar 600 C
0.1 bar ( cp = 1.11 kJ/kg.K, k =
1.33 )
 11

11.1




(hydroelectric power plant)

100 kW 30 MW
(1) (run-of-river plant)
(2)
(impoundment plant)
(3) (pumped-
storage plant)

11.1 (dam)
(penstock)
(hydraulic turbine)
222 11.

(generator)

11.1:

H Q
gQH 75%



= p .t .g (11.1)

p

t

g

11.2




11.2. 223

(rock-lled dam) (earth dam)
(gravity
dam) (arc dam) (buttress dam)



















(buttress)
20-30%

11.1



(spillway)


224 11.

11.1:

(m3 ) (MW)
13462 731
17745 720
9510 500
8860 300
3057 240
1420 72
2263 55
1967 36

(service spillway)
(emergency spillway)

11.3
(low-pressure conduit)
(screen)
,


(surge tank)
(penstock)
PVC (polyethelene)

(expansion joint)

p1 1 p

+ V12 + L = gH
2
(11.2)

H p1
pL (pressure loss) V1
11.4. 225

pL
p = 1
gH
(11.3)

p 1

(water hammer)

(simple surge tank)

(orice surge tank)
(differential surge tank)

11.2

11.4

11.3 (p1 ) (V1 )

(p2 ) (V2 )
226 11.

11.2:

p1 1 p2 1

+ V12 =
2
+ V22 + E
2
(11.4)

p1 p2 1( 2 )
E=

+
2
V1 V22 (11.5)

Eact
t =
E
(11.6)
Eact

11.3:

11.4.1
(11.5)
(reaction degree)

(p1 p2 )/
R=
E
(11.7)
11.4. 227

R (impulse turbine) R
(reaction turbine) R

(Pelton turbine)
11.4

(nozzle)

(needle valve)

(deector)

11.4:

11.5


= 180
(V2 = 0)
180

170 1
(V2 > 0)
228 11.

11.5:

(casing)
(Francis turbine)
(Kaplan turbine)
11.6

(1) (2) (guide vane) (wicket
gate)
(3)
(runner blade)

(propeller) 4
8 11.7
(servo-motor)

11.6 11.7 (draft tube)

(11.5) p1
11.4. 229

11.6:

11.7:

V1 E p2 V2
p1 1
Emax =

+ V12
2
(11.8)

p2 = 0 V2 = 0 p2
V2
E Emax
E Emax
11.5

11.4.2
-
-
230 11.

(head) (specic
speed)

( 60 m) (60-
350 m) ( 350 m)

(H ) (P ) (N )


N P
Ns = 5/4 (11.9)
H

N (rpm) P kW H m
4 1100


11.8

11.8:

100%
11.9

(propeller) (xed-blade)

11.5. 231

11.9:

11.4.3

(runaway speed)
11.10 (tur-
bine governing system)
(speed gov-
ernor) (electro-hydraulic governor)
(speed sensor)

(actuator)
() ()
(runner)

11.5

(11.5)
E Emax (11.8)
p2 V2
11.11
232 11.

11.10:

z 1 2
3

1 3
p1 p3 1( 2 )
E=

+
2
V1 V32 (11.10)

p3 = 0
(V3 0) E Emax
E z

11.11:

2 3
p2 V2 V2
+ 2 + gz = 3
2 2
11.6. 233
[ ]
1 ( )
p2 = gz + V22 V32
2
(11.11)
(11.11) p2 z V2 V3
E p2 p2
(cavitation)
(vapor pressure)

(101.3 kPa) 100 C
27 C
3.54 kPa
27 C


7000 atm

p2
pv patm pv patm (11.11)
p2

11.6

11.12

234 11.

100%

11.12

(pump-turbine)
(motor-generator)

11.12:

(centrifugal pump)

620-660 m
350 m
250 MW 4
11.6. 235

1.
2.
3. 100 m
3.6 105 kg/h
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14. 60 m
15.
16.
17.

18.
19.
20.
236 11.
 12

12.1

(nucleus)
(nucleon)

(mn ) 1.008665 amu
(mp ) 1.007277 amu (me ) 0.0005486 amu amu
atomic mass unit 1.66 1027 kg

H 1 He 2
C 12 (atomic number Z ) -
(mass number A)
(AZ ) (nuclear symbol) AZ X X
11 H 42 He
126 C
10 e -1
10 n
1
(neutrino) 00

(isotope)
(11 H) 1 (21 H)
(tritium) (31 H)
1 2
X-Z X
238 12.

(periodical table)
He-3 32 He U-235 235 92 U
D T

U-235, U-238 U-234
99.282%, 0.712% 0.006%

3 U-227 U-240
(H2 O)
(D2 O) 1 3200
0.03%


H2 O D2 O
D2 O
H2 O

12.2

C + O2 CO2

C O2

(valence electron)


A1Z1 K Z2 L Z3 M Z4 N
A2 A3 A4

A1
Z1 K +A2
Z2 L Z3 M +Z4 N
A3 A4

Z1 + Z2 = Z3 + Z4
A1 + A2 = A3 + A4
12.3. 239

X
27
13 Al + 42 He 30
14 Si + Z X
A

13 + 2 = 14 + Z
Z=1
27 + 4 = 30 + A
A=1

1 1 11 H
1 H 1 p
1 1

12.3

(mass defect) AZ X
m = (A Z)mn + Z(mp + me ) mX (12.1)
(Einsteins law)
E = mc2 (12.2)
m kg c 3.00 108 m/s
E (binding energy)

1 amu = 1.66 1027 kg
1 amu 1.494 1011 J 931 MeV
42 He -
4.00277 amu m 0.03037 amu E = 27.1 MeV
42 He 4 6.78 MeV
12.1
40

Fe, Co Ni
240 12.

12.1:

7.5 MeV
7.5 MeV

1 H 1 H
1 1
2 He (fusion)
4

11 H

(ssion)

12.4


(radioactive matter) -

1. (gamma ray)
12.4. 241

(excited state) (ground
state)
( )
A
Z X A
Z X+

2. (beta ray)

1

60
27 28 Ni +1 e + +
Co 60 0

3. (alpha ray)

239
94 Pu 235
92 U +42 He +



N (t) t
dN

dt
= N (12.3)

(decay constant) s1 (12.3)

N (t) = N (0)et (12.4)
N (0)
(half-life)

(12.4) t = t1/2 N (t1/2 ) = 0.5N0
0.5N0 = N (0)et1/2
242 12.

12.1:
(MeV)
C-14 5715 0.156
N-16 7.13 , 4.24 (), 6.129 ()
P-32 14.28 1.170
K-40 1.25 10 9 1.312
Co-60 5.271 , 0.315 (), 1.332 ()
Sr-90 29.1 0.546
I-131 8.021 , 0.606 (), 0.364 ()
Xe-135 9.10 , 0.910 (), 0.250 ()
Cs-137 30.2 , 0.514 (), 0.662 ()
Rn-222 3.823 , 5.490 (), 0.510 ()
U-235 7.40 108 4.152
U-238 4.47 10 9 4.040
Pu-239 2.41 10 4 5.055

0.6931
= t1/2 =

(12.5)

t1/2 12.1

Co-60 3 1000

12.1 t1/2 Co-60 5.271 (12.5)
0.6931
=
t1/2

(12.4)
( )
0.6931t
N (t) = N (0) exp
t1/2
( )
0.6931 3
= 1000 exp
5.271
= 674
12.5. 243

12.5

U-235, U-238, Pu-239 Th-232
2-3 (ssion)

A
Z X + 10 n A1
F
Z1 1 + A2
F
Z2 2 + m10 n

AZ X AZ11 F1 AZ22 F2 m

23592 U U-235 U-
235
U-235
235
92 U + 10 n 140
54 Xe + 94
38 Sr + 20 n
1

U-235 75 160

(delay process)
U-235
U-236 U-236
235
92 U + 10 n 236
92 U
U-236
2.34 107 U-236
14% 86%

235
92 U + 10 n 137
56 Ba + 97
36 Kr + 20 n
1

235.0439 + 1.00867 = 236.0526 amu

138.9061 + 96.9212 + 2(1.00867) = 235.8446 amu
0.208 amu 193.6 MeV
200
MeV 12.2
190 MeV 10 MeV


244 12.

12.2: U-235
(MeV)
166
14
10
5
5
200

U-235 1 MW

1 U-235 0.86 0.14
1 U-235
E = 0.86 190 1.60 1013
= 2.61 1011 J

U-235 235 g 6.02 1023 1 g U-235

1
E= 6.02 1023 E
235
= 6.69 1010 J

86400 U-235 1 g
6.69 1010
P = = 0.774 MW
86400

1 MW U-235 1.3 g

12.6
U-235

12.6. 245

(chain reaction)
2-3

12.2

U-235



U-235
U-235 U-236
U-235
U-235

U-235
86% U-235
(slow neutron)
(thermal neutron)
(fast neutron)
(prompt neutron)
U-235

(En2 )
(En1 ) A
( )2
En2 A1
En1
=
A+1
(12.6)

2% U-238
246 12.

28% C-12

12.7
(1) (fuel core) (2)
(coolant) (3) (moderator) (4) (control rod) (5)
(reactor vessel)

(UO2 )
(UC) (cladding ma-
terial) Al, Mg, Zr,
3
















(shim rod) (regulating rod)
(safety rod)
(boron steel)

12.8. 247

1.8 m

12.8

(1)
(pressurized water reactor, PWR) (2) (boiling water reactor,
BWR) (3) (advanced gas-cooled reactor, AGR) (4)
(pressurized heavy water reactor, PHWR) (5) RBMK
( Reaktor Bolshoy Moshchnosti Kanalniy High
Power Channel Reactor)

12.8.1
200-300
150-250


(zircaloy) 12.2

PWR 12.2
(primary loop)
(secondary loop)

325 C
150 (pressurizer)

PWR

PWR 374 C
374 C

230
248 12.

12.2:

12.8.2
U-235 -
1.9-2.6 % 750 90-100
12.3
PWR
75
285 C

12.3

BWR
PWR BWR
PWR
12.8. 249

12.3:

12.8.3
PHWR CANDU (Canadian Deuterium)
CANDU PWR



PWR
12.4
(Calandria)
12-13 CANDU
(zircaloy)

300 C
CANDU

CANDU
CANDU
1 3200

250 12.

12.4: CANDU

12.8.4
12.5
U-235 2.5-3.5%
CO2
CO2
650 C
AGR PWR BWR AGR PWR BWR

12.8.5 RBMK
RBMK 12.6


290 C BWR -


.. 2529 RBMK

12.9. 251

12.5:

12.6: RBMK

12.9




252 12.

(U3 O8 )
3.3
(27%)
(17%) (15%) (11%) (8%) (7%) (5%)
(4%) (4%) (leaching)
(yellow cake)
1000 MW 200
U3 O8 (UF6 )

U-235 1% 4% U-238
85%
(depleted uranium) U-235
(0.7%) (gas centrifuge)
(gas diffusion)
12.7
UF6 238 92 UF6 92 UF6
235

235 92 UF6 UF6

92 UF6 UF6 UF6
235

U-235 U-235 UF6

UF6 U-235

U-235


UF6
12.8 (stage)
(membrane) UF6
238 92 UF6 92 UF6
235

235 UF 235 UF UF
92 6 92 6 6
235 UF UF 235 UF UF
92 6 6 92 6 6

U-235
UF6

UF6
UF6 (UO2 )
1 cm 2 cm
12.10. 253

12.7:

12.8:

(fuel pellet)
60 cm 4 m

12.10
-



(1) (low-level waste)

(2) (intermediate-level waste)
(3) (high-level waste)

254 12.

5-10




(borosilicate glass)

500
U-235 1% U-238 93%
Pu-239 0.5% 5.5%
U-235,
U-238 Pu-239 U-235
Pu-239 U-235


Pu-239 U-235
Pu-239

12.11

H+
OH
(somatic
effect) (genetic effect)

-
(cosmic ray)

12.11. 255

(radiation dose) SI
(Gy) 1 Gy 1 J 1 kg


(equivalent radiation dose) (quality factor)
(Sv) 12.3

12.3:

, , 1
2
10
10
20
20

-

1
4 Sv
2-6 mSv

1 kg 4 103 J

256 12.

4 103 J/1 kg = 4 103 Gy 1

1 4 103 = 4 mSv

12.12
(International Atomic Energy Agency) IAEA

IAEA 3

U-235 95%
U-235 2-3%
(reactor meltdown)

28 .. 2522 (Three Mile Is-

land) PWR

12.12. 257

26 .. 2529 (Chernobyl)
() RBMK





31 203

11 .. 2554 8.9
10
(Fukushima) (Fukushima Daiichi)
BWR 6
14

4
258 12.

1.
2. 239
94 Pu

3.
4.
5.
6. 90
38 39 Y
Sr 90

7. 360 2
6
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.

15.
16. RBMK
17.
18. (U3 O8 )
19.
20.
12.12. 259

21.
22.
23.
24. 1.007277 amu 1.008665 amu
168 O 15.99491 amu 168 O (1 amu = 1.66 1027 kg,
1 eV = 1.6 1019 J c = 3.0 108 m/s)
25. U-235 200 MeV 1 20000 kJ
1 g U-235 (1 eV = 1.6
1019 J 6.022 1023 1 mol U-235)
260 12.
 13

13.1

13.1.1
N2 79% O2 21%



(particulate)
(NOx ) (SO2 )

(NO) (NO2 )
NO
262 13.

NO2
NOx


-
SO2 SO2 (sulfuric
acid) SO2


13.1

13.1:
SO2 NOx
(ppm) (ppm) (mg/m3 )
1.
1.1 700 400 320
1.2 950 200 240
1.3 60 200 60
1.4 60 200 320
2.
2.1
(1) 300 MW 640 350 120
(2) 300 - 500 MW 450 350 120
(3) 500 MW 320 350 120
2.2
(1) 300 MW 640 180 120
(2) 300 - 500 MW 450 180 120
(3) 500 MW 320 180 120
2.3 20 120 60
2.4 60 200 120

AW + BX + CY + DZ

13.1. 263

A
B
C
D
W
X
Y
Z

13.1

13.1:

13.1.2



264 13.

(cooling tower)





-
















1. (pH) 5 9
2. 40 C
3. 3000 mg/L
4. 50 mg/L
5. BOD 20 mg/L
6. COD 120 mg/L
7.
13.2. 265

13.1.3

(stabilization)

13.2
NOx NOx
(combustion control) NOx
NOx (post-combustion control) NOx
NOx (NH3 )
NOx NOx NOx
NOx SCR (selective catalytic reduction) NOx
SCNR (selective non-catalytic reduction)

13.2.1
NOx
NOx



(ue gas recirculation)
NOx


NOx
266 13.

NOx NOx (low NOx burner)



(air staging) (fuel
staging) NOx


13.2

13.2: NOx

13.2.2 NOx SCR

(NH3 )
(catalyst) 13.3 NH3 NOx
4NO + 4NH3 + O2 4N2 + 6H2 O
2NO2 + 4NH3 + 2O2 3N2 + 6H2 O

(exothermic)
(160 350 C)
NOx SCR 95%
SCR

13.2. 267

13.3: NOx SCR

3 4
SCR
SCR NOx
(ammonia slip)

SO2 SO2 SO3

SO + 12 O2 SO3
NH3 + SO3 + H2 O NH4 HSO2
1
2NH3 + 2SO3 + H2 O + O2 2NH4 SO4
2

(ammonium bisulfate, NH4 HSO2 ) (ammonium

sulfate, NH4 SO4 ) 1 3
SCR
5 ppm
SCR (titanium dioxide, TiO2 )
(vanadium pentoxide, V2 O5 ) (tung-
sten oxide, WO3 )
SCR
13.1 6 7.5 mm SCR
3.3 5 mm
2 3 mm
2 4 NOx
20 30% NOx SCR
268 13.

SCR

13.2.3 NOx SNCR

SNCR (urea, CO(NH2 )2 ) NO

4NO + 4NH3 + O2 4N2 + 6H2 O
4NO + 2CO(NH2 )2 + O2 4N2 + 2CO2 + 4H2 O

900 1050 C
SNCR NO2 NOx
NO 95% NO2 5% SNCR NOx
70 80% SCR SNCR
SCR SNCR SCR

4NH3 + 5O2 4NO + 6H2 O
4NH3 + 3O2 2N2 + 6H2 O
2NH3 + 2O2 N2 O + 3H2 O

NO (nitrous oxide, N2 O)
N2 O

NOx SNCR




NOx
SNCR NOx


(computational uid dynamics)
SNCR

13.3. 269

13.3


(bottom ash)
(y ash)
13.2

13.2:

(%) (%) (%)
60-80 0-5 20-40
10-30 0-10 70-90
5-90 0-5 10-95

(cyclone separator)




(electrostatic precipitator) (fabric lter)

13.3.1
(emitting electrode)
(grounded collecting plate)
30 80 kV
13.4

270 13.

13.4:

(ash hopper)
13.5

13.5:

(elec-
13.3. 271

trical resistivity) 1 108

1 1014 .cm



5 109 5 1010 .cm
SO3
SO3

13.3.2



(lter bag)
125 300 mm
12.5 m
(cell plate)

(reverse gas fabric lter) 13.6

(pulse jet fabric lter) 13.7

272 13.

13.6:

13.7:

13.4. 273

13.3.3

13.8

13.8:

13.4

(extrinsic ash)
(intrinsic ash)

(silicon) (aluminum) (alkali)



(bottom ash)
274 13.

(y ash)

(mechanical stoker) 60 80% 20 40%
(pulverized coal) 10 30%
70 90%

13.4.1
(hopper)



13.9 (silo)

13.9:
(pneumatic)

13.4. 275

(Bernoulli equation)

(uidization)

60

13.4.2

276 13.

13.5
(SO2 ) -

S + O2 SO2
SO2 (sulfuric acid, H2 SO4 )

SO2

SO2
SO2
70%
SO2


SO2 SO2 (ue gas desulfurization)
SO2 (sulfurous acid, H2 SO3 )
(H+ ) (HSO3 )
H+ (SO2 3 )

SO2 + H2 O H2 SO3
H2 SO3 H+ + HSO3
H+ + HSO3 SO23 + 2H
+

SO2 SO2 SO2

H+ (alkaline ion)
(OH ) (CO2 3 ) (HCO3 )

SO2
SO2 (limestone)

13.5.1 SO2
SO2 (CaCO3 )
SO2 95 - 98% 13.10
SO2

CaCO3 + SO2 + 21 H2 O CaSO3 . 21 H2 O

13.5. 277

CaSO3 . 12 H2 O + 32 H2 O CaSO4 .2H2 O

SO2 (CaSO4 )
(CaSO3 ) -

13.10: SO2

SO2
(saturated)
278 13.

(mist eliminator)

(hydrocyclone)


SO2

13.5.2 SO2
pH 8 CO2 3 HCO3

SO2 SO2

13.11
SO2
SO2 + CO2
3 SO3 + CO2
2

SO2 + HCO3 HSO3 + CO2

SO2 3 HSO3

SO2
3 HSO3 O2

1
SO2
3 + 2 O2 SO4
2

HSO3 + 12 O2 HSO4

pH 6 7 pH pH

13.6

(continuous emis-
sion monitoring, CEM)
13.6. 279

13.11: SO2

CEM
NO, NO2 SO2

13.6.1
2 (in-
situ method) (extractive method)
(point
analysis) (path analysis)

13.12
(single-pass)
280 13.

13.13 (double-pass)


NOx , SO2

13.12:

13.13:

13.6. 281

(dry extractive)
(wet extractive)

(dilution extractive)


(lter)
(membrane)


SO2

NOx
NOx

NOx SO2

50:1 250:1



13.3 NOx SO2

13.6.2


(light extinction)
282 13.

13.3: NOx SO2

NOx SO2
2% 3%

- 48% 9%
- 1% 1%
- 49% 87%

13.12 13.13
(beta ray
attenuation) C-14

(probe electrication)

13.6.3 NOx SO2

NOx SO2
(infrared) (ultraviolet)
NOx SO2 (non-dispersive)
NOx
SO2 (light source) (beam)
NOx
13.6. 283

SO2 NOx SO2

NOx SO2
(chemiluminescence) NOx -
(UV uorescence) SO2 SO2
(excited state) (ground state)
SO2 NO
(O3 ) NO2
NO + O3 NO2 + O2

(ground state)
NO NO2
NO2 NO
284 13.

1. NOx
2.
3. NOx SCR
4. NOx SCR
5. NOx SNCR
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11. SO2
12.
13.

14. CEM
15.

16.

17. SO2 SO2
18. NOx NOx
19.
20.
21.


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Generators and Associated Plant (Third Edition), Pergamon Press, 1991.
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and Metallurgy (Third Edition), Pergamon Press, 1991.
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[12] T. Kuppan, Heat Exchanger Design Handbook, Marcel Dekker, 2000.
[13] K. Rayaprolu, Boilers for Power and Process, CRC Press, 2009.
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[15] J. Cheng, Biomass to Renewable Energy Processes, CRC Press, 2010.

285