UNIT III

Internal combustion engines are one of the

building blocks of modern civilization. In an
internal combustion engine, the combustion
takes place inside a confined chamber. All
internal combustion engines burn a mixture of
air & fuel. The fuel can be gasoline, diesel,
methane, propane etc.

The piston is the heart of an internal combustion

engine..The concept of the piston engine is that a
supply of air-and-fuel mixture is fed to the inside
of the cylinder where it is compressed and then
burnt. This internal combustion releases heat
energy which is then converted into useful
mechanical work as the high gas pressures
generated force the piston to move along its
stroke in the cylinder. It can be said, therefore, that a heat-engine is merely an energy
transformer.

To enable the piston movement to be harnessed, the driving thrust on the piston is
transmitted by means of a connecting-rod to a crankshaft whose function is to convert the
linear piston motion in the cylinder to a rotary crankshaft movement (Fig. 1.1-1). The
piston can thus be made to repeat its movement to and fro, due to the constraints of the
crankshaft crankpins circular path and the guiding cylinder.

An Internal Combustion Engine (IC Engine) is a type of combustion engine that converts
chemical energy into thermal energy, to produce useful mechanical work. In an IC engine,
combustion chamber is an integral part of the working fluid circuit.

Principle of operation:
Air-fuel mixture in the combustion chamber (inside the cylinder) is ignited, either by a
spark plug (in case of Spark Ignition Engines) or by compression (in case of Compression
Ignition engines). This ignition produces tremendous amount of heat and pressure inside
the cylinder. This induces reciprocating motion in the piston.

Power of the piston is transmitted to a crankshaft which undergoes rotary motion. The
rotary motion is ultimately transmitted to the wheels of the vehicle, via a transmission
system, to produce propulsion in the vehicle.

As the combustion takes place internally inside the cylinder (a part of working fluid
circuit), the engine is called internal combustion engine.

Types of Internal Combustion Engines:

Internal combustion engines can be classified into a large number of types based on
several criteria. The classification of IC engines is given below:
1. Based on the fuel used
1. Diesel Engine
2. Petrol Engine (or Gasoline Engine)
2. Based on the type of cycle
1. Otto Cycle Engine
2. Diesel Cycle Engine
3. Dual Cycle Engine
3. Based on the number of strokes per cycle
1. Two-stroke Engine
2. Four-stroke Engine
4. Based on the number of cylinders
1. Single Cylinder Engine
2. Multi cylinder Engine
1. Twin Cylinder Engine
2. Three Cylinder Engine
3. Four Cylinder Engine
4. Six Cylinder Engine
5. Eight Cylinder Engine
6. Twelve Cylinder Engine
7. Sixteen Cylinder Engine
5. Based on the type of ignition
1. Spark Ignition Engine (S.I. Engine)
2. Compression Ignition Engine (C.I. Engine)
6. Based on the lubrication system used
1. Dry sump lubricated engine
2. Wet sump lubricated Engine
7. Based on the cooling system used
1. Air-cooled Engine
2. Water-cooled Engine
8. Based on the arrangement of valves
1. L-head Engine
2. I-head Engine
3. T-head Engine
4. F-head Engine
9. Based on the position of cylinders
1. Horizontal Engine
2. Vertical Engine
3. Radial Engine
4. Opposed Piston Engine
5. Opposed Cylinder Engine
6. V Engine
7. W Engine
8. Inline Engine
10. Based on the pressure boost given to the inlet air or air-fuel mixture
1. Naturally aspired Engine
2. Supercharged Engine
3. Turbocharged Engine
4. Crankcase compressed Engine
11. Based on application
1. Automobile Engine
2. Aircraft Engine
3. Locomotive Engine
4. Marine Engine
5. Stationary Engine
Two-stroke

Engines based on the two-stroke cycle use two strokes (one up, one down) for every
power stroke. Since there are no dedicated intake or exhaust strokes, alternative methods
must be used to scavenge the cylinders. The most common method in spark-ignition two-
strokes is to use the downward motion of the piston to pressurize fresh charge in the
crankcase, which is then blown through the cylinder through ports in the cylinder walls.
Spark-ignition two-strokes are small and light (for their power output), and mechanically
very simple. Common applications include snowmobiles, lawnmowers, weed-whackers,
chain saws, jet skis, mopeds, outboard motors, and some motorcycles. Unfortunately, they
are also generally louder, less efficient, and far more polluting than their four-stroke
counterparts, and they do not scale well to larger sizes. Interestingly, the largest
compression-ignition engines are two-strokes, and are used in some locomotives and large
ships. These engines use forced induction to scavenge the cylinders. two stroke engines
are less fuel efficient than other types of engines because unspent fuel being sprayed into
the combustion chamber can some times escape out of the exhaust duct with the
previously spent fuel. Without special exhaust processing, this will also produce very high
pollution levels, requiring many small engine applications such as lawnmowers to employ
four stroke engines, and smaller two-strokes to be outfitted with catalytic converters in
some jurisdictions.

Four-stroke

Engines based on the four-stroke cycle or Otto cycle have one power stroke for every four
strokes (up-down-up-down) and are used in cars, larger boats and many light aircraft.
They are generally quieter, more efficient and larger than their two-stroke counterparts.
There are a number of variations of these cycles, most notably the Atkinson and Miller
cycles. Most truck and automotive Diesel engines use a four-stroke cycle, but with a
compression heating ignition system. This variation is called the diesel cycle.

SPARK IGNITION ENGINES

The operating cycle of a conventional spark ignition engine is illustrated in Figure 4.1. The
basic principle of operation is that a piston moves up and down in a cylinder, transmitting its
motion through a connecting rod to the crankshaft which drives the vehicle. The most
common engine cycle
Involves four strokes:
1.Intake.
The descending piston draws a mixture of fuel and air through the open intake valve.
2. Compression.
The intake valve is closed and the rising piston compresses the fuel- air mixture.
Near the top of the stroke, the spark plug is fired, igniting the mixture.
3. Expansion.
The burning mixture expands, driving the piston down and delivering power.
4.Exhaust.
The exhaust valve opens and the piston rises, expelling the burned gas from the
cylinder.
The fuel and air mixture is commonly premixed in a carburetor. Figure 4.2 shows how
engine power and fuel consumption depend on equivalence ratio over the range
commonly used in internal combustion engines. Ratios below 0.7 and above 1.4 generally
are not combustible on the time scales available in reciprocating engines. The maximum
power is obtained at a higher ratio than is minimum fuel consumption. As a vehicle
accelerates, high power is needed and a richer mixture is required than when cruising at
constant speed. We shall return to the question of the equivalence ratio when we consider
pollutant formation, since this ratio is one of the key
Factors governing the type and quantity of pollutants formed in the cylinder

Spark Ignition (SI) Engine:

Inside the combustion chamber of this type of engine, the mixture of fuel and air is ignited by a
spark plug to initiate the exothermic combustion reaction.
Compression Ignition (CI) Engine:
This type of internal combustion engine does not have spark plug. Inside the combustion
chamber of this engine, air is compressed to a high enough pressure and temperature that
combustion occurs spontaneously when fuel is injected at the end of air compression.
Advantages and Applications
SI Engines
1. Lightweight
2. Low Cost
3. Suited for applications in smaller and medium sized automobiles
requiring power up to about 225 kW (300 horsepower)
4. Also used as domestic electricity generators and out board engines for
smaller boats
CI Engines

1. Suited for medium and large size mobile applications such as heavy trucks
and buses, locomotives and ships, auxiliary power units (emergency diesel
generators in industries) where fuel economy and relatively large amount of
power both are required yet being noisy

In an internal combustion engine, the piston executes four distinct strokes within the cylinder
for every two revolutions of the crankshaft. The four strokes are termed as
1. Intake Stroke
2. Compression Stroke
3. Power Stroke
4. Exhaust Stroke
Intake Stroke
1. Intake valve opens.
2. Piston moves from TDC to BDC.
 3. Fresh charge is drawn into the cylinder due to suction.
4. For SI engine the charge is a mixture of fuel and air.
5. For CI enginescharge is only air.

Compression Stroke
1. Intake and Exhaust both valves remain closed.
2. Piston rises from BDC to TDC and compresses the charge, raising the
temperature and pressure. This stroke requires work input from Piston to the
charge.
3. Combustion is induced near the end of the compression stroke.
4. In SI engines it is induced by spark plug.
5. In CI engines combustion is initiated by injecting fuel into the hot.compressed
air using fuel injectors.

Power Stroke
1. Power Stroke follows the compression stroke during which the gas mixture
expands due to exothermic blast of fuel and air mixture.
2. Work in done on the Piston as thermal energy is converted to mechanical
energy.
3. Piston moves from TDC to BDC.

Exhaust Stroke
1. Piston moves from BDC to TDC due to momentum gained.
2. Exhaust Valve opens
3. Burned gases are purged from the cylinder through the exhaust
valve.

Compression-ignition (C.I) engines burn fuel oil which is injected into the combustion chamber
when the air charge is fully compressed. Burning occurs when the compression temperature of
the air is high enough to spontaneously ignite the finely atomized liquid fuel. In other words,
burning is initiated by the self-generated heat of compression (Fig. 1.1-8). Compression-ignition
(C.I) engines are also referred to as 'oil engines', due to the class of fuel burnt, or as 'diesel
engines' after Rudolf Diesel, one of the many inventors and pioneers of the early C.I. engine.
Note: in the United Kingdom fuel oil is known as 'DERV', which is the abbreviation of 'diesel-
engine road vehicle'.

Just like the four-stroke-cycle petrol engine, the Compression-ignition (C.I.) engine completes
one cycle of events in two crankshaft revolutions or four piston strokes. The four phases of these
strokes are (i) induction of fresh air, (ii) compression and heating of this air, (iii) injection of
fuel and its burning and expansion, and (iv) expulsion of the products of combustion.

Induction stroke (Fig. 1.1-8(a)) With the inlet valve open and the exhaust valve closed, the
piston moves away from the cylinder head (Fig. 1.1-8(a)).

The outward movement of the piston will establish a depression in the cylinder, its magnitude
depending on the ratio of the cross-sectional areas of the cylinder and the inlet port and on the
speed at which the piston is moving. The pressure difference established between the inside and
outside of the cylinder will induce air at atmospheric pressure to entend fill up the cylinder.
Unlike the petrol engine, which requires a charge of air-and-petrol mixture to be drawn past a
throttle valve, in the diesel-engine inlet system no restriction is necessary and only pure air is
induced into the cylinder. A maximum depression of maybe 0.15 bar below atmospheric
pressure will occur at about one-third of the distance along the piston's outward stroke, while the
overall average pressure in the cylinder might be 0.1 bar or even less.
Compression stroke (Fig. 1.1-8(b)) With both the inlet and the exhaust valves closed, the piston
moves towards the cylinder head (Fig. 1.1-8(b)).

The air enclosed in the cylinder will be compressed into a much smaller space of anything from
1/12 to 1/24 of its original volume. A typical ratio of maximum to minimum air-charge volume
in the cylinder would be 16:1, but this largely depends on engine size and designed speed range.

During the compression stroke, the air charge initially at atmospheric pressure and temperature
is reduced in volume until the cylinder pressure is raised to between 30 and 50 bar. This
compression of the air generates heat which will increase the charge temperature to at least 600
C under normal running conditions.

Power stroke (Fig. 1.1-8(c)) With both the inlet and the exhaust valves closed and the piston
almost at the end of the compression stroke (Fig. 1.1 -8(c)), diesel fuel oil is injected into the
dense and heated air as a high-pressure spray of fine particles. Provided that they are properly
atomized and distributed throughout the air charge, the heat of compression will then quickly
vaporize and ignite the tiny droplets of liquid fuel. Within a very short time, the piston will have
reached its innermost position and extensive burning then releases heat energy which is rapidly
converted into pressure energy. Expansion then follows, pushing the piston away from the
cylinder head, and the linear thrust acting on the piston end of the connecting-rod will then be
changed to rotary movement of the crankshaft.

Exhaust stroke When the burning of the charge is near completion and the piston has reached
the outermost position, the exhaust valve is opened. The piston then reverses its direction of
motion and moves towards the cylinder head (Fig. 1.1-8(d)).

The sudden opening of the exhaust valve towards the end of the power stroke will release the
still burning products of combustion to the atmosphere. The pressure energy of the gases at this
point will accelerate their expulsion from the cylinder, and only towards the end of the piston's
return stroke will the piston actually catch up with the tail-end of the outgoing gases.

Fig. 1.1-8(e) illustrates the sequence of the four operating strokes as applied to a four-cylinder
engine, and the combined operating events expressed in terms of cylinder pressure and piston
displacement are shown in Figs. 1.1-8(f) and (g).

Spark Ignition (SI) engine can be compared with Compression Ignition (CI) engine system
in 7 aspects. Those 7 aspects are engine speed, cycle efficiency, fuel used, time of knocking,
cycle operation, pressure generated and constant parameter during cycle.

S.no Aspect Spark Ignition Engine Compression Ignition Engine

1 Engine speed SI engines are high speed CI engines are low speed
engines. engines.
2 Cycle efficiency SI engines have low thermal CI engines have high thermal
efficiency efficiency.
3 Fuel used Petrol is used as fuel, which Diesel is used as fuel, it has low
has high self ignition self ignition temperature.
temperature.
4 Time of knocking Knocking takes place at the Knocking takes place at the
end of combustion. beginning of combustion.
5 Cycle operation SI engine works on otto cycle. CI engine works on diesel
cycle.
6 Pressure Homogeneous mixture of fuel, Heterogeneous mixture of fuel,
generated hence high pressure is hence low pressure is
generated. generated.
7 Constant Constant volume cycle. Constant pressure cycle.
parameter during
cycle
Spark Ignition Engine (S.I Engine) Compression Ignition Engine(C.I Engine)
Spark plug required No spark plug required
The mixture of air and fuel is introduced Only air is introduced into the cylinder.
into the cylinder from carburettor.
These type of engines compresses air and In these engines air is only compressed in
fuel together in the cylinder the cylinder.
No fuel pump is used. Fuel pump is used to inject fuel.
Fuel is mixed with air before compression Fuel is mixed with air once compression is
starts. complete.
Compression ratio is low. Compression ratio is high.
This type of engine makes use of highly This type of engine makes use of less
volatile liquid fuel. volatile liquid fuel.
Less efficient. More efficient.
Fuel used in this engine is expensive. Cheaper fuels are used in these engines.
Higher fuel consumption in these engines These engines have lesser fuel
for same power. consumption for same power.
Engines are more compact and light. Heavier and strong engines due to higher
pressure involved
Initial cost is less Initial Cost is high.
These engines have a smooth operation Roughness in engine operation
encountered, especially when the engine
runs at high speed and low loads.

S.No. Four stroke engine Two stroke engine

1. It has one power stroke for It has one power stroke for each
every two revolutions of the revolution of the crankshaft.
crankshaft.

2. Heavy flywheel is required and Lighter flywheel is required and engine

engine runs unbalanced because runs balanced because turning moment is
turning moment on the more even due to one power stroke for
crankshaft is not even due to each revolution of the crankshaft.
 one power stroke for every two
revolutions of the crankshaft.

3. Engine is heavy Engine is light

4. Engine design is complicated due Engine design is simple due to absence of

to valve mechanism. valve mechanism.

5. More cost. Less cost than 4 stroke.

Less mechanical efficiency due More mechanical efficiency due to less

to more friction on many parts. friction on a few parts.

6.

7. More output due to full fresh Less output due to mixing of fresh charge
charge intake and full burnt with the hot burnt gases.
gases exhaust.

8. Engine runs cooler. Engine runs hotter.

9. Engine is water cooled. Engine is air cooled.

10. Less fuel consumption and More fuel consumption and fresh charge is
complete burning of fuel. mixed with exhaust gases.

11. Engine requires more space. Engine requires less space.

12. Complicated lubricating system. Simple lubricating system.

13. Less noise is created by engine. More noise is created by engine.

14. Engine consists of inlet and Engine consists of inlet and exhaust ports.
exhaust valve.

15. More thermal efficiency. Less thermal efficiency.

16. It consumes less lubricating oil. It consumes more lubricating oil.

17. Less wear and tear of moving More wear and tear of moving parts.
parts.

18. Used in cars, buses, trucks etc. Used in mopeds, scooters, motorcycles
etc.
Modes of Heat Transfer

Heat is a form of energy which transfers between bodies which are kept under thermal
interactions. When a temperature difference occurs between two bodies or a body with its
surroundings, heat transfer occurs.

Heat transfer occurs in three modes. Three modes of heat transfer are described below.

1. Conduction

2. Convection and

3. Radiation
Conduction:

In Conduction, heat transfer takes place due to a temperature difference in a body or

between bodies in thermal contact, without mixing of mass. The rate of heat transfer
through conduction is governed by the Fouriers law of heat conduction.

Q = -kA(dT/dx)

Where, Q is the heat flow rate by conduction

K is the thermal conductivity of body material
A is the cross-sectional area normal to direction of heat flow and
dT/dx is the temperature gradient of the section.

Convection:

In convection, heat is transferred to a moving fluid at the surface over which it flows by
combined molecular diffusion and bulk flow. Convection involves conduction and fluid
flow. The rate of convective heat transfer is governed by the Newtons law of cooling.

Q = hA(Ts-T)

Where Ts is the surface temperature

T is the outside temperature
h is the coefficient of convection.

Radiation:

In radiation, heat is transferred in the form of radiant energy or wave motion from one
body to another body. No medium for radiation to occur. The rate of heat radiation that
can be emitted by a surface at a thermodynamic temperature is based on Stefan-Boltzmann
law.

Q = .T4

Where T is the absolute temperature of surface

is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant.

Thermal Resistance

Summary

The concept of thermal resistance can be utilised to solve steady state heat transfer problems that
involve series, parallel or combined series-parallel components. This article demonstrates how
to calculate the total thermal resistance for such systems and how to calculate the thermal
resistance for practical geometries such as a pipe wall.

Definitions
RRR : Thermal resistance (K/W)

RconvR_{conv}Rconv : Thermal resistance for convective heat transfer (K/W)

RradR_{rad}Rrad : Thermal resistance for radiative heat transfer (K/W)

RwallR_{wall}Rwall : Thermal resistance for conductive heat transfer through a plane wall (K/W)

QQQ : Heat flow (W)

TTT : Temperature at a given point (K)

xxx : Thickness of a plane wall (m)

AAA : Heat transfer area (m2)

kkk : Average thermal conductivity (W/m.K)

r1r_{1}r1 : Internal diameter (m)

r2r_{2}r2 : External diameter (m)

LLL : Length of a pipe (m)

hhh : Heat transfer coefficient (w/m2.K)

Introduction

Thermal resistance is the resistance of a particular medium or system to the flow of heat through
its boundaries and is dependent upon geometry and thermal properties of the medium such as
thermal conductivity.

Accurate knowledge of the thermal resistance for a given system or system component may
permit calculation of the heat flow through it or the temperatures on its boundaries. This is of
particular use in thermal design problems in industry such as calculating the heat loss from a
tank or the selection of piping insulation.

Thermal Resistance Network

Thermal resistance networks are commonly employed in order to analyse steady state heat
transfer. Thermal resistance networks have a similar functionality to electrical resistance
networks used in electrical engineering and allow for easy calculation of the total thermal
resistance in a system whether it is composed of resistances in series, parallel or both.

Resistance in series
Often one must consider heat transfer through various mediums in series, one such example is
the heat flow from a gas on one side of a planar wall to the gas on the other side. This heat
transfer system may be analysed using the thermal resistance network below.
Q=T1T1Rconv1=T1T2Rwall=T2T2Rconv1 \displaystyle \displaystyle Q =
\frac{T_{\infty 1 } - T_1} {R_{conv1}} = \frac{T_1 - T_2} {R_{wall}} = \frac{T_2 -
T_{\infty 2 }} {R_{conv1}} Q=Rconv1T1T1=RwallT1T2=Rconv1T2T2

The total resistance for the system described above may be calculated from all the component
resistances Rconv1, Rwall and Rconv2 as follows.

Rtotal=Rconv1+Rwall+Rconv2 \displaystyle R_{total} = R_{conv1} + R_{wall} + R_{conv2}

Rtotal=Rconv1+Rwall+Rconv2

Once the total resistance has been calculated the heat flow through the system may be calculated
from knowledge of the two end temperatures as follows.

Q=T1T2Rtotal \displaystyle Q = \frac{T_{\infty 1 } - T_{\infty 2 }} {R_{total}} Q=Rtotal

T1T2

Resistance in parallel
Heat transfer may also occur through resistance in parallel, for example the heat lost from the
outer surface of a tank will occur due to both the convective and radiative heat transfer
mechanisms.

The inverse total resistance for the system shown above may be calculated by adding the
inverses resistance of the two components.

1Rtotal=1Rconv+1Rrad \displaystyle \frac{1}{R_{total}} = \frac{1}{R_{conv}} +

\frac{1}{R_{rad}} Rtotal1=Rconv1+Rrad1

This may be simplified so it can be directly combined with the thermal resistances from other
components in a given system which is of particular importance when thermal resistances exist
in both parallel and series.

Rtotal=RconvRradRconv+Rrad \displaystyle R_{total} = \frac{R_{conv}R_{rad}} {R_{conv}

+ R_{rad}} Rtotal=Rconv+RradRconvRrad

Combined series and parallel resistance

In industrial heat transfer problems thermal resistance is often in both series and parallel. For
example the heat loss from the contents of an un-insulated tank will have the convective
resistance of the tank contents followed by the conductive resistance of the tank walls in series
followed by convective and radiative resistance to the surround environment in parallel. This
example is described by the thermal resistance network below.

In this instance the total resistance may be calculated by adding the total resistance for the series
segment and the total resistance for the parallel segment as described in the previous sections.

Rtotal=Rconv1+Rwall+Rconv2RradRconv2+Rrad \displaystyle R_{total} = R_{conv1} +

R_{wall} + \frac{R_{conv2}R_{rad}} {R_{conv2} + R_{rad}} Rtotal=Rconv1+Rwall+R
conv2+RradRconv2Rrad

Calculation of thermal resistance

In the design and optimisation of industrial equipment it is often required to determine a steady
state temperature at some point along a thermal resistance network, for example the temperature
between a tank wall and the inside of its insulation.

In order to determine these temperatures one must first calculate the thermal resistances. Some
equations for the calculation of thermal resistance are presented below.

Conductive Resistance
Conductive resistance equations for some common cases are outlined in the table below.

Geometry Resistance Equation

Plane Wall
Rwall=xkA \displaystyle R_{wall} = \frac {x} {kA} Rwall=kAx
Cylinder
Rcyl=ln(r2/r1)2Lk \displaystyle R_{cyl} = \frac{ln \left(r_2/r_1 \right)} {2 \pi L
Wall k} Rcyl=2Lkln(r2/r1)
Spherical
Rsph=r2r14r1r2k \displaystyle R_{sph} = \frac {r_2 - r_1} {4 \pi r_1 r_2 k} R
Wall sph=4r1r2kr2r1

Convective Resistance
The resistance to heat transfer via convection may be calculated by the following equation.

Rconv=1hA \displaystyle R_{conv} = \frac {1} {hA} Rconv=hA1

In order to calculate the convective resistance the heat transfer coefficient, h must first be
determined. Many correlations exist to calculate the heat transfer coefficient depending on of the
geometry of the system being considered.

Radiative Resistance
The resistance to heat transfer via radiation may be calculated by the following equation:

Rrad=1hradA \displaystyle R_{rad} = \frac {1} {h_{rad} A} Rrad=hradA1

This allows radiative heat transfer to be easily grouped together with other heat transfer modes
when considering total heat transfer for a given system, however the radiative heat transfer
coefficient must first be calculated.

Contact Resistance
Typically in heat transfer analysis it is assumed that perfect contact occurs between the surfaces
of two components. For this assumption to be correct it would be required that both surfaces be
perfectly smooth, however this is rarely the case in practice.

When two real surfaces are pressed together peaks on each surface will contact and form areas
of high thermal conductivity while depressions will be occupied by air. As air is a poor thermal
conductor this will increase the resistance to heat flow when compared to perfectly smooth
surfaces. This increase in resistance is characterised by thermal contact resistance which may be
calculated as follows.

Rc=1hc \displaystyle R_c = \frac {1} {h_c} Rc=hc1

Here hc is the thermal contact conductance and is often determined experimentally.

Composite Systems

The idea of thermal resistance is a useful tool for analyzing conduction

through composite members.

Composite Plane Wall. For the series composite plane wall and the
associated thermal network shown in Fig. 2.4, the rate of heat transfer q is given by
Figure 2.4. Series composite wall and its thermal network.
 Hollow Cylinder

Figure 2.3 shows a hollow cylinder of inside radius r1, outside radius r2, length
L, and thermal conductivity k. The inside and outside surfaces are maintained at
constant temperatures Ts,1 and Ts,2, respectively with Ts,1 > Ts,2.

Figure 2.3.Radial conduction through a hollow cylinder.

For steady-state conduction in the radial direction with no internal heat

generation and constant thermal conductivity, the appropriate form of the general
heat conduction equation

is
with the boundary conditions expressed as

Following the same procedure as that used for the plane wall will give the
temperature distribution

and the heat flow

Overall heat transfer

In many applications of heat transfer two fluids at different temperatures are

separated by a solid wall. Heat is transferred from the fluid at the higher
temperature to the wall, conducted through the wall, and then finally transferred
from the cold side of the wall into the fluid at the lower temperature. This series of
convective and conductive heat transfer processes is known as overall heat transfer.

Overall heat transfer takes place, above all in heat exchangers. Here, for
example, a hot fluid flowing in a tube gives heat up, via the wall, to the colder fluid
flowing around the outside of the tube. House walls are also an example for overall
heat transfer. They separate the warm air inside from the colder air outside. The

resistance to heat transfer should be as large as possible, so that despite the

temperature difference between inside and outside, only a small amount of heat will
be lost through the walls. In contrast to this case, the heat transfer resistances
present in a heat exchanger should be kept as small as possible; here a great
amount of heat shall be transferred with a small temperature difference between the
two fluids in order to keep thermodynamic (exergy) losses as small as possible.

As these examples show, the calculation of the overall heat transfer is of

significant technical importance. This problem is dealt with in the next sections.

The overall heat transfer coefficient

The following analysis is based on the situation shown in Fig. 2.6. A flat or
curved wall separates a fluid at temperature 1 from another with a temperature 2

< 1. At steady state heat Q, flows from fluid 1 through the wall to fluid 2, as a
result of the temperature difference 1 2. The heat flow Q is transferred from
fluid 1 to the wall which has an area A1 and is at temperature W1. With 1 as the
heat transfer coefficient, it follows that

For the conduction through the wall

Here m is the mean thermal conductivity of the wall, its thickness and Am the
average area. Finally an analogous relationship exists for the heat transfer from the
wall to fluid 2
Fig. 2.6. Temperature profile for heat transfer through a tube wall bounded by two fluids.

The unknown wall temperatures W1 and W2, can be eliminated from the
three equations for Q. This means that Q can be calculated by knowing only the fluid
temperatures 1 and 2. This results in

where

is valid.

The overall heat transfer coefficient k, for the area A is defined above, where
A is the size of any reference area. Next equation shows that kA can be calculated
using the quantities already introduced for convective heat transfer and conduction.

In practice values for k are often given and used. This can be seen for
example in Polish building regulations where a minimum value for k is set for house
walls. This is to guarantee a sufficient degree of insulation in each house that is built.
This sort of statement of k is tacitly related to a certain area. For flat walls this is the
area of the wall A1 = A2 = Am; for tubes mostly the outer surface A2, which does not
normally differ greatly from A1 or Am.

Value 1/kA represents the resistance to overall heat transfer. It is made up of

the single resistances of each transfer process in the series; the resistance
toconvective transfer between fluid 1 and the wall, (1/ 1A1), the conduction
resistance in the wall, (/mAm) and the resistance to convective transfer between the
wall and fluid 2, (1/ 2A2). This series approach for overall heat transfer
resistance is analogous to that in electrical circuits, where the total resistance to the
current is found by the addition of all the single resistances in series. Therefore, the
three resistances which the heat flow Q must pass through, are added together.
These three are the resistance due to the boundary layer in fluid 1, the
conduction resistance in the wall and the resistance to transfer associated with the
boundary layer in fluid 2.
 The temperature drop due to these thermal resistances behaves in exactly the
same manner as the voltage drop in an electrical resistor, it increases as the
resistance goes up and as the current becomes stronger. From above equations we

get that

From this the temperature drop in the wall and the boundary layers on both
sides can be calculated. To find the wall temperatures the equations

are used.

For the overall heat transfer through a pipe, when it is taken into account that
a pipe of diameter d and length L has a surface area of A = dL. Then it follows that

where d1 is the inner and d2 the outer diameter of the pipe.