Energy Efficient Steam Systems

Energy-Efficient Steam Systems
Introduction
Air, water and steam are three media commonly used to distribute heat to process
loads. However, steam has several advantages compared to hot air and hot water.
These advantages include.
the heat carrying capacity of steam is much greater than air or water
steam provides its own locomotive force.
steam provides heat at a constant temperature
To illustrate these advantages, consider the quantities of air, hot water and steam
required to transfer 1,000,000 Btu/hr of heat to a process. If 100 psig steam were
condensed in a heat exchanger, the mass flow rate of steam required to transfer
1,000,000Btu/hr of heat would be about:
Msteam = Q / hfg = 1,000,000 Btu/hr / 881 Btu/lb = 1,135 lb/hr
If the temperature of hot water dropped by 100 F as it passed through a heat

exchanger, the mass flow rate of water to transfer the same amount of heat would be
about nine times as much as steam:
Mwater = Q / (cp x dt) = 1,000,000 Btu/hr / (1 Btu/lb-F x 100 F) = 10,000 lb/hr
If the temperature of hot air dropped by 100 F as it passed through a heat exchanger,
the mass flow rate of air to transfer the same amount of heat with the same
temperature difference would be about 34 times as much as steam:
Mair = Q / (cp x dt) = 1,000,000 Btu/hr / (0.26 Btu/lb-F x 100 F) = 38,500 lb/hr
The higher flow rates required by water and air require pipes and ducts with larger
diameters than steam pipes, which increases first cost and heat loss. In addition, air and
water do not propel themselves. Thus, hot air and water distribution systems require
1
fans or pumps, whereas a steam distribution system does not require any additional
propulsion for outgoing steam and a very small pumping system for returning the
condensate to the boiler. Finally, because steam condenses at a constant temperature,
100-psig steam could heat a process stream to a maximum temperature of 338 F which
is the temperature of the steam. On the other hand, the temperature of water and air
decrease as heat is transferred; thus, if the heat in these examples was delivered by a
cross-flow heat exchanger, the maximum temperature of the process stream would be
100 F less than the incoming temperature of the air or water. Because of these
advantages, steam is the most widely used heat-carrying medium in the world.
Principles of Energy-Efficient Steam Systems

Energy Balance Approach
The figure below shows the primary energy flows into and out of a steam system.
Qexhaust
1
Economizer
Qsp
Flash vapor
1e
Tex
Comb air
Qda
av Feed 2 3 4
Water Throttling valve
pump 4P
0'
Deaerator tank Qfuel Boiler Steam Qprocess
Trap
leak
HX
power
Pump
Makeup water
0
Qb
Steam trap
Blowdown
7 6 5
Cond
Qcp
loss
Figure 1. Basic steam system.
Heat from combustion of fuel, Qfuel, is added to the boiler, which generates saturated
steam at a discharge pressure P2. Some steam is discharged from boiler as blowdown to
reduce the concentration of minerals in the steam. The boiler losses some heat, Qb,
through the shell. The steam may pass through an adiabatic throttling valve to reduce
the pressure of steam to P3. Some heat is lost heat from the steam pipes, Qsp. As the
steam delivers heat to one or more processes, Qprocess, the steam vapor condenses. The
steam trap discharges condensate, 5, into the condensate return line. Some steam may
bypass the process and flow directly into the condensate return line, 4L, if steam trap(s)
fail open. Some heat is lost from the condensate pipes, Qcp. The deareator tank
pressure, Pda, is generally maintained slightly above ambient pressure. As the pressure
of condensate is reduced to the pressure of the deareator tank, some condensate
vaporizes and is lost as flash vapor, av. The remaining liquid condensate is mixed with
makeup water, 0, in the deaerator tank. Some heat is lost from the deaerator tank,
Qda. The pressure of the feed water from the dearator tank, al, is raised to the pressure
2
of the boiler by the feed water pump. The feedwater may be preheated by an
economizer, which reclaims heat from exhaust gasses, before entering the boiler, 1e.
Thermodynamic state points of the steam in this system are shown below on a
temperature versus entropy diagram. In the diagram below feed water pump work and
heat loss from steam pipes, condensate pipes, deaerator tank and boiler are assumed to
be negligible. The steam leaves the boiler as 200 psia saturated vapor at 2. The
pressure is reduced to 100 psia at constant enthalpy at 3 by the throttling valve. Steam
condenses at constant pressure in the process heat exchanger and leaves the steam
trap at 5 as a saturated liquid. The dearator operates at 20 psia. The condensate at 7
losses pressure in a constant enthalpy process to become some combination, Xc, of
liquid and vapor. Flash vapor leaves the deaerator tank at av. Makeup water enters
the deaerator at 0, mixes with the liquid condensate and leaves leaves the deaerator
tank at al. Pre-heated feed water leaves the economizer at 1e, before entering the
boiler.
Thus, energy enters a steam system as:
Fuel and combustion air

Makeup water
Pump work
Energy leaves a steam system as:
3
Useful heat to the process
Exhaust air
Blowdown
Condensate loss
Flash vapor loss
Heat loss from the boiler, steam pipes, condensate pipes and deaerator tank.
Fuel use is reduced by reducing these losses.
Opportunities for Improving the Energy-Efficiency of Steam Systems

These principles can be organized using the inside-out approach, which sequentially
reduces end-use energy, distribution energy, and primary conversion energy. Combining
the energy balance and inside-out approach, common opportunities to improve the
energy efficiency of steam systems are:
End Use
Improve process control to reduce steam demand
Insulate hot surfaces
Insulate open tanks
Employ counter-flow rinsing
Employ counter-flow heat exchange
Distribution
Insulate steam pipes and condensate pipes
Throttle steam to minimum pressure required by each end-use to reduce flash
loss and conductive heat loss
Fix steam traps
Close condensate return to reduce flash loss
Conversion
Turn off and valve off boiler(s) when not in use
Insulate deaerator tank and boiler to reduce heat loss
Reduce steam pressure to increase efficiency and reduce heat loss
Improve water treatment to reduce scaling and improve efficiency
Descale boiler to improve efficiency
Reduce excess air across firing range
Control combustion air based on oxygen in exhaust
Operate multiple boilers at even firing rates
Avoid on/off firing
Eliminate stack effect loss by installing stack damper on atmospheric boilers
Employ automatic blowdown control
Reclaim blowdown flash
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Preheat feedwater with economizer
The remainder of the chapter describes steam system components, discusses

fundamentals needed to quantify these savings opportunities, describes individual
savings opportunities, and introduces an integrated steam system model to capture
synergistic effects.
Steam System Components

Boilers and Steam Generators
Steam boilers are broadly classified as fire-tube or water-tube boilers. In fire tube
boilers, the boiler shell contains the water/steam and hot combustion gasses pass
through the tubes to heat the water/steam. In water-tube boilers, the water/steam
passes through tubes and the hot combustion gasses pass through shell of the boiler.
Schematic of fire-tube boiler. Source : Cut-away view of water-tube boiler

http://www.energysolutionscenter.org Source :
http://www.energysolutionscenter.org
Fire-tube boilers are popular for smaller applications requiring saturated steam at less
than 150 psig because of their low first cost and durability. The large volume of
water/steam serves as thermal mass which enhances steady operation. However,
because the steam is generated on the shell side, the shell itself is a pressure vessel,
making it difficult to generate steam at high pressures. In addition, the large surface
area causes relatively large heat loss, which varies from about 0.5% of input energy at
full-fire to a much higher fraction at low loads.
For high-pressure applications, it is easier to construct small diameter tubes to handle

the high pressures of the steam than an entire boiler shell. In addition, the tubes can be
configured to pass through high-temperature combustion gasses before exiting the
boiler to create superheated steam. Thus, most high-pressure applications like power
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generation, which benefits from dry, high-temperature, super-heated steam at
pressures up to 3,000 psig, use water-tube boilers.
Steam generators are like water-tube boilers, except that they are made from light-
weight materials. In many jurisdictions, the lack of a dedicated pressure vessel enables
steam generators to be used without a boiler operator. The light weight materials and
absence of a large holding tank allow steam generators to come up to pressure quickly
in a manner of minutes. This enables steam-generators to be turned on and off as
needed, reducing standby losses. Installing the water-tubes in a counter-flow
configuration to the path of the combustion gasses increases thermal efficiency.
Source: http://www.claytonindustries.com
Deaerator Tanks
Makeup water and condensate contain dissolved oxygen, carbon dioxide and ammonia.
These dissolved gasses reduce the conductivity of the steam and hence its ability to
transfer heat. More importantly, oxygen is highly corrosive and leads to pitting and
possible system failure. Economizers are particularly susceptible to oxygen pitting. For
these reasons, oxygen is typically removed from steam systems by a deaerator.
A deaerator works by spraying makeup water into a steam environment and heating the
makeup water to within about 5 F of saturation temperature. At this temperature, the
solubility of oxygen is low and the makeup water contains very little oxygen. Oxygen
and flash vapor are vented to atmosphere. To function effectively, the pressure of the
dearator can only be a few psi above ambient pressure, or else the oxygen will be forced
back into the water.
Thottling Valves
Boilers are generally designed to operate at a specific pressure. For safety reasons,
boilers should never be operated above the rated pressure. If the pressure of steam
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needed at the application is less than the rated pressure of the boiler, the boiler can be
operated at less than the design pressure or the boiler can be operated at the design
pressure and the pressure of steam reduced through a valve located between the boiler
and the application. Operating at a lower pressure will slightly increase the efficiency of
the boiler because of the decreased steam temperature and subsequent boiler skin
losses. However, it may also cause problems such as raising the level of water in the
boiler and reduced boiler heating capacity. A primary advantage for operating the
boiler at the design pressure and then reducing the pressure through a valve is that the
steam exiting the valve will be slightly super heated, resulting in less water in the steam
lines and heat exchangers. Because of this, some consultants recommend that steam
boilers be operated at their design pressure, even if the steam is to be used at lower
pressures in the plant.
Steam Piping Systems

Steam is generally distributed to the plant through one or more large steam mains
which connect to smaller branch pipes. Condensate is produced and carried along with
the steam as steam condenses on the inside surface of the pipes. Excess condensate
can block steam flow and cause serious pipe erosion. Thus, drip stations need to be
installed at all low points and ends of all mains at intervals of about 100 feet along the
main. A drip station consists of a vertical section of pipe at least 18 inches long installed
on the underside of the main and connected to a steam trap. Strainers should also be
installed along the piping system to filter out scale and solid contaminants.
The velocity of steam out of the boiler is determined by the outlet nozzle. It is common
practice to design piping systems for space-heating applications for a velocity of about
6,000 ft/min and piping systems for process-heating applications for a velocity of about
10,000 ft/min. Lower velocities reduce pressure loss, pipe erosion, water hammer and
noise as well as providing more efficient condensate drainage.
As steam condenses on a cold surface a thin film of condensate is produced and any air
entrained with the steam is released. Air in a steam system steam causes two major
problems. First, even a thin layer of air on a heat transfer surface, dramatically reduces
the heat transfer across the surface (See figure below). For example a layer of air 0.04
inches thick adds the same thermal resistance as a layer of water 1 inch thick or a layer
of iron 4.3 feet thick. Second, when air is absorbed into condensate carbolic acid is
produced. This acid can attack piping and heat exchange surfaces. To reduce air in the
piping system, thermostatic air vents should be installed at high points, the end of
steam mains and on all heat exchange equipment.
Steam Traps
As steam delivers heat through a heat exchanger, the steam vapor condenses to a
liquid. Steam traps are located downstream of heat exchangers and discharge the
condensate into the condensate return line while preventing steam vapor from passing
through.
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The four most common types of steam traps are:
Inverted bucket.
Float + thermostatic
Thermostatic
Thermodynamic
Source: Grainger Catalog, 2000-2001
Condensate Return Tanks

Condensate return tanks collect condensate discharged from steam traps. In open
condensate return systems, the condensate return tank is open to the environment and
condensate is pumped back to the boiler. The enthalpy of condensate at atmospheric
pressure is substantially less than the enthalpy of condensate at the operating pressure
of a steam system. Thus, the energy released as the pressure of condensate falls to
atmospheric pressure, vaporizes some of the condensate into flash steam, which is
discharged to atmosphere.
In closed condensate return systems, steam pressure forces the condensate all the way
back to the deaerator tank. Thus, in closed systems, flash steam is created as the
pressure of condensate falls to the pressure of the deaerator tank, and is discharged to
atmosphere from the deaerator rather than the condensate return tank.
Steam Metering
Steam metering is expensive, but gives valuable information for managing a steam
system. Most steam meters work by measuring the pressure difference across a
pressure reduction valve and comparing the output to calibrated values. High-quality
steam metering devices for a 4-inch steam pipe cost about $4,000.
Insulate Pipes, Tanks and Hot Surfaces

Uninsulated steam pipes, condensate return pipes, condensate return tanks, deaerator
tanks and process tanks lose heat to the surrounding by convection and radiation.
Insulating these surfaces reduces steam use and the risk of burns.
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Well-insulated steam pipes Uninsulated condensate return tank
The method that follows describes how to calculate energy savings from insulating hot
surfaces, while explicitly taking radiation and the dependence of the convection
coefficient on surface temperature into account. The required input variables for this
procedure are easily measured in the field.
To calculate heat loss savings, the heat loss from both the uninsulated surface and from
the surface with the proposed insulation must be calculated. The savings from adding
insulation are difference between the uninsulated and insulated heat loss.
Qsavings = Quninsulated Qinsulated (1)
Hot surfaces lose heat to the surroundings via convection and radiation. The equation
for heat loss, Q, to the surroundings at Ta, from a hot surface at Ts, with area A is:
Quninsulated = h A (Ts Ta) + A (Ts4 Ta4) (2)
where h is the convection coefficient, is the Stefan-Boltzman constant (0.1714 10-8

Btu/ft2-hr-R4, or 5.67 10-8 W/m2-K4), is the emissivity of the surface. Very shiny
surfaces have emissivities of about 0.1; dark or rough surfaces have emissivities of about
0.9.
The flow of air over warm surfaces is due to the buoyancy of warm air next to the
surface compared to the cooler surrounding air. For surfaces a few degrees warmer
than the surrounding air, the natural convection coefficient is about 1.5 Btu/ft2-hr-F (8.5
W/m2-K) (Mitchell, 1983 [9]). However, as the surface temperature increases, so does
the buoyancy effect and convection coefficient. To account for this effect, the value of
the convection coefficient can be approximated as a function of the orientation and
vertical dimension of the surface, and the temperature difference between the surface
and the surrounding air (ASHRAE Fundamentals, 1989). The appropriate relation
depends on whether the air flow is laminar or turbulent. Dimensional approximations
for determining whether the flow is laminar or turbulent are shown in Equation 3. In
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these relations, L is the characteristic length (ft) in the vertical direction and T is
temperature difference between the surface, Ts, and the surrounding air, Ta (F).
Laminar: L3 T < 63 Turbulent: L3 T > 63 (3)
After the nature of the flow is determined, the convection coefficient can be estimated
using the relations in Equation 4 (ASHRAE Fundamentals, 1989 [1]). In these relations, L
is the length (ft) in the vertical direction, D is the diameter (ft), B is tilt angle of the
surface from horizontal, and h is convection coefficient (Btu/hr-ft2-F). For use with SI
units, the proper conversion would need to be made (1 Btu/hr-ft2-F = 5.678 W/m2-K).
Horizontal Surfaces Losing Heat Upwards:

hlam = 0.27 (T / L) 0.25; htur = 0.22 (T) 0.33
Tilted/Vertical Surfaces:
hlam =0.29 [T (sin B) / L] 0.25; htur =0.19 [T (sin B)]0.33
Horizontal Pipes and Cylinders:

hlam = 0.27 (T / D) 0.25; htur = 0.18 (T) 0.33 (4)
Using these relations, Equation 2 can be solved for Quninsulated to calculate the current
heat loss. Similarly, heat loss from the insulated surface can be calculated from:
Qinsulated = h ATi Ta A (Ti4 Ta4) (5)
where Ti is the temperature of the outside surface of the insulation. Unfortunately, in

Equation 5, the values of Ti and h are not known. To determine Ti and h, the first step is
to determine the thermal resistance of the current wall, Rc, based on the temperature of
the fluid inside the heating system, Tf, and the current surface temperature Ts. Thermal
resistance of the current wall includes both the conduction thermal resistance through
the wall and the convection thermal resistance at the walls inner surface.
Quninsulated = A (Tf Ts) / Rc (6)
Next, an equation can be written from a steady-state energy balance on the surface of
the insulation:
Qcnd,in Qcnv,out Qrad,out = A (Tf Ti) / (Rc +Ri) - h A (Ti Ta) - A (Ti4 Ta4) = 0 (7)
where Ri is the thermal resistance of the insulation. The relations for convection
coefficient as a function of the temperature difference between T i and Ta form a second
equation. Thus, this system has two equations (Equation 4 and Equation 7) and two
unknowns and can be solved to determine Ti and h.
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An easy way to solve this system of equations is to guess a value for Ti, calculate the
convection coefficient h using Equation 4, then substitute Ti and h into Equation 7. The
left side of Equation 7 will evaluate to 0 when Ti is correct. Hence, the system of
equations can be solved by repeating this process with guesses for Ti until Equation 7
converges to close to 0. The final values of Ti and h can then be substituted into
Equation 5 to find Qinsulated. The heat loss savings, Qsav is the difference between
Quninsulated and Qinsulated.
Example
The surface temperature of 100 ft of 0.5 ft diameter un-insulated pipe carrying

condensate at 200 F is 180 F. The pipe is located in a room with air and surroundings at
70 F. The surface emissivity of the pipe is 0.70. Calculate convection, radiation and
total heat loss from the pipe (Btu/hr). The pipe is insulated with 2 inches on insulation
with thermal resistance R = 2 hr-ft2-F/Btu per inch. The surface emissivity of the
insulation is 0.70. Calculate convection, radiation and total heat loss from the insulated
pipe (Btu/hr). Calculate the heat loss and fuel savings from insulating the pipe (Btu/hr)
if the efficiency of the steam system is 70%.
Input data are:
INPUTS
Ta (F) = ambient temperature 70
Tf (F) = temperature fluid inside pipe 200
Tp (F) = temperature pipe 180
Dp(ft) = diameter pipe 0.5
Lp (ft) = length pipe 100
ep = emissivity pipe 0.7
Proposed Insulation
Ri,per inch (hr-ft2-F/Btu-in) = R value insulation per inch 2
dxi (in) = thickness insulation 2
ei = emissivity insulation 0.7
Eff,sys 0.7
CONSTANTS
sigma (Btu/hr-ft2-R4) 1.714E-09
Calculations of current heat loss and thermal resistance of the pipe, Rp, are:
11
Ap (ft2) = pi Dp Lp 157
L^3 dT = Dp^3 (Tp-Ta) 14
hp (Btu/hr-ft2-F) = .27 ((Tp-Ta)/Dp)^.25 or .18 ((Tp-Ta))^.33 1.040
Qcnv,p (Btu/hr) = hp Ap (Tp - Ta) 17,967
Qrad,p (Btu/hr) = ep sigma Ap ((Tp+460)^4 - (Ta+460)^4) 16,748
Qtot,p (Btu/hr) = Qcnv,p + Qrad,p 34,716
Qtot,p (kW) = Qtot,p / 3,412 10.81
Rp (hr-ft2-F/Btu-in) = Ap (Tf-Tp)/Qtot,p 0.09
Note that radiation loss is approximately equal to convection heat loss; thus, neglecting
radiation loss significantly underestimates total heat loss.
To calculate the heat loss with insulation, an iterative method is used in which the
surface temperature of the insulation, Ti, is guessed until the energy balance Equation 7
is satisfied. Equation 7 is satisfied when:
EB(Ti) = A (Tf Ti) / (Rp +Ri) - h A (Ti Ta) - A (Ti4 Ta4) = 0
In the calculations below, Ti = 89.9 F gave EB(Ti) = 0.22, which is close to zero. After Ti is
known, the heat loss can be calculated as:
GUESS Ti to make EB(Ti) = 0 89.9
EB(Ti) = Qcnd,i - Qcnv,i - Qrad,i should be zero 0.22

Ai (ft2) = pi (Dp + 2 Ti) Lp 262
Ri (hr-ft2-F/Btu) = Ri,per inch x dxi 4
L^3 dT = (Dp+ 2Ti)^3 (Ti-Ta) 12
hi (Btu/hr-ft2-F) = .27 ((Ti-Ta)/Dp)^.25 or .18 ((Ti-Ta))^.33 0.597
Qcnd,i (Btu/hr) = Ai (Tf-Ti)/(Rp+Ri) 7,047
Qcnv,i (Btu/hr) = hi Ai (Ti - Ta) 3,110
Qrad,i (Btu/hr) = ei sigma Ai ((Ti+460)^4 - (Ta+460)^4) 3,937
Qtot,i (Btu/hr) = Qcnv,i + Qrad,i 7,047
Qtot,i (kW) = Qtot,i / 3,412 2.19
Thus, the heat loss, Qsav, and fuel, Qf,sav, savings from adding insulation would be:
Qsav (Btu/hr) = Qtot,p - Qtot,i 27,669

Qsav (kW) = Qsav /3,412 8.11
Qf,sav (Btu/hr) = Qsav / Eff,sys 39,527
Qf,sav (kW) = Qf,sav /3,412 11.58
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The same method can be used to calculate heat loss, and the savings from insulating,
walls of steam-heated tanks. The only modifications required are when calculating the
convection coefficient. When determining whether the flow of air is laminar of
turbulent, the effective length is the wall height instead of pipe diameter, and the
relation for convection coefficient is for vertical surfaces instead of pipes.
Example
The surface temperature of a steam-heated, un-insulated rectangular tank with four

walls with height 4 ft and length 8 ft is 160 F. The temperature of fluid in the tank is 180
F, and the temperature of the air and surroundings is 70 F. The surface emissivity of the
tank is 0.70. Calculate convection, radiation and total heat loss from the tank walls
(Btu/hr). The tank walls are insulated with 1 inch on insulation with thermal resistance
R = 2 hr-ft2-F/Btu per inch. The surface emissivity of the insulation is 0.70. Calculate
convection, radiation and total heat loss from the insulated tank walls (Btu/hr).
Calculate the heat loss and fuel savings from insulating the tank walls (Btu/hr) if the
efficiency of the steam system is 75%.
Input data are:
INPUTS
Ta (F) = ambient temperature 70
Tf (F) = temperature fluid inside wall 180
Tw (F) = temperature wall 160
Htw(ft) = height wall 4
Lw (ft) = length wall 32
ew = emissivity wall 0.70
Proposed Insulation
Ri,per inch (hr-ft2-F/Btu-in) = R value insulation per inch 2
dxi (in) = thickness insulation 1
ei = emissivity insulation 0.70
Eff,sys 0.75
CONSTANTS
sigma (Btu/hr-ft2-R4) 1.714E-09
Calculations of current heat loss and thermal resistance of the wall, Rw, are:
13
Current
Aw (ft2) = Htw Lw 128
L^3 dT = Htw^3 (Tw-Ta) 5,760
hw (Btu/hr-ft2-F) = .29((Tw-Ta)/Htw)^.25 or .19 ((Tw-Ta))^.33 0.839
Qcnv,w (Btu/hr) = hw Aw (Tw - Ta) 9,663
Qrad,w (Btu/hr) = ep sigma Aw ((Tw+460)^4 - (Ta+460)^4) 10,575
Qtot,w (Btu/hr) = Qcnv,w + Qrad,w 20,238
Qtot,w (kW) = Qtot,w / 3,412 5.93
Rw (hr-ft2-F/Btu-in) = Aw (Tf-Tw)/Qtot,w 0.13
Note that radiation loss is less than convection heat loss at these relatively low
temperature differences between the surface and air.
To calculate the heat loss with insulation, an iterative method is used in which the
surface temperature of the insulation, Ti, is guessed until the energy balance Equation 7
is satisfied. Equation 7 is satisfied when:
EB(Ti) = A (Tf Ti) / (Rw +Ri) - h A (Ti Ta) - A (Ti4 Ta4) = 0
In the calculations below, Ti = 99.3 F gives EB(Ti) = 3.53, which is close to zero. After Ti is
known, the heat loss can be calculated as:
GUESS Ti to make EB(Ti) = 0 98.45
EB(Ti) = Qcnd,i - Qcnv,i - Qrad,i should be zero 0.96

Aw (ft2) = Htw Lw 128
Ri (hr-ft2-F/Btu) = Ri,per inch x dxi 2
L^3 dT = (Htw)^3 (Ti-Ta) 2,058
hi (Btu/hr-ft2-F) = .29((Ti-Ta)/Htw)^.25 or .19 ((Ti-Ta))^.33 0.574
Qcnd,i (Btu/hr) = Ai (Tf-Ti)/(Rw+Ri) 4,909
Qcnv,i (Btu/hr) = hi Ai (Ti - Ta) 2,089
Qrad,i (Btu/hr) = ei sigma Ai ((Ti+460)^4 - (Ta+460)^4) 2,819
Qtot,i (Btu/hr) = Qcnv,i + Qrad,i 4,908
Qtot,i (kW) = Qtot,i / 3,412 1.53
Thus, the heat loss, Qsav, and fuel savings, Qf,sav, from adding insulation would be:
Qsav (Btu/hr) = Qtot,p - Qtot,i 15,330

Qsav (kW) = Qsav /3,412 4.49
Qf,sav (kW) = Qf,sav /3,412 5.99
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Cover Open Tanks
In open tanks, the total heat loss is the sum of heat loss through convection, radiation
and evaporation. These losses can be significantly reduced by adding a cover or floats
to the tank.
Convection, radiation and evaporation heat loss is reduced by covering open tanks.
Fix Steam Traps

Steam traps are automatic valves that discharge condensate from a steam line without
discharging steam. If the trap fails open, steam escapes into the condensate return pipe
without being utilized in the process. If it fails closed, condensate fills the heat
exchanger and chokes-off heat to process. Fixing failed steam traps is usually highly
cost-effective.
Steam traps are designed to operate about 10 years, but can fail sooner due to
contamination, improper application, and other reasons. Steam traps can fail open or
closed. If a steam trap fails open, it allows steam to pass through the trap; hence
the energy value of the steam is completely wasted. If a trap fails closed, condensate
will back up into the piping (which reduces steam flow, inhibits valve function and
causes pipe erosion) and/or flood the heat exchanger (which reduces or eliminates
effective heat transfer). Because of these problems, it is recommended that all traps be
tested at least once per year. The most common methods of identifying failed-open
steam traps are:
Ultrasonic sensor
Temperature sensor
Excess flash
Ultrasonic Sensor: Ultrasonic sensors amplify high frequency noise from steam and
condensate flow into the audible spectrum. Thus, an analyst can determine whether
steam and condensate is being discharged through the trap by listening to the
condensate side of a steam trap. If the discharge is continuous, it could indicate that
15
the trap has failed open. If no discharge can be sensed, it may indicate that the trap has
failed closed.
Properly functioning inverted bucket, IB, and thermodynamic, TD, traps discharge
condensate intermittently. Thus, a continuous discharge indicates that these types of
traps have failed open. Properly functioning float and thermostatic, FT, and
thermostatic, TS, traps discharge condensate continuously. Thus, the failure of these
types of traps cannot be diagnosed by listening for continuous discharge. The four types
of steam traps can be identified by their distinctive shapes and nameplates.
Temperature Sensor: Infrared temperature sensors can detect the temperature on the
steam and condensate sides of steam traps. Properly functioning traps are generally
warm on both sides, but hotter on the steam side than the condensate side. A trap that
is equally hot on both sides may have failed open. A trap which is cold on both sides
may have failed closed and be flooded with water.
Flash: The enthalpy of condensate at atmospheric pressure is substantially less than the
enthalpy of condensate at the operating pressure of a steam system. Thus, the energy
released as the pressure of condensate falls to atmospheric pressure, vaporizes some of
the condensate into flash steam. The quantity of condensate flashed to vapor
dramatically increases when live steam enters the condensate return system. Thus,
increased flash from the condensate return or deaerator tank is an indicator of failed-
open steam traps.
Estimating Savings from Repairing Steam Traps

The rate of steam loss through a leaking trap depends on the size of the condensate
orifice in the trap. Orifice size is a function of the size of the trap and the differential
pressure between the steam and condenstate lines that the trap was designed for.
Orifice sizes for Sprirax Sarco float+thermostatic and inverted-bucket traps are listed
below. Orifice sizes for thermostatic and thermodynamic traps are generally not
specified; however the effective orifice size is similar to the orifice size for inverted
bucket and float+thermostatic traps.
Cast Iron Float and Thermostatic Steam Traps (FT, FTI and FTB)
Spriax Sarco Product Manual, 2001, pg 386
dP(psi) / NPT (in) .5, .75, 1 1.25 1.5 2
15 0.2180 0.3120 0.5000 0.6250
30 0.2180 0.2280 0.3900 0.5000
75 0.1660 0.3120 0.3120 0.4210
125 0.1250 0.2460 0.2460 0.3220
200 0.1000
16
Cast Iron Inverted Bucket Steam Traps (B Series)
Spriax Sarco Product Manual, 2001, pg 436
dP(psi) / NPT (in) .5, .75 0.75 1 1.25 2
15 0.2500 0.3750 0.5000 0.6250 1.0625
30 0.1875 0.3125 0.3750 0.5000 0.7500
75 0.1563 0.2500 0.2813 0.3750 0.5625
125 0.1250 0.2031 0.2500 0.3438 0.5000
180 0.0938 0.1563 0.2188 0.2813 0.4375
250 0.0700 0.1406 0.1875 0.2500 0.3750
The rate of steam loss through an orifice is given by:
Steam flow (lb/hr) = 24.24 lb/(hr-psia-in2) x P psia x [D inch]2 x C
where P is the pressure of the steam, D is the diameter of the orifice and C is the
fraction of the orifice that is open (Design of Fluid Systems: Hook-ups, Spirax-Sarco,
2000, pg. 57).
In many cases, leaking steam traps are identified using an ultrasonic sensor and/or by
measuring temperatures on both sides of the trap. Large leaks typically make more
noise and create higher downstream temperatures than small leaks. Thus, experienced
personnel often estimate the fraction of the orifice that is open using these indicators.
Example
Calculate savings from replacing a failed 0.5-inch inverted bucket trap rated at 180 psi if
actual steam pressure is 120 psig. The orifice is estimated to be 50% open. The steam
system operates 6,000 hours per year and the cost of fuel is $10 /mmBtu. 100% of the
condensate is returned at 200 F. The overall efficiency of the boiler is 80%.
From the table above, the orifice size for this trap is 1/32-inch. Assuming that the orifice
is 50% open, the steam loss through the leaking trap is about:
24.24 lb/(hr-psia-in2) x )120 + 14.7) psia x [0.0938 inch]2 x 50% = 14.36 lb/hr
The latent heat of steam at 120 psig is about 872 Btu/lb and the saturation temperature
is about 350 F. The natural gas savings from fixing the steam trap would be about:
14.36 lb/hr [872 Btu/lb + 1 Btu/lb-F (350 200) F] 6,000 hr/yr / 80% = 110 mmBtu/yr
110 mmBtu/yr x $10 / mmBtu = $1,100 /yr
An inverted-bucket steam trap for -inch pipe connections with a maximum operating
pressure of 125 psig costs about $100. If the labor cost of installing a new trap is $50,
the simple payback would be about:
17
SP = $150 / $1,100 /yr x 12 months/yr = 1.63 months
Reduce Steam Pressure

Generating steam at unnecessarily high pressures decreases boiler efficiency, increases
heat loss from steam pipes and increases flash loss. Reducing boiler pressure to match
the highest required process temperature decreases these losses. Moreover, reducing
steam pressure to match the local required process temperature reduces flash loss.
Thus, always produce and supply steam at the minimum pressure required to meet the
process temperature requirement.
Install Automatic Blowdown Controls

Blowdown is the practice of expelling steam to reduce contaminant build ups. Blow
down can occur from the surface and/or bottom of the boiler. Typical blowdown rates
range from 4% to 8% of boiler feed-water. Blowdown may be manual or automatic.
Manual blowdown relies on intuition or periodic testing to determine when the
concentration of contaminants is high enough to warrant blowdown. Manual
blowdown virtually always results in either excess blowdown that wastes energy or
insufficient blow down that creates excess scale on heat transfer surfaces and reduces
boiler efficiency. Automatic blowdown controls monitor the conductivity of the water in
the boiler and open the blowdown valve as needed to maintain the conductivity within
a specified range. Optimizing the quantity of blow down using automatic controls
reduces energy, water and water treatment costs.
Combustion Efficiency
Boilers typically employ combustion to covert fuel energy into high temperature
thermal energy. This section describes natural gas combustion and how to calculate
combustion air flow, combustion temperature and the efficiency of the process. These
results are used extensively throughout this chapter.
The minimum amount of air required for complete combustion is called the
stoichiometric air. Air consists of about 1 mole of oxygen to 3.76 moles of nitrogen.
Assuming that natural gas is made up of 100% methane, the equation for the
stoichiometric combustion of natural gas with air is:
CH4 + 2 (O2 + 3.76 N2) CO2 + 2 H2O +7.52 N2 (17)
The ratio of the mass of air required to completely combust a given mass of fuel is called
the stoichiometric air to fuel ratio, AFs. AFs can be calculated using the molecular
18
masses of the air and fuel at stoichiometric conditions. For combustion of natural gas in
air, AFs is about:
AFs = Mair,s / Mng,s = 2[ (2 x 16) + (3.76 x 2 x 14)] / [12 + (4 x 1)] = 17.2
The quantity of air supplied in excess of stoichiometric air is called excess combustion
air, ECA. Excess combustion air can be written in terms of the stoichiometric air to fuel
ratio, AFs, the combustion air mass flow rate, mca, and natural gas mass flow rate, mng.
ECA = [(mca / mng) / AFs] 1 (18)
Large quantities of excess air dilute combustion gasses and lower the temperature of
the gasses, which results in decreased efficiency. The energy input, Qin, to a combustion
chamber is the product of the natural gas mass flow rate, mng, and the higher heating
value of natural gas, HHV, which is about 23,900 Btu/lbm.
Qin = mng HHV (19)
The mass flow rate of the combustion gasses, mg, is the sum of the natural gas mass
flow rate, mng, and combustion air mass flow rate, mca.
mg = mng + mca (20)
The temperature of combustion, Tc, can be calculated from an energy balance on the
combustion chamber, where the chemical energy released during combustion is
converted into sensible energy gain of the gasses. The energy balance reduces to the
terms of inlet combustion air temperature, Tca, lower heating value of natural gas
(21,500 Btu/lbm), excess combustion air, ECA, stoichiometric air fuel ratio, AFs, and
specific heat of combustion gasses, Cpg (0.30 Btu/lbm-F). Combustion temperature, Tc,
is calculated in terms of these easily measured values as:
Tc = Tca + LHV / [{1 + (1 + ECA) AFs} Cpg] (21)
The combustion efficiency, is the ratio of energy delivered to the system to the total
fuel energy supplied. The energy delivered to the system is the energy loss of
combustion gasses. The energy loss of the combustion gasses can be expressed as the
product of the mass flow rate, specific heat and temperature drop of the gasses. The
total energy fuel energy supplied is the higher heating value of the fuel. Using this
approach, the combustion efficiency, is:
= [{1 + (1 + ECA) AFs} Cpg (Tc Tex)] / HHV (22)
The dew-point temperature of products of combustion is about 140 F. If the products of

combustion leave the process at temperature of less than the dew-point temperature
19
the water vapor will condense to a liquid and release energy. To include this effect, the
efficiency equation can be written:
If Tex > 140 F then hfg = 0 Else hfg = HHV LHV

= [{1 + (1 + ECA) AFs} Cpg (Tc Tex) + hfg] / HHV (22b)
The three required input values for computing combustion efficiency, entering
combustion air temperature, Tca, exhaust gas temperature, Tex, and excess combustion
air, ECA, can be measured using a combustion analyzer. The quantity of excess air in the
combustion gasses is sometimes expressed as fraction oxygen. For methane (natural
gas) the conversion between fraction oxygen, FO2, and excess combustion air, ECA, are:
FO2 = 2 ECA / (10.52 + 9.52 ECA) ECA = 10.52 FO2 / (2 9.52 FO2) (23)
Example
A boiler consumes 100,000 Btu/hr of natural gas. An analysis of the exhaust gasses finds
that the fraction of excess air is 30% and the temperature of the exhaust gasses is 500 F.
Calculate combustion air flow (lb/hr), exhaust gas flow (lb/hr), combustion temperature
(F) and the combustion efficiency.
COMBUSTION AIR FLOW
INPUTS
Qfuel (Btu/hr) 100,000
EA = excess air (0=stoch, 0.1 = optimum) 0.30
CONSTANTS (FOR NATURAL GAS)

HHVng (Btu/lb) 23,900
AFs = air/fuel mass ratio at stochiometric conditions 17.2
p (at 68 F) (lb/ft3) 0.075
CALCULATIONS
Mng = Qfuel / HHVng (lb/hr) 4
Ma = Mng AFs (1+EA) (lb/hr) 94
Mtot (lb/hr) 98
Vtot = Mtot / p (scfm) 21
Thus, mass flow rate of combustion air is 94 lb/hr and the mass flow rate of the
combustion gasses is 98 lb/hr.
20
COMBUSTION EFFICIENCY
INPUTS
Tca = temperature combustion air before burner (F) 70
Tex = temperature exhaust gasses (F) 500

LHV = lower heating value (Btu/lb) 21,500
HHV = higher heating value (Btu/lb) 23,900
cpp = specific heat of products of exhaust (Btu/lb-F) 0.300
Tdpp = dew point temp of H20 in exhaust (F) 140
CALCULATIONS
Tc = temp combustion (F) = Tca+LHV/[(1+(1+EA)(Afs))cpp] 3,138
hfg = water vapor latent energy (Btu/lb) = (if Tex<140 then hfg=HHV-LHV else hfg = 0) 0
Efficiency = {hfg+[1 + (1+EA)(AFs)]*cpp*(Tc-Tex)}/HHV 77.3%
Thus, the combustion efficiency is 77.3%.
The relationship between excess air, exhaust temperature and combustion efficiency
using this method is shown in the graph below. Efficiency decreases with increasing
excess air and increasing exhaust air temperature.
90%
85%
Efficiency
Ts=300F
80% Ts=400F
Ts=500F
75%
70%
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Excess Air (%)
21
Reduce Excess Air by Adjusting Combustion Air Linkages
Most boilers use linkages that connect natural gas supply valves with combustion air
inlet dampers. As the natural gas valve closes, the mechanical linkages close dampers
on the combustion air supply to attempt to maintain a constant air/fuel ratio. If the
exhaust gasses contain too much excess air, the linkages can be adjusted to tune the
air/fuel ratio so that the exhaust gasses contain about 10% excess air.
Mechanical linkages vary the position of the inlet air damper with natural gas supply.
Example
A boiler burns 2,000 mmBtu of natural gas per year at a cost of $10 /mmBtu. The
average temperature of the incoming combustion air is 70 F and the average
temperature of the exhaust is 450 F. The fraction excess air in the exhaust is measured
to be 50%, but is reduced to 10% by adjusting the inlet combustion air dampers.
Calculate a) the projected annual cost savings ($/yr) and b) the projected savings as a
percent of current annual natural gas use.
The initial efficiency is:
22
INPUTS

CALCULATIONS
The new efficiency is:
INPUTS

CALCULATIONS
The heating energy delivered to the process, Qp, is the product of the initial fuel use,
Qf1, and the initial efficiency, Eff1.
Qp = Qf,1 x Eff1
The heating energy delivered to the process remains constant. The new fuel use, Qf2,
with the higher efficiency, Eff2, is:
23
Qf,2 = Qp / Eff2
The fuel use savings, Qf,sav, would be:
Qf,sav = Qf,1 - Qf,2
INPUT
Qf,1 (mmBtu/yr) 2,000
Cf ($/mmBtu) 10
CALCULATIONS
Qp (mmBtu/yr) = Qf,1 Eff1 1,543
Qf,2 (mmBtu/yr) = Qp / Eff2 1,918
Qf,sav (mmBtu/yr) = Qf1-Qf2 82
Cf,sav ($/yr) = Qf,sav Cf 816
FracRed = Qf,sav / Qf1 0.041
Unfortunately, the linkages between the fuel valve and combustion air dampers seldom
function perfectly. Thus, the air/fuel ratio is seldom held constant over the firing range.
For example, the figure below shows that excess air varies from 120% at low fire to 38%
at mid file to 42% at high fire. This indicates that the linkages were incapable of
sufficiently reducing combustion air to match fuel supply at low fire. The high level of
excess air at low fire causes the efficiency of the boiler to drop, even though the lower
exhaust temperature should drive the efficiency higher. In cases like this, it is often
very difficult to adjust the linkages so that excess air is constant at 10% at all firing
levels. However, it is usually possible to adjust the linkages so that the minimum level of
excess air is about 10%, and the excess air at other firing rates drops by about the same
percentage.
24
Example
A boiler operates 4,000 hours per year at low fire, 2,000 hours per year at mid fire, and
2,000 hours per year at high fire with excess air and exhaust temperatures shown in the
figure above. Boiler fuel consumption is 4 mmBtu/hr at low fire, 12 mmBtu/hr at mid
fire, and 20 mmBtu/hr at high fire. Ambient temperature is 70 F. Calculate annual fuel
energy savings (mmBtu/year) from adjusting the linkages so the minimum excess air is
10%, and the excess air at other firing rates is decreased by the same percentage.
The initial combustion efficiencies, Eff1, are:
25
INPUTS Low Fire Mid Fire High Fire
EA = excess air (0=stoch, 0.1 = optimum) 1.12 0.38 0.42
Tca = temperature combustion air before burner (F) 70 70 70
Tex = temperature exhaust gasses (F) 240 300 310

LHV = lower heating value (Btu/lb) 21,500 21,500 21,500
HHV = higher heating value (Btu/lb) 23,900 23,900 23,900
cpp = specific heat of products of exhaust (Btu/lb-F) 0.300 0.300 0.300
Tdpp = dew point temp of H20 in exhaust (F) 140 140 140
AFs = air/fuel mass ratio at stochiometric conditions 17.20 17.20 17.20
CALCULATIONS
Tc = temp combustion (F) = Tca+LHV/[(1+(1+EA)(Afs))cpp] 1,983 2,967 2,889
hfg = water vapor latent energy (Btu/lb) = (if Tex<140 then hfg=HHV-LHV else hfg = 0) 0 0 0
Efficiency = {hfg+[1 + (1+EA)(AFs)]*cpp*(Tc-Tex)}/HHV 82.0% 82.8% 82.3%
Minimum excess air is 38% at mid-fire. If the linkages were adjusted so the excess air
was 10% at mid-fire, the reduction in excess air would be 28%. If the excess air at all
firing rates was reduced by 28%, the new levels of excess air would be 84% at low fire,
10% at mid fire and 14% at high fire. The new combustion efficiencies, Eff2, at these
firing rates and temperatures would be:


CALCULATIONS
Qp = Qf,1 x Eff1
The heating energy delivered to the process remains constant after the efficiency is
improved. The new fuel use, Qf2, with the higher efficiency, Eff2, is:
Qf,2 = Qp / Eff2
26
INPUT Low Fire Mid Fire High Fire

Qf,1 (mmBtu/hr) 4 12 20
HPY (hr/yr) 4000 2000 2000
CALCULATIONS Low Fire Mid Fire High Fire Total

Qf,1 (mmBtu/yr) = Qf,1 HPY 16,000 24,000 40,000 80,000
Qp (mmBtu/yr) = Qf,1 Eff1 13,114 19,876 32,920 65,910
Qf,2 (mmBtu/yr) = Qp / Eff2 15,802 23,604 39,307 78,713
Qf,sav (mmBtu/yr) = Qf1-Qf2 198 396 693 1,287
FracRed = Qf,sav / Qf1 0.012 0.017 0.017 0.016
Thus, in this example, simply reducing excess air by adjusting the linkages reduced fuel
use by 1.6%.
Install O2 Trim Controls

Most boilers use linkages that connect natural gas supply valves with combustion air
inlet dampers. Unfortunately, the linkages do not function perfectly, and the air/fuel
ratio is seldom held constant over the firing range. O2 trim combustion controls
measure the oxygen in the exhaust gasses to regulate combustion intake air to maintain
about 10% excess air across the entire firing range. O2 trim controls cost about $30,000
and require periodic calibration which costs about $2,000 per year. Thus, O2 trim
combustion controls are most cost-effective for boilers that operate all year long.
O2 trim system to continually vary combustion air
27
Example
A boiler operates 4,000 hours per year at low fire, 2,000 hours per year at mid fire, and
2,000 hours per year at high fire with excess air and exhaust temperatures shown in the
figure below. Boiler fuel consumption is 4 mmBtu/hr at low fire, 12 mmBtu/hr at mid
fire, and 20 mmBtu/hr at high fire. Ambient temperature is 70 F. Calculate annual fuel
energy savings (mmBtu/year) from installing an O2 trim system so the minimum excess
air is 10% across the firing range.
The initial combustion efficiencies, Eff1, are:
28

CALCULATIONS
The new combustion efficiencies, Eff2, if the excess air was held to 10% across the firing
range would be:


CALCULATIONS
Qp = Qf,1 x Eff1
The heating energy delivered to the process remains constant after the efficiency is
improved. The new fuel use, Qf2, with the higher efficiency, Eff2, is:
Qf,2 = Qp / Eff2
29
INPUT Low Fire Mid Fire High Fire

Qf,1 (mmBtu/hr) 4 12 20
HPY (hr/yr) 4000 2000 2000
CALCULATIONS Low Fire Mid Fire High Fire Total

Qf,1 (mmBtu/yr) = Qf,1 HPY 16,000 24,000 40,000 80,000
Qp (mmBtu/yr) = Qf,1 Eff1 13,114 19,876 32,920 65,910
Qf,2 (mmBtu/yr) = Qp / Eff2 15,301 23,604 39,210 78,115
Qf,sav (mmBtu/yr) = Qf1-Qf2 699 396 790 1,885
FracRed = Qf,sav / Qf1 0.044 0.017 0.020 0.024
In the previous example, adjusting the linkages reduced fuel use by 1.6%. In this
example, installing an O2 trim system reduced fuel use by 2.4%.
Descale Boiler to Improve Efficiency

Scale buildup from hard water increases the thermal resistance between the hot
combustion gasses and the steam, which increases exhaust temperature and decreases
boiler efficiency. Mechanical and/or chemical descaling can significantly reduce exhaust
gas temperature and increase boiler efficiency.
Example
A boiler burns 3,000 mmBtu of natural gas per year at a cost of $10 /mmBtu. The
average temperature of the incoming combustion air is 70 F. The fraction excess air in
the exhaust is measured to be 20%. The exhaust temperature from the boiler increases
from 380 F to 450 F over a 14 month period due to scale buildup. Calculate a) the
projected annual cost savings ($/yr) and b) the projected savings as a percent of current
annual natural gas use from descaling the boiler.
The initial efficiency before descaling is:
INPUTS

30
The new efficiency after descaling is:
CALCULATIONS
INPUTS

CALCULATIONS
Qp = Qf,1 x Eff1
Qf,2 = Qp / Eff2
31
INPUT
Cf ($/mmBtu) 10
CALCULATIONS
Cf,sav ($/yr) = Qf,sav Cf 700
Preheat Boiler Feed-water with Economizer

An economizer is a heat exchanger that preheats feed-water to the boiler using heat
from the exhaust gasses. Economizers are most cost effective in process boilers that
operate all year. The energy reclaimed by the economizer can be modeled as a function
of the effectiveness of the economizer.
Economizer pre-heating boiler feed water.
Heat Exchanger Effectiveness Method

Energy savings from reclaiming heat can be calculated using the heat exchanger
effectiveness method. Heat exchangers transfer heat from a hot stream with entering
and exiting temperatures of Th1 and Th2 to a cold stream with entering and exiting
temperatures of Tc1 and Tc2. The product of the mass flow rate and specific heat of the
hot and cold streams are called the mass capacitances, mcph and mcpc. A schematic of
a counterflow heat exchanger with these temperatures is shown below.
32
Th1 Tc2
Qact
Th2 Tc1
Heat exchanger effectiveness, e, is the ratio of the actual heat transfer, Qact, to
maximum heat transfer, Qmax.
e = Qact / Qmax
The actual heat transfer is the product of the mass capacitance and the temperature
rise of either the hot or cold stream. The mass capacitance, mcp, is the product of the
mass flow rate, m, and the specific heat, cp.
Qact = mcph (Th1 Th2) = mcpc (Tc2 Tc1)
In an infinitely long heat exchanger, the exit temperature of the hot stream would reach
the entering temperature of the cold stream. Similarly, the exit temperature of the cold
stream would reach the entering temperature of the hot stream. The maximum heat
transfer would be limited only by the capacity of the each stream to absorb the heat.
Thus, the maximum heat transfer would be:
Qmax = mcp,min (Th1 Tc1)
Thus, the heat exchanger effectiveness is:
e = Qact / Qmax = Qact / mcp,min (Th1 Tc1)
If the heat exchanger effectiveness, mass capacitances and entering temperatures are
known, this equation can be solved to determine the actual heat transfer, Qact, and exit
temperatures of each stream.
Qact = e mcp,min (Th1 Tc1)
Tc2 = Tc1 + e mcp,min (Th1 Tc1) / mcpc

Th2 = Th1 - e mcp,min (Th1 Tc1) / mcph
Heat exchangers are typically designed with sufficient heat transfer area such that the
effectiveness of the heat exchanger is between about 0.6 and 0.9. At higher levels of
heat exchanger effectiveness, the cost of the required surface area frequently
outweighs the additional performance benefits. Heat exchanger designers must also
ensure that the pressure drop on each side of the heat exchanger is acceptably small,
33
and that the materials can withstand the temperatures, fouling and corrosiveness of the
fluids involved.
Example
Consider reclaiming heat from boiler exhaust at 400 F to preheat boiler feedwater at 80
F. The boiler consumes 1,000,000 Btu/hr of natural gas and produces 900 lb/hr of
steam. The fraction excess air in the exhaust is measured to be 20%. Calculate the heat
and fuel savings, and the temperatures of the two streams leaving the economizer, if
the economizer is 50% effective and the overall efficiency of the steam system is 75%.
The first step is to calculate the flow rate of exhaust gasses using combustion relations.
COMBUSTION AIR FLOW

INPUTS
Qng (Btu/hr) 1,000,000
AFRstoch (lba/lbng) 17.2
EA 0.20
CALCULATIONS
Mng = Qng / HHVng (lb/hr) 42
Ma = Mng AFRs (1+EA) (lb/hr) 864
Mtot = (Mng + Ma) (lb/hr) 905
Next, calculate the heat transfer from the hot exhaust gasses, h, to the cold feedwater,
c, using the heat exchanger effectiveness method.
ECONOMIZER HEAT EXCHANGER

INPUTS
Th1 (F) 400
mh (lb/hr) 905
cph (Btu/lb-F) 0.30
Tc1 (F) 80
mc (lb/hr) 900
cpc (Btu/lb-F) 1.00
e 0.500
CALCULATIONS
Ch = mh * cph (Btu/hr-F) 272
Cc = mc * cpc (Btu/hr-F) 900
Cmin = min(Ch, Cc) (Btu/hr-F) 272
Qsav = e*Cmin*(Th1-Tc1) (Btu/hr) 43,461
Th2 = Th1-Q/Ch (F) 240
Tc2 = Tc1 + Q/Cc (F) 128
34
Note that in this example the feedwater was pre-heated from 80 F to 130 F, and the
exhaust gasses were cooled from 400 F to 240 F. The dewpoint temperature of water
vapor in exhaust is about 140 F. So the 240 F exhaust gas temperature is still hot
enough to prevent condensation in the exhaust pipe.
The fuel savings would be:
FUEL SAVINGS
Eff,sys 0.75
Run Boiler in Modulation Mode to Avoid On/Off Cycling

Most boilers are designed for peak load, but operate at less than full load most of the
time. To meet part load conditions using on/off control, the burner intermittently
fires at full-fire then turn offs. To meet part load conditions using modulation control,
fuel and combustion air are to the burner are modulated down and the burner fires at
less than full fire. Modulation control is more efficient that on/off control for two
reasons. First, each time a boiler cycles on and off, it purges natural gas from inside the
boiler by blowing the combustion air fan. These purge cycles remove heat from the
steam and increase fuel use. In addition, boilers are more efficient at low or medium fire
than at full fire because the combustion gasses have more time to transfer heat to the
steam as they pass through the boiler. Thus, it is advantageous to control the boiler
with modulation control and avoid cycling.
In most boilers with on/off control, it is possible to upgrade to modulation control. In

addition, modulating burners typically have a minimum firing rate of 25% to 33% of
maximum output. If steam demand is less than the minimum firing rate, the boiler
cycles on and off. Installing a burner with a smaller minimum firing rate can eliminate
the on/off cycling and reduce fuel use.
Example
A boiler operating with on/off control consumes 6,300,000 Btu/hr at full fire. At full fire,
the temperature of the exhaust gasses are 450 F and the excess air in the exhaust gasses
is 20%. The temperature of combustion air entering the boiler is 70 F. The boiler
operates 8,400 hours per year and fires at full fire 70% of the time. The boiler cycles off
two times per hour, and purges natural gas from inside the boiler for 1 minute after
cycling off and for 1 minute before reigniting. The saturation temperature of steam in
the boiler is 335 F. The cost of natural gas is $10 /mmBtu. If the boiler were operated in
35
modulation mode, calculate the fuel savings from eliminating purge losses (mmBtu/yr),
the fuel savings from improving combustion efficiency (mmBtu/yr), and the overall cost
savings ($/yr)
The mass flow rate of exhaust gasses at full fire is:
COMBUSTION AIR FLOW AT FULL FIRE

INPUTS
Qf,rated (Btu/hr) 6,300,000
EA 0.20

AFRstoch (lba/lbng) 17.2
CALCULATIONS
Mng = Qf / HHVng (lb/hr) 264
Ma = Mng AFRs (1+EA) (lb/hr) 5,441
Mtot = (Mng + Ma) (lb/hr) 5,704
The combustion efficiency at full fire is:
COMBUSTION EFFICIENCY AT FULL FIRE

INPUTS

CALCULATIONS
hfg = water vapor latent energy (Btu/lb) = (if Tex<140 then hfg=HHV-LHV else hfg = 0)0
Eff = {hfg+[1 + (1+EA)(AFs)]*cpp*(Tc-Tex)}/HHV 79.6%
To calculate purge losses, first calculate the energy delivered to the steam, Qsteam, and
heat exchanger effectiveness of the boiler, e1, at full fire. Using this effectiveness, the
heat loss during the purge cycle can be calculated as:
36
PURGE LOSS
INPUTS
Qf,rated (Btu/hr) 6,300,000
Eff 79.6%
Ma (lb/hr) 5,441
Mtot (lb/hr) 5,704
Tc = temperature combustion (F) 3,382
Tsteam (F) 335
Num cycles per hour = N 2
Post-fire purge time (min) = PstP 1
Pre-fire purge time (min) = PreP 1
CALCULATIONS
Qsteam (Btu/hr) = Qf Eff 5,017,077
e1 = Qsteam/(mtot cp (Tc-Ts) 0.962
FracPurge = N (PstP+PreP) / 60 0.067
Qpurge (Btu/hr) = FracPurge e1 ma cpp (Tsteam - Tca) 27,747
Qf,sav,purge (Btu/hr) = Qpurge/Eff 34,842
When boilers operate at less than full-fire, the velocity of exhaust gasses travelling
through the boiler decreases, resulting in greater heat transfer and lower exhaust
temperature. To calculate the lower exhaust temperature, first solve the relation for
heat exchanger effectiveness, e1, for condensing heat exchangers such as boilers
e1 = 1 exp(-UA/Cmin)
for the UA of the boiler. Next, calculate the heat exchanger effectiveness at the lower
flow rate, e2, by solving the equation for heat delivered to the steam.
Qsteam = e2 m,ex cp,ex (Tc Tex) = m,ex, cp,ex (Tc - Tex)
Using the method, the reduced exhaust temperature at less than full fire is:
37
EXHAUST TEMPERATURE WHEN MODULATING
INPUTS
FFF = FracFullFire 0.7
Mtot (lb/hr) 5,704
Tc = temp combustion (F) 3,382
e1 = Qsteam/(mtot cp (Tc-Ts) 0.962
Tsteam (F) 335
CALCULATIONS
UA (Btu/hr-F) = -Mtot cpp ln(1-e1) 5,608
mcp2 (Btu/hr-F) = FFF Mtot cpp 1,198
e2 = 1-exp(-UA/mcp2) 0.991
Tex2 = Tc - e2(Tc-Tsteam) 363
The combustion efficiency at less than full fire is:
COMBUSTION EFFICIENCY WHEN MODULATING

INPUTS

CALCULATIONS
hfg = water vapor latent energy (Btu/lb) = (if Tex<140 then hfg=HHV-LHV else hfg = 0)0
Eff = {hfg+[1 + (1+EA)(AFs)]*cpp*(Tc-Tex)}/HHV 82.0%
The savings would be:
38
SAVINGS
INPUT
HPY (hr/yr) 8400
Cf ($/mmBtu) 10
CALCULATIONS
Qf,1 (mmBtu/yr) = Qfr FFF HPY / 1,000,000 37,044
Qf,sav,eff (mmBtu/yr) = Qf1-Qf2 1,065
Qf,sav,purge (mmBtu/yr) = Qf,sav,purge HPY / 1,000,000 293
Qf,sav,tot (mmBtu/yr) = Qf,sav,eff + Qf,sav,purge 1,357
Cf,sav ($/yr) = Qf,sav Cf 13,575
Blowdown Heat Recovery

Blowdown removes impurities that inevitably accumulate because makeup water is
never 100% pure and the steam leaving the boiler is a distilled vapor with no impurities.
Most boilers employ two types of blowdown: surface and bottom. Surface blowdown
remove dissolved solids which tend to accumulate near the top of the boiler where
steam is formed. Bottom blowdown removes sludge that accumulates on the bottom of
the boiler. Total blowdown rates vary with the quality and quantity of boiler makeup
water; however total rate of blowdown is typically between 4% and 8% of the steam
generation rate.
Up to 80% of the thermal energy in the blowdown can be recovered. A schematic of a

flash + condensate blowdown recovery system is shown below. Blowdown flash vapor
and condensate are separated in a flash tank. Blowdown flash vapor is piped into the
deaerator. Blowdown condensate flows through a plate heat exchanger to warm make-
up water.
39
Source: http://www.spiraxsarco.com/
Install Stack Damper on Atmospheric Boilers

Schematics of typical atmospheric and forced air hot-water boilers are shown below. In
both types of boiler, hot combustion gasses transfer heat to the water as they move
upward then out the exhaust flue. In on/off burner control, the burner fires whenever
the water temperature drops to the low-temperature set point and turns off when the
water temperature rises to the high-temperature set point.
Source: 2008 ASHRAE Handbook HVAC Systems and Equipment.
When open atmospheric boilers are not firing, air is drawn upward through the interior
of the boiler as it warms and becomes more buoyant. This air pulls heat out of the
water and reduces the overall efficiency of the boiler. This chimney effect is
exaggerated when the outlet of the exhaust flue is higher than the inlet to the base of
the boiler. To reduce this loss, the exhaust flue can be equipped with a stack damper
that closes when the burners are not firing. To be completely effective, the stack
damper must be located below the exhaust flue hood. Closed forced-draft boilers
40
minimize this effect by sealing the combustion area with a fan that stops inlet air flow
when the burner is not firing. However, to the extent that these losses still occur, they
reduce the overall or total efficiency of the boiler.
Replace Conventional Hot Water Boiler with Condensing Boiler

Steam boilers generate steam at 212 F and higher as steam pressure increases. Hot
water boilers generate hot water at lower temperatures, and hence have the potential
of operating at higher efficiencies than steam boilers. In addition, because of the low
operating pressure, hot water boilers do not require dedicated boiler operators.
In HVAC applications, high-temperature hot-water boiler systems typically operate at

about 180 F. Low-temperature systems operate at about 120 F. Low-temperature
systems are more fuel efficient because the temperature difference between the water
and hot combustion gasses is greater, which results in greater heat transfer and lower
exhaust gas temperature. Efficiency increases significantly when water vapor condenses
out of the exhaust gasses. To condense water vapor, the temperature of water
returning from the building and entering the boiler must be 125 F or less. The graph
below shows, how combustion efficiency increases with decreasing inlet water
temperature.
Source: 2008 ASHRAE Handbook HVAC Systems and Equipment.
Example
41
A traditional hot-water boiler burns 1,000 mmBtu of natural gas per year at a cost of
$10 /mmBtu. The average temperature of the incoming combustion air is 70 F. The
average temperature of the exhaust is 300 F. The fraction excess air in the exhaust is
measured to be 10%. It is proposed to 1) install a larger process heat exchanger that
reduces the temperature of the return water from 150 F to 110 F, and 2) install a new
condensing boiler. The average temperature of the exhaust from the condensing boiler
is 120 F. Calculate a) the projected annual cost savings ($/yr) and b) the projected
savings as a percent of current annual natural gas use.
The initial efficiency, Eff1, is:
INPUTS

CALCULATIONS
A efficiency of the condensing boiler, Eff2, would be:
42
INPUTS

CALCULATIONS
hfg = water vapor latent energy (Btu/lb) = (if Tex<140 then hfg=HHV-LHV else hfg = 0) 2,400
Qp = Qf,1 x Eff1
Qf,2 = Qp / Eff2
INPUT
Cf ($/mmBtu) 10
CALCULATIONS
Qp (mmBtu/yr) = Qf,1 Eff1 842
Qf,2 (mmBtu/yr) = Qp / Eff2 853
Cf,sav ($/yr) = Qf,sav Cf 1,473
43
Use Direct Contact Water Heater for Direct Inject and Hot Water
Applications
Some industrial processes, such a food processing, require large volumes of hot water
that cannot be returned to the system. In these cases, make-up water can enter the
boiler at near ambient temperatures. Direct contact hot water heaters capitalize on low
incoming water temperatures, counter flow design and large heat exchange areas
between the combustion gasses and water droplets to generate efficiencies of up to
99%.
High-efficiency direct-contact water heater in the food processing industry.
Energy Savings and Steam System Models

Fuel energy savings, Fuel, can be estimated by calculating the reduction in energy loss
through a given pathway, Energy , by the overall efficiency of the steam system,
Eff,sys.
Fuel = Energy / Eff,sys
The energy efficiency of any system is the ratio of useful energy delivered to required
energy input. For steam systems, the energy efficiency is the ratio of useful heat
delivered to the process to the pump and fuel energy input.
Eff,sys = Qprocess / (Epump + Efuel)
However, because pump energy is quite small compared to fuel energy, pump energy is
neglected and the efficiency is typically calculated as:
44
Eff,sys = Qprocess / Efuel
However, in an integrated system like a steam system, changes in one part of the
system affect other parts of the system. The simplistic method of estimating savings
shown above does not account for these synergistic effects between system
components. A more accurate way to calculate expected fuel savings is to use an
integrated model of the steam system, calibrate it to baseline fuel use, change
parameters to model energy efficiency opportunities, and compare baseline versus
energy-efficient fuel use.
One model of a steam system is called SteamSim. SteamSim is a thermodynamic model

of the steam system shown below. The steam system is modeled from the following
readily obtainable input data using known state points, energy balances, and mass
balances and the methods described above.
SteamSim required input data are:
Qprocess : heat delivered to process (Btu/hr)

P2 : steam pressure at exit to boiler (psia)
P3 : steam pressure at exit from throttling valve (psia)
Pda : steam pressure of deaerator tank (psia)
45
T0 : temperature of makeup water (F)
Fbd : Fraction of input water discharged as blowdown
Fcl : Fraction of condensate lost
Eecon: effectiveness of economizer
EA: excess air in combustion exhaust
Tca: temperature of combustion air entering boiler (F)
Tex : temperature of combustion exhaust from boiler before economizer (F)
Mstl : Mass flow rate of steam leaking through steam traps (lb/hr)
Dsp, Lsp, Rsp : diameter (ft), length (ft) and thermal resistance (hr-ft2-F/Btu) of
steam pipes
Dcp, Lcp, Rcp : diameter (ft), length (ft) and thermal resistance (hr-ft2-F/Btu) of
condensate pipes
Db, Lb, Rb : diameter (ft), length (ft) and thermal resistance (hr-ft2-F/Btu) of
boiler
Dda, Lda, Rda : diameter (ft), length (ft) and thermal resistance (hr-ft2-F/Btu) of
dearator tank
SteamSim output are:
Qfuel : fuel energy input to Boiler (Btu/hr)

Fqp : fraction of fuel energy delivered to process
Qexhaust, Fqex : energy lost in combustion exhaust (Btu/hr) and fraction of fuel
energy lost in combustion exhaust
Qbd, Fqbd : energy lost in blowdown (Btu/hr) and fraction of fuel energy lost in
blowdown
Qflash, Fqflash : energy lost in flash steam(Btu/hr) and fraction of fuel energy
lost in flash steam
Qecon, Fqecon : energy reclaimed by economizer (Btu/hr) and fraction of fuel
energy reclaimed by economizer
Qcl, Fqcl : energy lost in condensate loss (Btu/hr) and fraction of fuel energy lost
in condensate loss
Tsp, Qsp, Fqsp : temperature of steam pipe (F), heat loss from steam pipe
(Btu/hr), fraction of fuel input lost from steam pipe
Tcp, Qcp, Fqcp : temperature of condensate pipe (F), heat loss from condensate
pipe (Btu/hr), fraction of fuel input lost from condensate pipe
Tda, Qda, Fqda : temperature of dearator tank (F), heat loss from dearator tank
(Btu/hr), fraction of fuel input lost from dearator tank
Tb, Qb, Fb : temperature of boiler (F), heat loss from boiler (Btu/hr), fraction of
fuel input lost from boiler
46

Energy Efficient Steam Systems

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Energy Efficient Steam Systems

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Energy-Efficient Steam Systems

Msteam = Q / hfg = 1,000,000 Btu/hr / 881 Btu/lb = 1,135 lb/hr

If the temperature of hot water dropped by 100 F as it passed through a heat

Mwater = Q / (cp x dt) = 1,000,000 Btu/hr / (1 Btu/lb-F x 100 F) = 10,000 lb/hr

Principles of Energy-Efficient Steam Systems

Figure 1. Basic steam system.

Thus, energy enters a steam system as:

Fuel and combustion air

Energy leaves a steam system as:

Fuel use is reduced by reducing these losses.

Opportunities for Improving the Energy-Efficiency of Steam Systems

The remainder of the chapter describes steam system components, discusses

Steam System Components

Schematic of fire-tube boiler. Source : Cut-away view of water-tube boiler

For high-pressure applications, it is easier to construct small diameter tubes to handle

Steam Piping Systems

Source: Grainger Catalog, 2000-2001

Condensate Return Tanks

Insulate Pipes, Tanks and Hot Surfaces

Qsavings = Quninsulated Qinsulated (1)

Quninsulated = h A (Ts Ta) + A (Ts4 Ta4) (2)

where h is the convection coefficient, is the Stefan-Boltzman constant (0.1714 10-8

Laminar: L3 T < 63 Turbulent: L3 T > 63 (3)

Horizontal Surfaces Losing Heat Upwards:

Horizontal Pipes and Cylinders:

Qinsulated = h ATi Ta A (Ti4 Ta4) (5)

where Ti is the temperature of the outside surface of the insulation. Unfortunately, in

Quninsulated = A (Tf Ts) / Rc (6)

The surface temperature of 100 ft of 0.5 ft diameter un-insulated pipe carrying

Input data are:

EB(Ti) = A (Tf Ti) / (Rp +Ri) - h A (Ti Ta) - A (Ti4 Ta4) = 0

GUESS Ti to make EB(Ti) = 0 89.9

EB(Ti) = Qcnd,i - Qcnv,i - Qrad,i should be zero 0.22

Qsav (Btu/hr) = Qtot,p - Qtot,i 27,669

The surface temperature of a steam-heated, un-insulated rectangular tank with four

Input data are:

EB(Ti) = A (Tf Ti) / (Rw +Ri) - h A (Ti Ta) - A (Ti4 Ta4) = 0

GUESS Ti to make EB(Ti) = 0 98.45

EB(Ti) = Qcnd,i - Qcnv,i - Qrad,i should be zero 0.96

Qsav (Btu/hr) = Qtot,p - Qtot,i 15,330

Fix Steam Traps

Estimating Savings from Repairing Steam Traps

The rate of steam loss through an orifice is given by:

Steam flow (lb/hr) = 24.24 lb/(hr-psia-in2) x P psia x [D inch]2 x C

Reduce Steam Pressure

Install Automatic Blowdown Controls

CH4 + 2 (O2 + 3.76 N2) CO2 + 2 H2O +7.52 N2 (17)

AFs = Mair,s / Mng,s = 2[ (2 x 16) + (3.76 x 2 x 14)] / [12 + (4 x 1)] = 17.2

ECA = [(mca / mng) / AFs] 1 (18)

Qin = mng HHV (19)

mg = mng + mca (20)

Tc = Tca + LHV / [{1 + (1 + ECA) AFs} Cpg] (21)

= [{1 + (1 + ECA) AFs} Cpg (Tc Tex)] / HHV (22)

The dew-point temperature of products of combustion is about 140 F. If the products of

If Tex > 140 F then hfg = 0 Else hfg = HHV LHV

COMBUSTION AIR FLOW

CONSTANTS (FOR NATURAL GAS)

CONSTANTS (FOR NATURAL GAS)

Thus, the combustion efficiency is 77.3%.

The initial efficiency is:

CONSTANTS (FOR NATURAL GAS)

The new efficiency is:

CONSTANTS (FOR NATURAL GAS)

The fuel use savings, Qf,sav, would be: