Essential Quantum Mechanics for Chemistry Students

The odd behavior of Matter

In our every-day world there is a pattern of behavior of how objects behave. For
example, if one releases a water-balloon then some time later the balloon will have
fallen a distance d given by the following. (assuming it hasnt hit anything)
2
d =16 t
This is a determinable distance. One can use this to make predictions prior to the
balloon actually being dropped and expect an accurate, definite distance.

The problem is that as one explores the behavior of matter at a very basic level the usual
patterns of behavior breaks down. For example, if one releases an atom above the
ground then it is possible that the atom will not hit the ground, or at least at the time
prescribed in the above equation. How can it be, you might ask, that objects behaves a
certain way in our every-day world and not on the fundamental scale?

The key is that matter, on average, follows the usual patterns of behavior we are
familiar with. So a dropped atom will tend to the hit the ground with an average time
prescribed above. A vast collection of atoms (in say a water balloon) work to get the
whole bunch to work according to the average behavior, in other words according to the
physics of our everyday world.

The problem is that when we speak of an average behavior we are invoking a statistical
view of matter; however, statistics addresses the behavior of a large sample, not the
individual. For example statistics can describe the fraction of a class that have brown
eyes, but it cannot in general predict if a student, picked at random, will have brown
eyes.

So now our definitiveness is replaced with a statistical viewpoint where all we can
predict is the chances of an outcome but not necessarily the actual outcome itself. What
further muddies up our atomic waters is that ordinary statistical methods do not work.
The new special statistical rules that applies to matter at a fundamental level is called
Quantum Mechanics. The purpose of this supplement is to provide an introduction to
Quantum Mechanics relative to the studying of chemistry.

Energy Levels
A consequence of Quantum Mechanics is that objects confined to a region, such as
electrons in an atom, can only possess an energy that is one of an allowed set of possible
energies called energy levels. What this means is that when such an object radiates
energy it must do so by going from one possible energy to another, radiating out energy
in one burst. For example, suppose that a bound object can have an energy of 1, 2, or 3

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units. What is the possible energies that it can give off? Consider the options:
Object goes from 3 units 2 units (radiates 1 unit of energy).
Object goes from 3 units 1 unit (radiates 2 units of energy).
Object goes from 2 units 1 units (radiates 1 unit of energy).

So the object can radiate out 1 or 2 units of energy in a spurt. Of course if it began with
the lowest energy then it's stuck there.

Consider also the spectrum of light given off by individual atoms. It would look
something like this.

How does this fit in? The answer gave Einstein the 1921 Nobel prize. Consider that
light, like everything else, comes in little bits of matter. For light these bits of matter are
called photons. These photons carry energy that is proportional to frequency and
inversely proportional to wavelength.
hc
E=h f E=

So if electrons can only radiate energy in lump sums of an amount given by the energy
level differences, and light energy depends on wavelength, then we shouldn't be
surprised that radiated light is seen as a set of discrete lines. In fact for Hydrogen atoms
it works out that the wavelength is given by:
1

1 1
= RH 2 2
nl n h
With nl representing the lower energy level and nh the higher. Also RH is called the
Rydberg constant.

Where are the electrons?

In an atom the negatively charged electrons whirl around in a space that occupies the
majority of the volume. In our everyday world objects with like charge push away from
each other, for example hair that has developed a charge will stick out away from each
other. Therefore the electrons should push each other as far away from each other as
they can.

So as we apply Quantum Mechanics to the electrons in an atom we see that we cannot

know in advance where the electron will be; however the electrons will tend to push

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each other away and will be most likely found in regions as far removed from the others
as possible. We call these regions orbitals. The initial orbitals have their origins in a
precise calculation for the Hydrogen atom (it being the simplest). These results have
been modified to accommodate the electrons desire to have their own space and are
designated as s, p, d, f, orbitals. These orbitals will be discussed individually below.

The Orbitals
Depictions of the different orbitals are shown beginning on the next page. These
images have points scattered in such a fashion as to approximate the shape of the
orbitals. In the center is a point representing the nucleus.

S orbital (Spherical shape)

P orbitals (Dumbbell shaped in three orientations)

D orbitals: Dumbbell with a ring around it.

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D orbitals: Four lobes

Prepared by Kevin Gibson

www.mc.maricopa.edu/~kevinlg/supplements/

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