;

;Ulitimate Civ II - Civilopedia Descriptions Text File -- Copyright (c) 1997 MicroProse Software, Inc.

;This file contains the descriptions of all the Civilization Advances, City Improvements, Wonders of

;the World, Units, and Game Concepts displayed in the Civilopedia. It is designed to be adaptable
to

;conform to customized scenarios by the replacing existing text with scenario-specific text.

;PLEASE MAKE A COPY OF THE ORIGINAL TEXT FILE BEFORE YOU MAKE ANY CHANGES!

@ADVANCE_DESCRIPTIONS

;Translation Note: This section consists (verbatim) of the following files from the original
Civilopedia, ;strung together to make one contiguous section: ADVANC1.PDE, ADVANC2.PDE,
ADVANC3.PDE,

;and ADVANC4.PDE. (French and German versions are .PDF and .PDG respectively.)

; The index is a mapping to the rules file. The labels to the right are the entries, IN ORDER,

; that are in the rules.txt file. The number to the left is the description below that

; corresponds to the rules entry. For example, Amphibious Warfare will be the 55'th (remember,

; the list is zero based) description below begining with @@.

; Only ONE entry per line, number MUST BE TERMINATED WITH A COMMA.

; The list must terminate with a -2. A -1 indicates no desription, do not list or index.

@@ADVANCE_INDEX

0, ; Advanced Flight
1, ; Alphabet

54, ; Amphibious Warfare

2, ; Astronomy

3, ; Atomic Theory

4, ; Automobile

5, ; Banking

6, ; Bridge Building

7, ; Bronze Working

8, ; Ceremonial Burial

9, ; Chemistry

10, ; Chivalry

11, ; Code of Laws

55, ; Combined Arms

12, ; Combustion

13, ; Communism

14, ; Computers

15, ; Conscription

16, ; Construction

17, ; The Corporation

18, ; Currency

19, ; Democracy

56, ; Economics

20, ; Electricity

21, ; Electronics

22, ; Engineering

57, ; Environmentalism

58, ; Espionage

23, ; Explosives

24, ; Feudalism
25, ; Flight

59, ; Fundamentalism

26, ; Fusion Power

27, ; Genetic Engineering

60, ; Guerrilla Warfare

79, ; Gunpowder

80, ; Horseback Riding

81, ; Industrialization

82, ; Invention

83, ; Iron Working

28, ; Labor Union

61, ; The Laser

62, ; Leadership

29, ; Literacy

63, ; Machine Tools

30, ; Magnetism

31, ; Map Making

32, ; Masonry

33, ; Mass Production

34, ; Mathematics

35, ; Medicine

36, ; Metallurgy

64, ; Miniaturization

65, ; Mobile Warfare

37, ; Monarchy

66, ; Monotheism

38, ; Mysticism

39, ; Navigation

40, ; Nuclear Fission

41, ; Nuclear Power

42, ; Philosophy

43, ; Physics

44, ; Plastics

-1, ; Plumbing

68, ; Polytheism

45, ; Pottery

69, ; Radio

46, ; Railroad

47, ; Recycling

48, ; Refining

70, ; Refrigeration

49, ; The Republic

50, ; Robotics

51, ; Rocketry

71, ; Sanitation

72, ; Seafaring

52, ; Space Flight

73, ; Stealth

53, ; Steam Engine

84, ; Steel

85, ; Superconductor

74, ; Tactics

75, ; Theology

86, ; Theory of Gravity

87, ; Trade

88, ; University

76, ; Warrior Code

77, ; The Wheel

78, ; Writing

67, ; Future Technology

-1, ; User Def Tech A

-1, ; User Def Tech B

-1, ; User Def Tech C

-1, ; Extra Advance 1

-1, ; Extra Advance 2

-1, ; Extra Advance 3

-1, ; Extra Advance 4

-1, ; Extra Advance 5

-1, ; Extra Advance 6

-1, ; Extra Advance 7

-2, ; MUST BE HERE! TERMINATOR!

@@Advanced Flight

During World War II and in the years that followed, great leaps were made in the field of aviation.
The military demands of the war necessitated the development of aircraft designed for long-range
bombing, and for the transportation of troops and equipment. Although advances in aviation were
made all over the world during this time, the Germans were particularly adept in the development
of advanced flight technologies. In 1944, they developed the V-2 "buzz bomb", the first truly
guided missile, capable of delivering 2000 pounds of explosives to targets nearly 200 miles away.
The Germans also developed the Me 262, the first jet fighter plane, which was first used in 1945.
Although both the V-2 and the Me 262 came too late to affect the outcome of World War II, both
of these advances paved the way for the advanced flight technologies of today.

@@Alphabet

The ancestors of modern alphabets were the iconographic and ideographic symbols developed by
ancient man, such as cuneiform and hieroglyphics. The first known alphabet, a combination of a
number of early pictographic symbols known as North Semetic, was developed between 1700 and
1500 BC. Four other alphabets, South Semetic, Canaanite, Aramaic, and Greek, had evolved from
the North Semetic alphabet by 1000 BC. The Roman alphabet, used by all the languages of
western Europe including English, was derived from the Greek alphabet sometime after 500 BC.
The Roman alphabet became one of the most widespread due to the extensive use of the Latin
language during the reign of the Roman Empire. The development of alphabets was significant in
the development of advanced civilizations because it allowed history and ideas to be written
down, rather than memorized and passed along orally.

@@Astronomy

Astronomy originated as simple observation and recording of regular celestial movements for the
purpose of time keeping and determining directional bearings. The ancient Greeks were among
the first to study astronomy in detail. They described the use of stars for navigation at sea, and
recorded the position of constellations during each season of the year for purposes of determining
times for planting and harvesting. The Greek astronomer Aristarchus developed the theory that
celestial motion could be explained by the fact that the Earth revolved on its axis once every 24
hours, and revolves around the sun along with the other planets. This theory was rejected at the
time, only to be rediscovered nearly 2000 years later by Copernicus. These early students of
astronomy compiled data that became the cornerstone for modern astronomical research.

@@Atomic Theory

Philosophers in ancient Greece were the first to use the term "atom" to describe the smallest
possible bit of matter. They hypothesized that all things were made up of atoms, and could be
theoretically broken down into atoms. The atom, however, was indestructible. Study of atomic
theory proceeded slowly. Experimental scientists of the 16th and 17th centuries developed
methods of analyzing gases, liquids, and solids to determine the individual elements of which they
were composed. The founder of modern atomic theory was British chemist John Dalton. Dalton's
experiments explained how atoms link together to form molecules. He also explained the nature
of these chemical bonds, and performed a number of experiments concerning the formation of
various chemical compounds.

@@Automobile

The earliest attempts at producing a self-propelled vehicle date back to the late 1770s. These early
vehicles used bulky steam engines for power. Despite constant improvements, the steam engine
ultimately proved impractical for small vehicles. The development of the internal combustion
engine in the late 1800s provided a small but powerful replacement for steam engines, and were
able to achieve much higher speeds. The first practical automobiles were developed in the late
19th century, by automotive pioneers in France, Germany, and the United States. By the 1920s, a
number of automotive manufacturing companies were operating in the U.S., including Ford and
General Motors. By 1980, more than 300 million cars and 85 million trucks were in operation
throughout the world. The popularity of the automobile has led to massive improvements in the
highway systems in most industrialized countries. Unfortunately, automobiles are also one of the
primary sources of air pollution, and have resulted in an all time high demand for petrochemical
fuels.
@@Banking

Many of the services performed by banks today can be traced back to medieval Europe. Certain
families, such as the Medicis of Italy, were known for the banking duties they performed. These
wealthy merchants pooled their surplus money into a bank, then loaned cash (with interest) to
other commercial enterprises. The availability of this capital for investment made many new
businesses possible, accelerating economic growth. The first modern banks were established in
Europe during the late 1600s. The primary function of today's banking system is the granting of
loans to consumers and businesses. In addition to loaning money and safeguarding deposits, banks
also invest in government and private securities and bonds. Both the loan and investment
functions of banks not only make profits for the bank itself, but stimulate the economy by
providing funds for business growth and consumer purchases.

@@Bridge Building

Humans have been constructing crude bridges from the first time they laid logs across a stream or
river they needed to cross. Although a brick arch bridge is said to have existed in Babylon in 1800
BC, most bridges of this time period were probably made of wood. The Romans developed bridge
building to a degree that it took Western medieval engineers many years to match. Roman bridges
were often composed of several stone arches which supported a flat road. Bridges of this type
date back to as early as 219 BC. It wasn't until the mid-1800s that bridge designs began to
incorporate metal for added strength and permanence. Early truss bridges used wooden trusses
bound with iron tie-rods. By 1850, wooden trusses gave way to steel. Modern bridges incorporate
designs ranging from concrete and steel arches to steel girder and suspension styles. The
development of modern bridges constructed of durable materials was vital to the expansion of the
worlds railroad and highway systems.

@@Bronze Working

Evidence of the use of bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, dates back to Thailand in 4500 BC.
Several hundred years later, bronze working was discovered in the Middle East. Artifacts from this
period show that bronze was initially used for decorative purposes only. This is because tin was
not readily available. It wasn't until approximately 2000 BC, when tin was regularly imported from
neighboring regions, that bronze replaced copper in the construction of larger items. Bronze was
harder and less brittle than copper, and it held a sharper edge. Tools, weapons, and armor made
from bronze were also cheaper to produce and more durable. The period of time when bronze
was the metal of choice for such items was known as the Bronze Age. The Bronze Age lasted until
iron working became prevalent in approximately 1200 BC.

@@Ceremonial Burial

Groping for an explanation of the world around them, the earliest humans developed the first
concepts of religion. Gradually, rites of worship grew to include sacrifices, ceremonies, vigils,
symbology, sacred items, and prayer. One significant step in the advance of worship was the
ceremonial burial, often a ritual preparation of the deceased's body for the afterlife his or her
culture anticipated. The remains of ceremonial burials offer some of the most detailed
information about past civilizations.

@@Chemistry

The earliest practical use of chemical processes were by metal smiths of the ancient world. These
artisans learned how to use heat to melt various naturally occurring metals together to form alloys
such as bronze. Early manufacturers of cloth also used primitive chemical processes to set dyes. In
the following centuries, chemical processes were studied through the pseudo-science of alchemy,
which attempted to change base metals into gold. Although alchemists were, of course,
unsuccessful, they did develop many valuable chemical processes as a result. The manuscripts
produced by alchemists were studied by succeeding generations, and an effective knowledge of
chemistry had been accumulated by the late 13th century. In the 17th century, the ideas of
alchemy finally died out as an increasing body of true chemical knowledge was gained through
experimental analysis, leading to the modern science of chemistry.

@@Chivalry

Chivalry was a code of rules governing the behavior of an aristocratic class of warriors known as
knights. First appearing in the 12th century, the rules of chivalry governed not only the knights'
behavior in battle, but in their personal lives as well. The chief chivalric virtues of piety, honor,
valor, courtesy, chastity, and loyalty represented a fusion of Christian and military morality. A
similar code of behavior known as "Bushido" or "the way of the warrior" governed the behavior of
the samurai warriors of ancient Japan. Although the strict practice of chivalry had all but
disappeared by the 15th century, the ideals of chivalric behavior became the basis for what is now
considered to be gentlemanly conduct.

@@Code of Laws

The earliest tribal civilizations were bonded together by mutual needs and beliefs. These groups
were ruled by a tribal chieftain, who acted as an advisor, and enforcer of the will of the gods. No
formal laws existed in these early cultures, but fear of the gods and a sense of tribal customs and
morality kept order in the tribe. As societies became larger and more diverse, the need arose for
established rules of conduct. The earliest known codes of laws existed in Babylon, India, and
Palestine. The Twelve Tables of Rome, written in 500 BC, and its successors such as the Justinian
Code, were the first codes of law to distinguish between public law, which involves the state, and
private law, which concerns disputes between citizens. Roman law was the first formalized written
system of laws, and went on to influence many of the legal systems of the modern world.
@@Combustion

The development of the internal combustion was a great advance of the Industrial Age. The
forerunner of today's internal combustion engine was built in 1876 by German engineer Nikolaus
Otto. Refinements on Otto's design over the next ten years led to more efficient and powerful
engines. The internal combustion engine forever changed world transportation. Early automobiles
utilizing steam engines had proven to be both under-powered and impractical, but the fuel
efficiency and compact size of the internal combustion engine allowed the automotive industry to
flourish. Several variations, including the diesel engine designed by Rudolf Christian Karl Diesel,
went on to revolutionize propulsion in shipping and other transportation industries.

@@Communism

Communism is a conceptualized system of government in which resources and production

facilities are the property of the entire society rather than individuals. In a communist society,
labor is shared equally as well, and the benefits of labor are distributed according to need. Under
such a system, all people would be equal, without class stratification. Although the basic idea of
communism has existed since the time of Plato, modern communism is identified with the system
of government described by Karl Marx and Fredrich Engels in the "Communist Manifesto". They
believed that capitalistic systems, in which the rich upper class prospered through the exploitation
of the powerless lower class, were bound to destroy themselves. At this point, the poor would
rebel against their former oppressors and form a classless society. This prophecy has never come
true, and countries who have attempted to base their governments on communism have
ultimately failed to achieve the utopia described by Marx and Engels.

@@Computers

A computer is a device capable of performing a series of repetitive arithmetic or logical functions

far more quickly than the human brain. The earliest computers were designed to solve complex
mathematical equations. British mathematician Charles Babbage conceived such a machine, called
the Analytical Engine, in the 19th century. Many variations of analog, or mechanical, computing
devices were built during the first half of the 20th century, and were used for such tasks as
computing torpedo tracking in submarines and controlling bombsights. The growing study of
electronics in the late 1940's led to the invention of the digital computer. The first all-electronic
computer, containing 18,000 vacuum tubes and capable of hundreds of multiplications per
minute, was built in 1946. Continuous advances in electronics since this landmark event rapidly
reduced the size and increased the speed and efficiency of computers. Today, computers are
commonplace, and are used in virtually every field of endeavor. Significant advances in computer
technology continue to take place at an amazing pace.

@@Conscription
Compulsory enrollment in the armed forces has been practiced for thousands of years. In ancient
Greece, before the introduction of a professional militia in about 2000 BC, men between the ages
of 17 and 60 were obligated to serve in a civilian militia. The modern form of conscription was
introduced in France during the Revolution in 1789. By the 19th century, nearly every country
except for Great Britain and the United States had instituted a program of peacetime conscription.
Many of the combatants in both World Wars fought with forces composed largely of conscripted
troops. The U.S. Selective Service Act of 1948 maintained peacetime conscription following World
War II. This act, which was to have expired in 1950, was extended due to the Korean War.
Peacetime conscription in the United States continued until 1973, at which time military service
became voluntary.

@@Construction

The development of masonry led to a widespread use of stone in simple structures such as
fortifications, but due to the weight and cumbersome nature of stone blocks, more complex
structures had to be made of simpler materials. The need for the widespread use of more durable
and permanent materials eventually became apparent, forcing ancient artisans to learn new
techniques. The biggest problem to overcome was finding a stable way to span the distance
between two upright columns or walls using stone blocks. To solve this problem, fundamental
architectural elements such as the arch and vault evolved. These basic construction techniques
allowed larger and more elaborate buildings to be created from stone and mortar. Many of the
buildings erected by these early builders are still standing, a testament to the sound construction
techniques employed in their construction.

@@Corporation

As businesses grow, they often find it necessary to raise large amounts of operating capital in
order to expand their operations beyond a certain point, or to meet operating expenses. In these
cases, one option available is to form a corporation and "go public", or sell shares of the business
to investors. This arrangement allows the business to expand rapidly, while spreading the risks of
the expansion among many people, reducing individual risk. Corporations also have legal
advantages such as the right to sue, and the limitation of liability for the corporation's debt to the
amount originally invested by the owners. Corporations as legal entities have existed since ancient
Rome, although the joint-stock company as it is known today didn't begin operating until
sometime in the 16th century.

@@Currency

As cities grew, their internal economies became more complicated. People became specialists,
some primarily producing grain, some pottery, some bricks, etc. A system of barter developed, so
that one individual's wares and services could be exchanged for those of another. Gold and silver
were widely used in such transactions, but the pieces needed to be weighed and tested for purity
each time they changed hands. In 600 BC, the Lydians found a way around this problem. They
began the practice of shaping electrum, an alloy of gold and silver, into pieces of predetermined
weight and purity, stamped with an official symbol. This idea caught on, and within 50 years all the
important trading centers of the world had adopted similar practices. The widespread use of
currency created universal standards of value, allowing people from various societies to conduct
business almost anywhere without being forced to bring along bulky goods for trade and barter.

@@The Democracy

Democracy is a ruling system where the citizens have a great deal of control over the actions of
the government, either directly or through elected representatives. Democratic governments can
be traced back to the city-states of ancient Greece and Rome. Citizens would gather in a public
forum, and each one would have the opportunity to speak and vote on issues affecting the
community. This direct democracy system was possible due to the relatively small populations of
the city-states. Starting in the 17th century, the monarchs of Europe began to be stripped of their
absolute power, and by the end of the 19th century the citizens had a strong voice in government
in many European nations. Large populations made public forums impractical, so the people
elected groups of representatives to carry their views to the ruling powers. Strictly speaking, this
type of system more closely resembles a republican system rather than a true democracy. This
type of representative democracy is considered the best governing system in the modern world
because of the personal and economic freedom enjoyed by the citizens.

@@Electricity

The phenomenon of electricity in the forms of lightning, static electricity, and magnetism has been
witnessed by humans since the dawn of time. Electricity was not seriously studied, however, until
the 17th century. Early electrical pioneers studied various electrical phenomena, and built devices
both to generate and to measure electrical charges. In 1892, the electron theory was advanced by
Hendrik Antoon Lorentz, a Dutch physicist. This theory, which explains electricity as a reaction
between positively and negatively charged electrons, formed the basis for modern electrical
theory. Based on Lorentz's work, early engineers such as Thomas Edison pioneered methods
allowing the widespread use of electricity as a power source.

@@Electronics

The field of electronics deals with the practical application and manipulation of electricity and
electromagnetic phenomena. The invention of the vacuum tube in the early 20th century marked
the beginning of modern electronics. The vacuum tube was capable of amplifying weak radio
signals, allowing them to be transmitted over greater distances. Vacuum tubes also allowed music
and voice to be superimposed onto radio waves for transmission. The early study of electronics
revolutionized a number of fields, especially the field of communications. Because of the vacuum
tube, the technology of radio communications was highly developed by World War II. After the
war, electronics research continued to advance rapidly. Post-war advances include the earliest
examples of digital computers and, eventually, transistors and integrated circuits: miniaturized
replacements for the vacuum tube.

@@Engineering

Engineering is the application of scientific and mathematical principles to the design and/or
manufacture of theoretical systems and physical objects. Prior to the mid-18th century, all
engineering functions were carried out by military engineers. Their work involved the construction
of roads, bridges, fortifications, and the performance of other duties relating to the military. In the
late 18th century, civil engineers took over all nonmilitary engineering functions. Other fields of
engineering prior to the 20th century included mining engineers, who designed mines and
methods of mining, and mechanical engineers, who dealt with the design and construction of
machinery. As new technologies developed, new fields of engineering developed along with them.
Today, there are engineers specifically trained in nearly every field, from electronics and
computers to chemistry and atomics.

@@Explosives

An explosive is a chemical compound or mixture that undergoes rapid combustion and produces
heat, gas, and pressure effects. The earliest explosive compound known was gunpowder, which
was first used in the13th century, and was the only explosive known for hundreds of years. The
first modern explosive, a compound known as nitroglycerin, was discovered in 1846. Compounds
similar to nitroglycerin are the most commonly used explosives today. Explosives vary in brisance,
or shattering effect, and in their stability under various environmental conditions. Aside from their
obvious use in weaponry, explosives are also used in such peaceful applications as rocket
propellants and for mining and demolition work.

@@Feudalism

In the unsettled times following the collapse of Charlemagne's Frankish empire, a new social and
political system arose in Europe called feudalism. Derived from the concept of monarchy,
feudalism was a hierarchical system in which each descending stratum owed allegiance to those
above. The king, whose authority was second only to God, granted tracts of land, or fiefs, to his
barons. The barons might then grant smaller estates to knights, who swore to protect and serve
the baron. The knights, in turn, might then grant fractions of their fiefs to subordinates who would
serve the knights. At the bottom of the feudal pyramid were the serfs, who could not own land,
and acted essentially as slave laborers who worked the land for their masters. Feudalism began to
decline in the 13th century, when standing armies and mercenaries began to fulfill the protective
role once served by the vassals and knights.
@@Flight

The idea of flight has tantalized humans since the dawn of time. Studies regarding the possibility
of producing a flying machine date back to the 13th century. In the 16th century, Leonardo da
Vinci proposed a number of inventions that eventually came to pass, including the propeller and
the parachute. Throughout the 19th century, various engineers experimented successfully with
gliders, and experiments with compressed air and steam engines attempted to produce self-
powered flight with limited success. The key to success in powered flight was the invention of the
internal combustion engine. Just after the turn of the 20th century, Orville and Wilbur Wright
made the first four controlled, sustained human flights at Kitty Hawk, N.C. The technology of flight
advanced rapidly from this landmark event, and within a relatively few years, aircraft were circling
the globe, safely delivering passengers and mail at record speeds.

@@Fusion Power

Nuclear Fusion is the process by which two atomic nuclei combine to form one heavier atomic
nucleus, giving off tremendous energy as a by-product. This type of nuclear reaction, which is the
process by which stars such as the sun produce heat and light, requires very high temperatures
and an enormous amount of pressure to initiate, and a reliable system of fuel containment to
sustain. Fusion reactions have been produced in artificial environments on Earth by bombarding
deuterium with high-energy particles accelerated in a cyclotron. Unfortunately, the amount of
energy released in the reaction was considerably less than the energy required to accelerate the
particles. Brief fusion reactions have been demonstrated in the detonation of thermonuclear
weapons, but these reactions are useless for power generation because they cannot be controlled.
If a way can be found to produce a controlled fusion reaction, this technology offers great promise
as a source of electric power. The combination of abundant fuel sources and no harmful
byproducts makes fusion power a safe alternative to the dangerous side effects produced by
nuclear fission.

@@Genetic Engineering

Genetic Engineering involves the manipulation of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA contains the
genetic "code" which determines the inherited traits of living organisms. By removing a section of
an organism's DNA and replacing it with that of another organism, the characteristics of the
organism can be altered. Since its inception, genetic engineering has produced a number of
important benefits, such as isolating the gene for interferon, a rare substance that may be of great
value in the treatment of viral diseases and cancer. Genetic manipulation may someday also
provide a cure for birth defects and inherited diseases. Unfortunately, there are also potential
dangers involved in this technology. Genetically engineered diseases, more communicable and
virulent than any occurring in nature, could potentially be created in the laboratory by accident or
maliciously. Such viruses could be used as a dreadful biological weapon. Domestic and
international regulations regarding genetic experimentation exist to prevent such a situation from
occurring.
@@Labor Union

Labor unions arose in the 18th and 19th century in response to the poor working conditions
brought on by an intense competition for jobs, and the increasing dependence of the working
class on their employers created by the move toward industrialization. Early labor unions, formed
by skilled laborers in specific fields, met with opposition from both employers and the
government. In the 19th century, laws were passed legalizing trade unions, and by the 20th
century unions were formed in semi- or unskilled fields such as mining, transportation, and dock
working. Binding their interests together and bargaining collectively, trade unions forced factory
and business owners to provide better working conditions and economic status for their workers.

@@Literacy

Writing was a powerful new tool for the advancement of knowledge, but, like all tools, it was only
useful if employed. Literacy, the ability to read and understand a written language, was originally a
skill limited to priests and scribes. Because of this, knowledge was still spread to the masses orally.
Eventually, improving systems of education brought literacy to private citizens. Civilizations in
which a high percentage of the population was literate had faster technological and economic
growth than those where literacy was less common. In the modern world, while industrialized
nations such as the U.S. enjoy widespread literacy, undeveloped nations still have illiteracy rates
approaching 80 percent of their overall population. Illiteracy severely stunts the development of a
country, even more so now than in the ancient world.

@@Magnetism

The phenomenon of magnetism was known to the ancient Greeks, Romans, and Chinese. They
observed that lodestone, an iron-bearing ore, attracted other iron. They also noted that pieces of
iron that came into contact with lodestone gained magnetic properties as well. The
electromagnetic force of attraction and repulsion between various substances is due to the
motion of positively and negatively charged electrons. Every magnet has a positive and a negative
side, called poles. Poles with a like charge repel one another, and poles with opposite charges
attract one another. The study of magnetic phenomena soon showed that a free-floating magnet
aligns itself with the Earth's magnetic field, one pole of the magnet pointing north, the other
south. This was an important discovery, and led to the invention of the compass in the early 13th
century. The use of the compass revolutionized sea travel by reducing the reliance on landmarks
and stars for navigation.

@@Map Making

Maps provide a diagrammatic representation of an area, showing terrain features, cities, and
other landmarks. The earliest maps were etched clay tablets charting Babylonian lands for the
purposes of taxation. Around the same time, the Chinese produced regional maps drawn on silk
cloth. In between 600 and 200 BC, the Greeks produced several maps of the known world,
including the first map showing a primitive system of latitude and longitude. These early maps
were primarily used by traders and merchants. Seamen, who often set their courses based only on
the tales brought back by previous voyagers, benefited most from the science of map making.

@@Masonry

The early dwellings of most tribal cultures were built of materials that were readily available and
easy to work with, such as bricks of clay and mud. As tribes gave up their nomadic ways and
settled the first cities, they soon found that they had a need for more permanent and durable
structures. The skill of masonry was developed to fill this need. The earliest stone structures
consisted of little more than rocks which were stacked atop one another to form crude walls.
Artisans soon began to square off the rocks, forming them into regular shapes and stacking them.
These early examples of masonry used no mortar; the weight of the stacked stones provided
overall strength and stability. Without the use of mortar and knowledge of architectural
techniques, masonry was used primarily for simple structures such as fortifications. However,
some examples of early masonry are quite spectacular, including the Great Pyramids in Egypt,
which are still standing after thousands of years.

@@Mass Production

The idea of mass production began to take shape along with the factory system. The automation
of production greatly increased productivity with a corresponding decrease in price for
manufactured goods. In 1913, automobile manufacturer Henry Ford introduced the idea of
assembly lines in his automobile plants. Products being built were conveyed from one work station
to another along the line. At each station, a worker expertly repeated a discreet segment of the
assembly process. The product then moved to the next station, and so on until the finished
product rolled off the end of the line. This innovative combination of specialization of labor and
the use of automation revolutionized production of complex goods. Word of Ford's assembly line
technique spread quickly, and this production method soon came to be used in most of the
industrialized nations of the world.

@@Mathematics

Rudimentary arithmetic was purely quantitative, used to keep track of quantities and
measurements in trade. Building on this fundamental base, ancient civilizations began to
formulate more complex mathematical concepts. As early as 1800 BC, the Egyptians had
developed a system for working with fractional numbers and simple algebraic problems. They also
formulated geometric formulae for finding area and volume, and came up with a constant for
determining the area of a circle that was very close to the value of pi. By about the 5th century BC,
the mathematicians of Greece had greatly contributed to both geometry and algebra. Around the
same time, advanced mathematics was applied to other sciences and fields of study such as
astronomy and mechanics. One of the earliest applications of mathematical principles was in the
construction of complex weaponry such as the catapult.

@@Medicine

Primitive man attributed the onset of serious disease as the influence of the gods, or possession
by evil spirits. Over time, however, it was found that such "possessions" could be treated through
the use of elixirs made from plant extracts. Methods were also developed to clean and treat
wounds, and set fractured bones. The ancient Greeks established the first schools to teach medical
sciences circa 500 BC. The texts produced by the students of these schools, most notably
Hippocrates, who is considered the father of medicine, based his theories of the human body on
observation and reasoning rather than supernatural intervention. Continued study of diseases
over the years, combined with the dissection and study of the human body in the 13th century,
pointed out flaws in early Greek theories, and led to more accurate medical texts based on
detailed analysis rather than conjecture. By the 18th century, the same methods of analysis and
observation used by scientists in other fields were applied to the study of medicine. This paved the
way for the increasingly effective methods of treatment and surgery that have prevailed over the
last 200 years.

@@Metallurgy

Metallurgy is the study of the properties of metals and the methods used to separate metal
deposits from metal-bearing ores. Through the course of history, artisans have switched the
materials from which they constructed weapons and tools to harder, more durable metals as they
were discovered. However, metallurgy as a science wasn't studied in earnest until the powers of
Europe began to compete against one another in an attempt to design better and more effective
weapons starting around the14th century. Constant improvements in metallurgy led to the
discovery of new metals and alloys that were stronger, lighter, and cheaper. As a result of this race
for military dominance, Europeans produced some of the most advanced weaponry in the world
during this time period.

@@The Monarchy

Rule by monarchy developed as a logical extension of the absolute rule of tribal chieftains. Many
of the earliest monarchs, such as those in ancient Egypt, claimed that they ruled by divine right. In
the spread of European monarchy during the Middle Ages, however, rulership was generally
conveyed upon a leader who could most effectively raise and command an army. Monarchies are
dynastic, with rule of the country passing to the eldest son when the king dies or retires. Monarchs
had absolute rule over their subjects, severely limiting the personal and economic freedom of all
citizens except for nobility and the rich upper-class. Although monarchies ruled most of Europe for
centuries, the unhappiness of lower-class citizens eventually grew intolerable, causing several
major revolutions. By the mid-18th century, the power of the European monarchs had been
severely limited, paving the way for participatory systems of government.

@@Mysticism

People of the ancient world were fascinated and awed by the forces of nature surrounding them.
Earthquakes, storms and other phenomena were generally regarded as signs from heaven.
Individuals and groups arose to formulate explanations for these events, and pass the knowledge
along to the tribe. The priests and priestesses of mysticism, often called oracles, claimed union
with the divine through meditation and trance-like contemplation. Primitive mysticism offered
mankind the first, tenuous links with the powers that shaped their world, and represented the first
move toward the organized polytheistic and monotheistic religions to come.

@@Navigation

In the early days of seafaring, sailors operated solely through a process known as "piloting", in
which the position and course of the ship was determined by referring to geographical landmarks.
The need to stay in view of the shore severely limited the extent of sea voyages. Through
experience, sailors learned to apply the science of astronomy to their profession, noting the
positions and movement of particular stars. They realized that even when the shore was out of
sight, they could steer by certain reliable stars. This crude, yet practical application of astronomy
allowed the adventurous to sail into the unknown with a reasonable chance of finding their way.
As a result, ship building technology quickly improved, producing larger, more stable ships
designed for longer voyages.

@@Nuclear Fission

According to Einstein's theory of relativity, even the smallest bit of matter is equivalent to a
tremendous amount of energy. For instance, two pounds of matter, if converted completely into
energy, would produce energy equivalent to the explosive force of 22 megatons of high
explosives. In 1939, based on German experiments that successfully split the uranium atom,
physicists were able to explain the process of nuclear fission. When a large, unstable atomic
nucleus splits (fissions) the result is two or more smaller, more stable nuclei accompanied by the
release of tremendous amounts of energy and lingering, deadly radioactivity. The first application
of this powerful technology was in warfare. A top-secret research effort in the U.S. known as the
Manhattan Project studied the fission process, and eventually produced the first atomic bombs,
which were dropped on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945. These relatively
small bombs, the only atomic weapons ever used in a war, each produced an explosion equivalent
to more than 20,000 tons of TNT. The nuclear weapons of today are capable of producing
explosions thousands of times more powerful.
@@Nuclear Power

In addition to its potential for destruction, the energy released in nuclear fission was seen as a
potential source of controlled power generation. By 1944, large-scale nuclear reactors were in
operation for the production of plutonium, although the energy produced by these reactors was
not used. Following World War II, increased efforts were turned toward the extensive use of
nuclear power to produce electricity. Nuclear power plants use the radiant energy of a controlled
nuclear reaction to heat water, converting it to steam to spin turbines that generate electricity.
The major drawback to nuclear fission is the lack of a safe means of disposal for the waste
produced by the reaction, which retains its lethal radioactivity for hundreds of years. Another
hazard is the possibility of a malfunction in the reactor that could lead to a meltdown of the core.
Despite massive safety precautions, human error and equipment failures can lead to devastating
accidents such as the explosion at Chernobyl in 1986, in which at least 30 people were killed and
thousands lost their homes and face possible long-term illness after exposure to near-lethal doses
of radiation. Because of growing public concern, the development of new nuclear power plants
has slowed as scientists search for viable solutions to these problems.

@@Philosophy

The term philosophy comes from a Greek term meaning "love of wisdom." In ancient Greece,
literacy and an interest in the natural world were common in a burgeoning upper class. In their
leisure time, these people contemplated principles of thinking and being, logic and mathematics,
and the natures of reality and existence. In ancient times, the study of philosophy was
indistinguishable from the study of science, and many of the theories formulated by the early
philosophers became the basis for studies in the fields of astronomy, medicine, chemistry, and
physics. The teachings and writings of the ancient philosophers of Greece and the Orient also, in
part, laid the groundwork for many of the world's oldest organized religions.

@@Physics

Physics is the study of the many forms of matter and energy and of the way they interact with
themselves and each other. A number of ancient races made observations about certain aspects of
physics, such as planetary motion, but were unable to develop theories as to the reasons for these
motions. Some of the earliest applications of physics were by the Greek mathematician
Archemedes, who applied physics to create such devices as levers and screws. It was not until the
17th century that experimental methods and scientific measuring devices led to a true
understanding of many fundamental physical laws. Early scientists such as Johannes Kepler and Sir
Isaac Newton began to disprove the theories of the ancient Greek philosophers and scientifically
prove their theories concerning the laws of physics. Discoveries in physics rarely have direct
application, however they do provide a basic understanding of the laws governing the universe,
thus forming the basis for practical advances in technology.
@@Plastics

One of the spin-offs of researching more efficient ways to refine crude oil was the invention of
plastics, organic polymer materials that retain their strength when molded into almost any shape.
Starting in the 1920s, a flurry of research into the nature and fabrication of plastics resulted in
widespread developments in the field, including the formulation of Plexiglas and nylon in the late
1930s. The boom in plastics research and development continued into and after World War II.
Plastics were quickly adopted as cheap, sturdy substitutes for more traditional materials such as
glass, rubber, and silk. It seemed that plastics were one of the most practical achievements of the
Industrial Age. Despite their usefulness, plastics have proven to be an environmental hazard, since
most plastics are not biodegradable,and they are therefore very difficult to dispose of. The
significant pollution problem posed by plastics has been partially alleviated through the
widespread implementation of recycling programs.

@@Pottery

The invention of pottery was essential to the development of agricultural societies. To get the
most out of seasonal crops and domesticated animals, a tribe needed sturdy, waterproof
containers in which to store and protect surplus food. The discoveries of the properties of clay, the
invention of the kiln, and the potter's wheel made it possible to build such containers. The earliest
examples of Western pottery date back to as early as 6500 BC. Most of the examples from this
period were strictly utilitarian. Although use continued to be primarily practical, decorative
pottery soon became a ritualistic and aesthetic art form in cultures all over the world. Some of the
most impressive examples of artistic pottery come from the pre-Columbian cultures of South
America, and from the Ming dynasty in 14th century China.

@@Railroad

The predecessors to modern railroads were wagonways, which were constructed in England
starting in the 16th century. Wagonways were roads of parallel planks upon which coal wagons
were pulled by horses at a greater speed than would have been possible on dirt roads.
Wagonways were gradually improved by adding cross-ties and iron strips to reinforce the track.
Eventually, the planks became metal rails, and evolved into the type of rails used on today's
railroads by the start of the 19th century. Soon after the steam locomotive was introduced in
1829, it replaced horse-drawn wagons, giving birth to the railroad. Originally developed in Britain
and the eastern United States as a method of hauling heavy mining ores and freight, railroads
outshone canals in their ability to operate across any ground and in nearly any weather. When
railroads started carrying passengers as well as goods, the potential for safe, fast, inexpensive
transport became clear. Railroads led to a dramatic increase in the amount of cargo, passengers,
news, and troops that could be moved quickly over great distances.

@@Recycling
Increasing world population has led to an inevitable increase in the amount of garbage produced
by society. Conventional disposal methods, such as burial in a landfill, have proven inadequate to
handle the growing waste problem. One solution to this problem is the reuse of discarded
materials through recycling. Although scrap metals and other materials have been reused in
manufacturing processes for some time, true recycling is a broad-based, household-by-household
effort. The increasing pollution generated by industry and consumerism, added to the depletion of
natural resources, make the re-use of materials less a concern of efficiency and more as one of
necessity for the survival of the human species. Not only does the recycling of waste materials
prevent the unwanted build-up of garbage, it saves energy and slows the depletion of natural
resources such as trees and petroleum products.

@@Refining

When the demand for oil-based fuels for lighting and other purposes began to soar in the 19th
century, scientists began searching for a way to make use of crude oil. This research led to
techniques in which crude oil was broken down, or refined, into a number of different fuels,
including kerosene and gasoline. As consumer demand continued to increase, commercial
refineries were set up to purify crude oil. The new petroleum products produced as a result of the
development and perfection of the refining process led to the use of oil-based fuels in many
consumer and industrial applications. These include the use of gasoline to power automobiles, and
the use of oil for heating and for the generation of electrical power.

@@The Republic

The republic is a system of government in which the citizens appoint, by popular vote, a head of
state and officials to represent the views of the general public. The concept of the republic first
appeared in ancient Rome, where local provinces sent elected representatives to the Senate,
which governed all Roman lands. Both the head of state and the local representatives in a republic
are elected; no one is granted a position by birth or divine right. Republican governments are
similar in some ways to democracies, in that they offer a great deal of personal, financial, and
political freedom to their citizens. The main difference between the two systems is that a true
democracy allows the participation of every voting citizen in any and all political matters, whereas
in a republic, the views and opinions of the people are represented by a body of elected officials.
Although an effective system, personal agendas of political representatives might act to decrease
the effectiveness in representing the views of the people. Due to human nature, corruption is
fairly common in a republican government.

@@Robotics

The creation of machines to assist in, and increase the efficiency of, the manufacturing process
gave birth to the factory system of production and started the Industrial Revolution. The invention
of digital computers in the late 1940's, and their refinement over the next several decades, took
factory automation one step further. Computer-controlled machines, called robots, were designed
to perform repetitive or dangerous tasks more quickly than humans. Experimental robots capable
of simple manipulation of objects were in operation by the late 1960's. The first robots used on an
assembly line were commissioned by General Motors in the 1970's. Constant improvements in the
computer field have allowed the production of incredibly versatile robots, capable of performing a
wide variety of tasks under virtually any environmental condition. Robots today are widely used in
manufacturing, scientific research, and space exploration.

@@Rocketry

Rockets are projectiles that are propelled by the expulsion of gases generated in a combustion
chamber. The first solid-fuel rockets, invented by the Chinese in the 13th century, used a mixture
similar to gunpowder for fuel. Although rockets were used in warfare to set fire to buildings and
the sails of ships for nearly 500 years, it wasn't until the early 19th century that the first crude
explosive rockets were used in battle. Research and design efforts by scientists such as Robert
Goddard in the 20th century refined rocket design to produce faster, better controlled rockets.
During World War II, this new technology was used to create the German V-2 "buzz bomb", the
first true guided missile. Scientific developments since World War II have been applied to adapt
the rocket for use in even more powerful and accurate weapons with incredible range. The rocket
is also used in peaceful application such as the launch of satellites and the exploration of space.

@@Space Flight

Utilizing the now well-developed science of rocketry, the modern exploration of space began in
October, 1957 when the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1. This tiny satellite orbited the earth for
57 days, providing information on radiation and other phenomena in the upper atmosphere. In
less than a year, the United States had also launched a satellite, Explorer 1. This started the "space
race", years of competition between the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. to achieve new frontiers in space
exploration. Space flight advanced rapidly from the simple sub-orbital flights of the 1950's, to
manned missions to Earth's moon in the late 1960's. The rapid growth of space technology led to
many practical applications, such as weather and surveillance satellites, and vastly improved
worldwide communications. Today, although hindered by severe government budget cuts, the
exploration of space continues. Plans in the near future call for continued orbital exploration via
the space shuttle program, and the eventual construction of the multi-national, manned space
station "Freedom" in the early 21st century.

@@Steam Engine

The steam engine is a device that uses steam to generate power. Water, heated by burning fuel
(usually coal or wood), turns to steam. The steam is contained in a chamber where it builds up
pressure, causing a piston to move. The piston drives a turbine, the rotation of which produces
power which can be use for such purposes as producing motion or generating electricity. The early
principles of this device were understood as early as the late 17th century, but it wasn't until 1769
that Scottish engineer James Watt patented a practical design for what was to become the basis
for the modern steam engine. The invention of the steam engine led to a number of landmark
developments, including the steam locomotive and the earliest examples of automobiles. Steam
engines remained the chief means of motive power in the transportation industry until the
invention of the more powerful and compact internal combustion engine. Steam turbines are still
in use today in a number of applications including the generation of electrical power.

@@Amphibious Warfare

A combined land and sea attack, usually associated with the capture of a beach head or coastal
area, is known as amphibious warfare. First attempted by the ancient Persians durning the Battle
of Marathon in 490 BC, successful coordination of amphibious assaults are considered to be
among the most complex military operations. When ship-mounted guns were developed, naval
vessels would open fire on ground forces and gun emplacements while merchant ships were used
to land troops and supplies. The first modern amphibious assault took place at Gallipoli during
World War I. Poorly planned and executed, this assault failed, but served as an example of the
need for perfect coordination of forces in this type of attack. As battlefield communications
improved, and the range of ship-mounted weapons increased, amphibious warfare became
increasingly successful, and played a vital role in World War II. Today, amphibious operations are
augmented by fast, armored landing vehicles; hovercraft that are capable of moving troops to and
across the beach; and airborne assistance from planes and helicopters.

@@Combined Arms

Advanced flight technology, combined with the principles of amphibious warfare and mobile
warfare, represent the potential for a devastating attack force. Combined air, sea, and ground
assaults played a vital role in World War II. The Allied invasion of Normandy in June 1944
represented such an attack. Bombers and fighters were deployed over the target area to claim the
skies, while naval vessels sat off the coast and bombarded the beach head. Transports then landed
troops and equipment on the beach to begin a ground assault. Modern advances make today's
combined assaults even more effective. Naval vessels and stealth aircraft equipped with cruise
missiles and smart bombs soften enemy resistance before a ground assault. Helicopters drop and
retrieve soldiers behind enemy lines in places not accessible to fixed-wing aircraft. Powerful
armored tanks, such as the M1, can be quickly deployed, moving at speeds up to 60 miles per
hour. Finally, the combined assault is coordinated through a network of sophisticated
communication, targeting, and detection devices, allowing more precise deployment of forces
than previously possible in history.

@@Economics
The ideas of supply and demand, and philosophies concerning trade and the production and
consumption of goods and services, are concepts that have existed since the dawn of mankind. As
societies became more complex, however, people began to study these abstract concepts in a
more formal way. The first recorded study of economics as a science, rather than a philosophical
or political concept, was the book "The Wealth of Nations" by Scottish economist Adam Smith.
This book represents the first attempt to fully analyze sources of income and the distribution of
wealth. Smith's analysis of economics served as a guide by which many of the governmental
economic policies of the present day were formed.

@@Environmentalism

For centuries, human society has taken the gifts of nature for granted. As civilization grew,
humans spread out across the face of the planet, taking what they needed from the land and
producing more and more waste materials with little regard for the future. In the late 1960's, a
growing number of people became concerned about the growing problems of pollution and the
destruction of natural habitats. This movement led to the formation of groups like the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The EPA's aim is to reduce all types of pollution. To this
end, the agency has imposed strict laws and guidelines concerning the disposal of hazardous
materials, set clean water standards, and studied more effective techniques of solid waste
disposal. The primary goal of the environmental movement as a whole is to make sure that the
environment is safe and intact for future generations to enjoy.

@@Espionage

As far back as 500 BC, the Chinese military strategist Sun Tzu stressed the importance of the
gathering of covert information about one's enemy. Although every world government has strict
laws and penalties to deal with spies, covert intelligence is an important political, technological,
and military commodity. During times of war, covert operatives provide important information
about enemy troop movements and weapons technology. Spies may also be called upon to
perform acts of sabotage in order to delay or divert the enemy. In peacetime, organizations such
as the CIA use operatives to keep track of potential political situations abroad. Spying is not limited
to politics and war; industrial spies are often used to gain information about rival companies.

@@Fundamentalism

Fundamentalism is a governing system whose laws and doctrines are rooted in the extremist and
controversial views of religion. Fundamentalists believe in the absolute truth and infallibility of
their religion, accepting nothing short of a literal interpretation of the scriptures of their faith.
Their views are sometimes so radical as to put them at odds with even the most devout
traditionalists of the religion in question. Fundamentalist movements have appeared from time to
time throughout the world, including a widespread movement of Christian fundamentalism in the
U.S. in the early 20th century. In some cases, most notably in areas of the Middle East, these
movements are so widespread that entire nations fall under Fundamentalist rule. Such
governments, backed by a fanatical military force, can be a serious threat to any country that
opposes their radical views.

@@Guerrilla Warfare

In extreme situations, usually spawned by an oppressive or militaristic system of government,

small groups of citizens have been known to form armed factions. In many cases, these splinter
groups lack the numbers, finances, and armament to start a full-scale revolution. Instead, they
adopt a practice of undermining governmental authority through covert military operations. These
operations usually take the form of hit-and-run raids, where rebel soldiers launch a surprise attack
on an enemy target, then disappear into hiding, only to strike again at some other time and place.
Such tactics, known as guerrilla warfare, seldom have any lasting effect individually. However, over
many years, guerrilla factions can become a serious threat to governmental authority if the rebels
cannot be caught and suppressed. Tactics of this sort were used to great effect by the partisan
forces in Nazi-occupied Europe during World War II.

@@The Laser

Laser is an acronym for "Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation". Lasers produce
an amplified, coherent beam of light by using photons to energize or excite the electrons in the
beam. The principles for the underlying theory of the stimulated emission of light was first
proposed by Einstein in 1917. The first helium-neon gas laser was built in 1961. Years of research
and development have led to a wide variety of laser applications in many different fields. Lasers
can be used for everything from the precision cutting of almost any material and performing
micro-surgery to reading digital data and music information off of a compact disc. The military
currently uses lasers for weapons targeting systems, and it has been proposed that laser
technology could be used to defend against an enemy missile attack.

@@Leadership

Through the Middle Ages, military forces were only assembled as needed, and continued to serve
until the current conflict had ended. Though certain leaders had proven to be adept and
occasionally brilliant in their methods, the short periods for which they served made their fame
short-lived. As regular armies became more prevalent, military leaders had the opportunity to
distinguish themselves through the formulation of brilliant military tactics. The tactics of leaders
such as these would be studied by successive generations, and modified to fit new situations up to
and including the present day.

@@Machine Tools
One of the most important steps in the move toward industrialization was the ability to precisely
shape or "machine" solid metal into a desired form. Through mechanical, chemical, and other
means, machine tools mold and shape raw materials into precision parts for complex machinery.
The first machine tool, a horizontal boring device, was produced in the late 1700's. The
development of measuring devices accurate to within a millionth of an inch allowed for the mass
production of items with interchangeable parts. The technology of the 20th century has produced
computer-controlled machine tools that can be adapted to a wide variety of applications. The
speed and accuracy of these machines allows for the economical mass production of extremely
complex products.

@@Miniaturization

Early radios and other electronic devices relied on vacuum tube technology. Because the tubes
took up a great deal of space, the devices that utilized them tended to be very bulky and
cumbersome. In the late 1940's, the development of the transistor provided a compact alternative
to vacuum tubes. Transistors were capable of achieving the same level of power amplification
achieved by tubes while taking up much less space, and using only a fraction of the power. Starting
in the 1960's, the integrated circuit provided still another level of miniaturization. An integrated
circuit the size of a transistor could perform the function of 20 transistors. Today, the
microprocessor, a modern refinement of the original integrated circuits, can incorporate the
functions of several complete printed circuit boards into a single, low-power consumption chip
less than two inches square, allowing for the construction of hand-held computers with more
computing power than the huge mainframes used in the 70's and 80's.

@@Mobile Warfare

The idea of using heavy weapons on the battlefield dates back to the 15th century when heavy
cannons were mounted on wheels and towed into battle by horses. This first use of mobile
artillery, devastatingly effective in its time, pales in comparison to the tactics used in 20th century
armored warfare. Tanks were first used during World War I. A successful assault utilizing 400 tanks
in November 1917, resulting in the capture of 8000 enemy troops and 100 guns near Cambrai,
paved the way for a significant shift in battlefield tactics. During World War II, armored vehicles
were used extensively throughout Europe and Africa by both Allied and Axis powers. The might
and mobility of an armored assault was more than a match for countries who lacked proper
defenses against such an attack. Armored warfare still plays an important role in battlefield tactics.
This was proven in the Persian Gulf war, where the M1 Abrams tank proved to be a vital
component of the ground assault force in Kuwait.

@@Monotheism

Monotheism is the belief that there is only one God. Perhaps the oldest monotheistic religion is
Judaism. The original Israelites were polytheistic in a sense, since they did not deny the existence
of other gods in addition to their own. However, after being exiled to Babylonia in 586 BC, the
Judeans turned to a truly monotheistic religion, where the God of Israel was seen as the universal
God ruling the destiny of all nations. The scriptures of Judaism became part of the teachings of the
two most widespread monotheistic religions, Christianity and Islam. More developed than earlier
polytheistic beliefs, monotheistic religions tend to encompass and structure the entire lifestyles of
the people who practice them.

@@Future Technology

Since the dawn of mankind, human needs and desires have combined to produce ideas and
inventions that make life easier and more productive. New technological breakthroughs have
become an almost daily occurrence in the modern era, and new ideas will continue to drive human
knowledge to higher and higher levels well into the future.

@@Polytheism

Polytheism is the belief that the world and the environment is ruled or controlled by a number of
different gods or divinities. Many ancient religions were polytheistic, notably those of the
Egyptians, the Greeks, the Norse, and the Romans. Often, polytheistic religions have different gods
for each force of nature and earthly phenomenon; for instance: a sun god, a moon god, a god of
thunder, a god of the forests, and so forth. The reason for such diversity in divine beings probably
stems from ancient civilizations attempting to find explanations for natural events they could not
understand. Although some isolated examples still exist today, most polytheistic religions have
either died out or evolved into monotheism.

@@Radio

Prior to Gugliemo Marconi's invention of the radio in 1896, long-distance communication was
carried out either by mail or over miles of cable via telegraph. Marconi's first demonstration of the
radio telegraph transmitted a message just over one mile without the use of wires. Continued
improvements increased transmission range to over 200 miles by early 1901, and by the end of
the year a single letter ("A") had been transmitted across the Atlantic Ocean. By 1905, many ships
were equipped with radio telegraphs for ship-to-ship and ship-to-land communications, and by
1915 the invention of the three-element vacuum tube, or triode, made it possible to regularly
transmit voice messages over the airwaves. Throughout the years, radio has been refined not only
for communication, but for detection and ranging (Radar) and astronomy.

@@Refrigeration

Prior to World War I, ice was the most widely used means of refrigeration for perishable items.
After the war, electrical refrigerators became commonly available. The availability of these
systems allowed for more constant and efficient cooling, in turn allowing perishable meats, dairy
products, and other items to be stored, or even frozen, for long periods of time. As a result, food
producers could increase their output, since excess food could be stored for later sale or
consumption. The concept of the wholesale selling of bulk foods (known as the supermarket) was,
in part, made possible by improved refrigeration. The same method used in food refrigeration was
also developed for use in air conditioners.

@@Sanitation

The increased waste produced by growing populations over time eventually led to potential health
hazards. It then became necessary to come up with systems to dispose of garbage and human
waste in a sanitary manner. Plumbing systems designed to remove waste water from dwellings
and public buildings became commonplace, as did sewage plants which treated the wastewater
before it was dumped into local waterways. Landfills were established, and garbage was collected
for sanitary disposal in dumps and landfills a safe distance from the general population. These
measures led to a healthier environment, and allowed for further population growth.

@@Seafaring

As empires grew and trade expanded to new areas, travel by sea became increasingly important to
the civilizations of the world. Experienced sailors passed down their lore and techniques to new
generations who sailed to increasingly distant lands. Originally, these long voyages were trade-
oriented. But the ability to travel great distances led to a new breed of adventurers whose goal
was primarily one of exploration. The Vikings were some of the earliest and most successful
explorers in history. Their knowledge of the sea and experience with long ocean voyages allowed
explorers such as Leif Ericson to successfully cross the Atlantic and land in the Americas more than
500 years before Columbus. The pioneering spirit of these early ocean travelers formed the basis
for the seafaring traditions of generations to come.

@@Stealth

It has long been recognized that in warfare, the best advantage available is surprise. If one can
approach an enemy undetected, the attack has a better chance of being successful. The
widespread use of radar starting in World War II greatly decreased the possibility of surprise for an
airborne assault. Planes could be detected from miles away, giving the enemy a chance to prepare
for the attack. Over the years, the military has employed many different approaches to solve this
problem. The most recent development is "Stealth" technology. Stealth planes are painted with
radar-absorbing paint, and designed in such a way as to minimize the number of angular surfaces
from which an enemy can bounce a radar signal. The engines are also hooded to reduce the
plane's heat signature. The result is an aircraft capable of approaching an enemy target, launching
an attack, and returning to base with little chance of detection. The F-117A Stealth Fighter was
used with great effectiveness by US forces in the Persian Gulf War in 1991.
@@Tactics

The science of the deployment of military forces to accomplish a short-range goal or objective is
known as tactics. In unique or difficult situations, the maneuvers and methods of attack must be
chosen wisely to give ones troops the maximum possible advantage over the enemy by taking
advantage of the enemy's weaknesses. The successful tactics of military commanders are studied
by their successors for possible modification and use under current conditions. Although tactics
that work well in certain situations may not always be successful when used again, proven military
tactics have worked well in many different battle situations throughout history. The vast amount
of advanced equipment and resources available in modern warfare make the proper tactical
coordination of a campaign vital, but difficult to achieve with total success.

@@Theology

Theology is the study of God and religious truth. Theologians take a more or less scientific
approach to questions of religion, deeply studying the underlying meaning of scriptures and
religious teachings rather than "taking them on faith". Theological seminaries teach courses of
study in theology to prepare people as priests and clergymen. Many of the earliest colleges of the
western world were originally established for this purpose. Theological study helped to remove
some of the superstitions that had surrounded religion for so long, and brought religious study
into a more enlightened age.

@@Warrior Code

The samurai of feudal Japan lived by a doctrine known as "Bushido", or "the way of the warrior".
This code of behavior stressed such virtues as loyalty, courage, and politeness. The honor of the
warrior could only be maintained if the rules of the code were followed. A similar code of behavior
known as chivalry was later developed under the feudal system in medieval Europe. Although the
strict adherence to both Bushido and chivalry were abandoned along with the feudal system in the
1800's, certain principals of discipline and behavior inherent in these systems can still be found in
the military today.

@@Wheel

The invention of the wheel represented a major turning point in human civilization. The first
wheels, disks carved from solid wood, may have been built as early as 3500 BC. The earliest use of
this device was the potter's wheel, used to spin and shape clay pottery. It was not long before the
true potential of the wheel was discovered, and wheeled carts soon replaced the sledge as a
means of transportation. Rapid developments, such as wheels consisting of a ring with radial
spokes, made the wheel even more practical by reducing its weight. By using the wheel, mankind
gained the ability to work more efficiently and travel more quickly. Besides its use in
transportation, the wheel went on to become the basic principle behind almost every mechanical
device.
@@Writing

The development of writing is considered one of the most important advances of civilization. The
earliest forms of writing were simple symbols and marks, used to keep accounts and inventories.
Some cultures developed pictographic symbols to tell stories and record events. Eventually,
complete systems of writing were developed, capable of conveying any thought that could be
expressed orally. At this point, scribes replaced the oral historian as the chief keepers of records.
Writing allowed the presentation of information in a form that could be reliably transmitted from
person to person and made it possible for ideas, history, and knowledge to be stored permanently
and passed between cultures more reliably than through oral recitation.

@@Gunpowder

Gunpowder is a chemical mixture of saltpeter, sulfur, and charcoal. When ignited, it burns rapidly
and explodes if contained to any degree. Gunpowder is believed to have been developed by the
Chinese, who used it in fireworks as early as the 9th century, but it did not reach Europe until the
14th century. Europeans immediately saw the potential of this substance, and manufactured it for
use in weapons as early as 1334. The discovery of gunpowder led to the invention of firearms,
such as the musket, which led to the replacement of archers in most armies of the world by the
late 1500s. Gunpowder marked one of the major technological turning points in military history,
significantly changing the way wars were fought.

@@Horseback Riding

The horse was first domesticated for transportation and warfare by tribesmen on the Asian
steppes. These tribesmen used their superior mobility and speed to overwhelm the proto-
civilizations just rising in southeast Europe and the Middle East. In approximately 2000 BC,
domestic horses were introduced into Babylonia. Within the next several centuries, horses had
spread throughout much of Europe and northern Africa. It was not long before nearly every
civilization had put horses to work as field animals and as a means of transportation. Horses also
went on to play an important role in the military conflicts of nearly every civilization in the world,
both as mounts for horsemen and cavalry, and as draft animals for pulling war chariots and heavy
weapons into battle.

@@Industrialization

Industrialization involves the use of machines to dramatically increase productivity. Production of

goods became concentrated in factories, where the combination of specialization of labor and
automation reduced labor costs and, ultimately, the cost of the final manufactured product to the
consumers. Industrialization revolutionized living standards, both positively and negatively. The
rapid growth of production industries and the reduced cost of production has led to the prosperity
of some of the richest families in history. Industrialization has also led to the creation of a blue
collar working class. In newly industrialized nations, these workers, skilled only in their chosen
trade, were often underpaid and forced to endure abominable working conditions.

@@Invention

The contrivance of a previously unknown device, method, or process which can, in turn, be used to
accomplish an objective in a ways thought to be impossible, is known as invention. Essentially,
inventiveness is the ability to take one or more newly discovered concepts and find a way to put
them to practical use. The earliest inventions of mankind date back to ancient stone and metal
tools used for hunting, digging, and other everyday tasks. After writing allowed the ideas of
various civilizations to be exchanged and studied, mankind's inventions became increasingly more
useful and innovative. Most inventions are geared toward improving or simplifying human
existence in some way. Often, inventions themselves make it possible to make new discoveries,
which then go on to inspire better and more innovative inventions.

@@Iron Working

Some examples of iron ornamentation date back to 4000 BC, but the use of iron for tools,
weapons, and other practical purposes did not become common until much later. Prior to this
time, bronze was the most widely used metal for such purposes. Although the term "Iron Age"
denotes a period of time starting around 1000 BC, iron replaced bronze as the metal of choice at
different times in different places. Iron is more common than both copper and tin, the component
metals of bronze, but iron is seldom found in a free state; it is most commonly found mixed with
other minerals and elements. In order to be used, the iron must be separated from the ore. Once
this technique was developed, and forges hot enough to melt the iron were developed, iron
working became commonplace. Worked iron was harder, less brittle, and could hold a much
sharper edge than bronze. Iron has remained an important metal throughout history, and is one of
the major components in the production of steel.

@@Steel

The iron alloys produced up until about the 14th century were made by heating a mixture of iron
ore and charcoal in a forge, then pounding the molten metal to drive out the impurities or "slag".
Occasionally, the iron mixture would absorb more carbon, creating steel rather than wrought iron.
Because steel proved to be less brittle and more resistant to corrosion than iron, techniques were
developed to produce steel. This was done by blowing a coal derivative called coke through
molten iron. Most modern steel making utilizes the "blast furnace", developed by Henry Bessemer
in 1855, to accomplish this task on a large-scale basis. The strength and other qualities of steel
make it the material of choice for warships, planes, and many other vehicles.
@@Superconductor

Any material through which an electrical current can pass with relatively little resistance is known
as a conductor. When an electric current passes through most conductors, part of that current is
lost due to resistance, which varies depending on the conducting material and the ambient
temperature. Some conductors, when cooled to temperatures near absolute zero, lose all
resistance to current. These are known as superconductors. Because no energy is lost to
resistance, superconductors can lead to a wide variety of practical uses. These include super-fast
computers, powerful electromagnetic fields strong enough to contain fusion reactions, and the
completely efficient generation and transmission of electrical power. Although the extremely low
temperatures necessary to produce superconductivity have limited its uses thus far, recent
developments hint that some unusual materials may be superconductive even at room
temperatures. The isolation and large-scale production of these materials could lead to a new
revolution in the field of electronics.

@@Theory of Gravity

In the 17th century, Sir Isaac Newton developed the law of universal gravitation. This law
recognized that every mass in the universe exerts an attraction on every other mass. Newton
postulated that gravity was a universal force that affected all matter. Newton's theory served to
explain the forces of attraction between the Earth and nearby objects, as well as the forces that
affect the motion of planets and other astronomical bodies. In the early 20th century, Albert
Einstein's special theory of relativity led to a major reinterpretation and clarification of Newton's
theory of gravity. Scientists now believe that gravity affects energy as well as matter, and that
gravity is actually a fundamental warping of the fabric of space-time. Some theorize that the force
of this warping is transmitted by as-yet-unobserved particles called gravitons.

@@Trade

One of the oldest and most widespread social institutions is the exchange of goods, or trade. Most
ancient trade consisted of barter, where two traders would exchange goods with one another. The
widespread practice of trade allowed civilizations to exchange raw materials and goods which they
had in abundance or could easily produce, for items that were rare or nonexistent in their
geographic region. The introduction of regulated currency that could be exchanged for items
resulted in easier, more convenient trade. Merchants soon roamed the world, connecting
different lands with webs of economic interdependence. In addition to goods and profits, traders
also brought back tales and technology from these foreign lands. Well-traveled traders like Marco
Polo were among the most learned sources on the cultures and traditions of foreign lands.

@@The University

Institutes of higher learning, such as the Academy of Plato in Athens which taught advanced
philosophical principles, existed in the ancient world. It was not until the 12th century, however,
that the model for the modern university system was born. In the Middle Ages, some royal
governments and ecclesiastical organizations founded exclusive schools dedicated to training
young men in specific professions. At that time, each university specialized in a single topic like
law, theology, music, or medicine. Through the centuries, universities diversified to include a
number of different fields of study. Modern universities consists of several faculties, or colleges,
each of which has a specific curriculum. In addition to their roles as learning institutions,
universities have, since their inception, acted as centers for scientific research and advancement.

@IMPROVEMENT_DESCRIPTIONS

;Translation Note: The text in this section comes, verbatim, from the IMPROV.PDE text file in the
original

;Civilopedia. (French and German versions are .PDF and .PDG respectively.)

; The index is a mapping to the rules file. The labels to the right are the entries, IN ORDER,

; that are in the rules.txt file. The number to the left is the description below that

; corresponds to the rules entry. For example, Palace will be the 16'th (remember,

; the list is zero based) description below begining with @@.

; Only ONE entry per line, number MUST BE TERMINATED WITH A COMMA.

; The list must terminate with a -2. A -1 indicates no desription, do not list or index.

@@IMPROVEMENT_INDEX

-1, ; Nothing

15, ; Palace

2, ; Barracks

8, ; Granary

22, ; Temple

12, ; MarketPlace

10, ; Library

6, ; Courthouse

4, ; City Walls
0, ; Aqueduct

1, ; Bank

3, ; Cathedral

23, ; University

13, ; Mass Transit

5, ; Colosseum

7, ; Factory

11, ; Manufacturing Plant

18, ; SDI Defense

17, ; Recycling Center

16, ; Power Plant

9, ; Hydro Plant

14, ; Nuclear Plant

34, ; Stock Exchange

32, ; Sewer System

35, ; Supermarket

36, ; Superhighways

30, ; Research Lab

31, ; SAM Missile Battery

26, ; Coastal Fortress

33, ; Solar Plant

37, ; Harbor

27, ; Offshore Platform

24, ; Airport

28, ; Police Station

29, ; Port Facility

21, ; SS Structural

19, ; SS Component

20, ; SS Module
25, ; (Capitalization)

-2, ; MUST BE HERE! TERMINATOR!

@@Aqueduct

A major obstacle to population growth and expansion in early cities was the scarcity of water. In
many cases, the solution to this problem was an aqueduct. Aqueducts were large, elevated stone
"canals" through which water from nearby hills and mountains was channeled into the city.
Aqueducts allowed cities to grow much larger by significantly increasing the amount of available
water. At the same time aqueducts reduced the chance of contracting water-borne diseases, by
reducing the dependence on stagnant ponds and wells as water sources. Aqueducts also allowed
cities to be built in normally inhospitable environments, such as deserts, by providing an outside
water source. Modern day Los Angeles, for example, obtains its water supply from the Colorado
River, through a system of aqueducts over 200 miles long.

@@Bank

A highly developed banking system is one of the cornerstones of an advanced civilization. Banks
lend money to individuals or groups, providing capital for industrial and real estate development.
Banks also contribute to the economic growth of a city or region by stimulating the development
of production facilities. Individual citizens can also benefit by investing their own surplus money in
the bank and earning interest on it.

@@Barracks

Warfare has been a recurring phenomenon throughout the history of mankind, and it continues to
plague the world today. Although war is not a desirable situation, it is important that even the
most peaceful of societies be prepared for the possibility of war. When warring nations are closely
matched in technology and manpower, battles are usually won by the army with the best training.
Military schools and academies exist all over the world, established for the purpose of training
military personnel in the latest methods, tactics, and technology. Men and women who graduate
from such facilities possess higher than average command and military and technological skills,
making them more effective in combat situations.

@@Cathedral

Throughout the Dark Ages that followed the fall of the Roman Empire, the Christian Church was a
major influence in the revival of European civilization. In recognition of the expanding influence of
the church, great cathedrals were built in the largest towns and cities, to act as centers of religious
study and worship. In addition to their religious significance, cathedrals acted as the center of
social and cultural activity in the town. They brought great pride, stability, and tradition to the
citizens of the community.

@@City Walls

Before the establishment of centralized governments capable of supporting strong, national

armies, individual cities were left to fend for themselves when it came to defense. As a result,
many cities constructed city walls to protect against raiders and bandits. City walls represented a
major investment in both time and materials, requiring years to complete and constant repairs to
maintain their strength and integrity. However, these walls turned the city into a fortress capable
of withstanding all but the most determined attack.

@@Colosseum

The original colosseum provided entertainment for the common people of Roman society by
presenting them with spectacles and events as a temporary escape from day-to-day life. This
concept has been revived in the 20th Century. Modern-day stadiums and civic centers provide an
arena for entertainment ranging from concerts to professional sporting events. Although the
violent spectacle of gladiatorial combat is a thing of the past, today's colosseums still provide
entertainment and diversion for the masses.

@@Courthouse

As kingdoms and empires expanded, it became increasingly difficult for the rulers to maintain
control over the more distant regions of their realm. To ensure that the far-flung cities of the
empire contributed their expected share of duties and taxes to the government, local magistrates
and courts were established. In the courthouse, the ruler's representatives listened to the
grievances of the people and defined and enforced the laws that governed social interaction. This
reduced crime, and thereby kept the local population productive.

@@Factory

Early examples of factory-like production, where a number of individuals work cooperatively to

produce goods for sale or trade, can be found as far back as ancient Greece and Rome. Modern
factories, however, evolved from the concept of specialized labor, where each worker performed
a single step in the overall production of an item. This specialization allows factories to increase
the speed and efficiency of the manufacturing process, far surpassing earlier means of production.
The development of the factory system as a means of production played a key role in the
Industrial Revolution.

@@Granary
Early humans were nomadic, settling in specific regions only for brief periods of time. When the
food supply was exhausted in one area, the nomads would move on to search for more. Cities
became possible only when the development of agriculture made the supply of food more
abundant and dependable. However, cities still needed a way to keep the food supply stable
throughout all four seasons. To do so, the citizens had to come up with a way to store seasonal
crops for later use. The Granary was designed for the storage and protection of surplus food. Food
storage technology meant that a smaller percentage of the population could produce and store
enough food for everyone, allowing the remainder to pursue other jobs and activities.

@@Hydro Plant

One alternative to power generation utilizing coal or petroleum fuels is the hydroelectric power
plant. This facility utilizes the energy of rapidly moving water to turn the turbines of its generators
and produce electricity. In locations where a source of moving water is available, hydro plants
offer a clean, safe alternative to coal, petroleum, and nuclear power generation. However, hydro
plants have their own set of environmental dangers. The disruption of a river's normal flow and
the massive flooding of the land behind the facility's dam can destroy the habitat of the wildlife
inhabiting the river basin.

@@Library

The development of writing meant that the accumulated knowledge of a society could be written
down and stored rather than memorized and passed along by word of mouth. The accumulated
written material was stored in a library. The libraries of the ancient world, especially those at
Alexandria and Pergamum, became leading centers of science and scholarship. The librarians
actively collected the books of the world, accelerating the spread of knowledge.

@@Manufacturing Plant

Manufacturing plants are large industrial complexes that produce goods of all types, although they
are generally used to produce durable consumer goods such as automobiles. Essentially, a
manufacturing plant is a large, sophisticated factory that employs specialization of labor, complex
machinery, and assembly lines to gain efficiency and economies of scale. This combination of
manpower and automation increases productivity and reduces production costs.

@@Marketplace

As cities grew and prospered, trade between the farmers, artisans, and craftsmen who lived in the
vicinity contributed to the economic health of the city. It soon became apparent that the best way
for conducting trade within the city was to have a central location, or marketplace, where the
people offering goods and services, or seeking them, could meet and conduct business. As a city's
marketplace grew larger and more active, the economic vitality of the city grew as well.
@@Mass Transit

Within a few decades of the invention of the automobile, the horse-drawn carriage disappeared
from city streets. Along with all the advantages offered by the automobile, this new means of
transportation quickly became a significant source of air pollution. As larger cities became more
crowded, the number of cars increased, making travel difficult and adding to the pollution
problem as automobile traffic clogged the streets. The development of mass transit systems,
including busses, trolleys, subways, and light rail, led to a reduction in traffic and, as a result, a
reduction in air pollution.

@@Nuclear Power Plant

Nuclear power plants utilize radioactive materials and the process of nuclear fission to generate
the heat and steam needed to run electrical generators and produce electricity. Because nuclear
power doesn't cause the air pollution associated with the burning of coal or petroleum products,
this means of generating power is considered a viable alternative energy source. However, the
toxic nature of the byproducts produced by the fission process creates serious problems of its
own. No method of safely disposing of this toxic waste has been found, and the volatile nature of
the fission reaction can lead to a meltdown of the reactor core if the reaction is not properly
controlled. Because of these problems, the future of nuclear power is uncertain.

@@Palace

When populations began to organize their communities into cities, their governments became
more structured and formalized. At an early stage, the ruler of the city established headquarters
from which the business of running the city was conducted. In many cases, these buildings also
served as the living quarters of the ruler. In wealthy cities, these facilities often expanded into
immense, sprawling palaces. These richly adorned, imposing buildings were a source of civic pride,
and helped to reinforce the aura of power surrounding the ruler.

@@Power Plant

Power plants burn coal and other fossil fuels to produce the heat and steam necessary to run
generators that produce electrical power. When electricity became widely and cheaply available, it
meant that industries could convert from steam to electrical power to run their machinery. One
central power plant could supply the electrical needs of a relatively large geographic area.
However, increasing demands for electricity, by both consumer and commercial customers, led to
a rise in the number of power plants. This, in turn, led to problems with air pollution. As more
plants went on line, more fossil fuels were burned to generate power. Because modern society
depends so heavily on electricity, researchers are constantly searching for alternate forms of
energy to satisfy ever-increasing demands.
@@Recycling Center

The continual growth in city populations leads to an inevitable increase in garbage. Eventually,
existing landfills and garbage dumps are filled, forcing new dumping sites to be established. This
leads to the gradual but steady destruction of the local environment. To reverse this problem,
many areas have established recycling centers, where much of the garbage is sorted and reduced
to reusable components through various means. These components are then used to manufacture
new products. In this way, much of the trash produced is turned into raw materials for production,
rather than contributing to the ever-increasing pollution problem.

@@SDI Defense

Historically, research in the area of warfare has seen the development of powerful new weapons
closely followed by the development of defenses to counteract the weapons' destructive power.
The development of nuclear weapons seemed to be the exception to this rule: for the first time,
mankind had created a weapon to which there was apparently no effective defense. SDI (Strategic
Defense Initiative), however, could be the answer to this problem. Using laser-equipped orbital
satellites or ground-launched ABMs (Anti-Ballistic Missiles) to intercept and destroy enemy
nuclear missiles in mid-air, the SDI Defense offers the first hope of negating the threat posed by
nuclear missiles.

@@Spaceship Component

Spaceship components provide the motive power of a spaceship. There are two types: propulsion
and fuel. Propulsion components are the spaceship engines, and each fuel component provides
enough fuel to run one engine. Every propulsion component requires a fuel component in order to
function. At minimum, a spaceship requires one of each type of component. The more engines the
spaceship possesses, the faster it will arrive at its destination.

@@Spaceship Module

Modules are the central components of a spaceship. There are three types: habitation, life
support, and solar panels. Each habitation module provides living space for 10,000 colonists. Each
life support module provides enough food, water, and other basic requirements to support the
colonists in one habitation module. Both habitation and life support modules require power in
order to operate, and each solar panel module provides enough energy to run two other modules.
At minimum, every spaceship requires one of each type of module in order to be successful in its
mission.

@@Spaceship Structural
The structural parts of a spaceship are the frame to which all other parts of the spaceship are
attached. All spaceship components and modules must be connected to a structural section in
order to function. Components and modules not connected to the frame are outlined in red on the
spaceship display.

@@Temple

In ancient times, almost every city had a temple dedicated to the city's patron god. Many cities
also had temples dedicated to other gods as well. In modern times temples are thought of as
places of worship, like churches and cathedrals. Ancient societies, however, considered temples to
be the local dwelling place for the god or goddess to whom they were dedicated. The faithful
citizens brought gifts of food, rare metals, and spices to the temple as a sign of homage and
respect. The presence of a temple in the city had a comforting effect on the population, and wise
rulers often constructed one as soon as the city began to grow.

@@University

Universities are institutions of higher learning. Early universities, established in the Middle Ages,
were usually built in cities that had a large or important cathedral. Studies at these institutions
focused on matters concerning the church. The curricula quickly expanded to include classical art,
literature, and languages. Modern universities provide the opportunity to study a wide array of
subjects. They have also become centers for research into many fields, serving as the source of
major advances in computers, medicine, physics, and a variety of other subjects.

@@Airport

Since the middle of the 20th century, the airplane has been one of the chief means of long-
distance transport in the world. Nearly every major metropolitan area today has at least one
airport, with facilities to handle passengers and ticketing, as well as facilities for refueling and
repairing the aircraft that land there. Beginning in the 1940's, the growing role of airplanes as
combat vehicles led to the widespread construction of military air bases. Nearly 400 of these
facilities in the U.S. alone act as bases and maintenance facilities for aircraft assigned to all
branches of the military.

@@Capitalization

In the business world, companies often need large amounts of cash in order to meet expenses,
update facilities, or expand their operations. When there are insufficient funds available to fulfill
these needs, these corporations often resort to capitalization in order to raise money. This process
involves the sale of a portion of the company's liquid assets. Liquid assets are assets that can be
easily converted into cash. These can include surplus raw materials and finished goods, as well as
stocks and bonds. The sale of these assets provides the infusion of money needed to meet the
company's current needs.

@@Coastal Fortress

The construction of defensive structures such as city walls and fortified castles dates back to
ancient times. City walls were designed primarily to repel an attack launched by ground-based
forces, and they performed adequately in such a situation. However, coastal cities were also
vulnerable to attack from sea bombardments, since even a city wall left sea ports relatively
unprotected. The best way to protect the port was to keep the enemy out of range of the city. This
was accomplished by constructing fortresses to cover the approach to the city. These coastal
fortresses, built at the mouth of the city's harbor or on barrier islands, would hold enemy vessels
at bay, turning away or thinning out the attacking force and minimizing damage to the city's port.

@@Offshore Platform

Mankind's dependence on wood and coal as a main source of fuel ended when the first
commercial oil well went into production in Pennsylvania in 1859. Crude oil could be refined into
many different byproducts, and soon replaced wood and coal in many parts of the world. The
growing dependence on oil caused the petroleum industry to grow rapidly and wells were drilled
all over the world. Most wells were initially drilled on land, but after World War II it was found that
many of the largest oil deposits could be found below the sea floor. Shallow water drilling from
platforms supported by pylons resting on the seabed proved very successful. Today, large floating
platforms can drill for oil at water depths of more than 3300 feet.

@@Police Stations

The concept of a police force operating independently of the military goes back to the Praetorian
Guard of ancient Rome. In the Middle Ages, noblemen protected their estates by appointing
constables to enforce the law and to arrest and guard criminals, but the first modern, organized
police force was the London Metropolitan Police. Established in 1829, this organization became
the model for law enforcement organizations in the United States and many other industrialized
nations around the world. The presence of a police force serves to uphold the laws of society, and
to control civil unrest. A strong, visible police force strengthens confidence of the community by
keeping the citizens safe.

@@Port Facilities

Seagoing vessels have been used for both commercial transport and military purposes for
thousands of years. Cities built on rivers and on the coasts of seas and oceans built facilities to
receive cargo and to house military vessels stationed in the area. Many of the larger cities built
large port facilities that included shipyards for the construction of new vessels, large warehouse
and docking facilities, and dry-docks for the repair of damaged vessels. Heavily damaged ships can
be repaired much more quickly when such facilities are available.

@@Research Lab

Historically, libraries and universities have acted as the primary centers of research for new ideas
and technologies. The growth of private industry in the modern age has also given birth to
hundreds of privately-owned research facilities. These private laboratories, usually dedicated to
research in a single field related to their founding company, have made tremendous advances in
many fields including physics, biology, chemistry, and medicine. The growth of privately-funded
research has vastly increased the speed at which mankind achieves new advances in science and
technology.

@@SAM Missile Battery

The use of airplanes in warfare began in earnest during World War I. By the end of World War II,
the use of fighter aircraft and bombers was commonplace and the importance of air warfare
continued to grow, as did the importance of effective anti-aircraft defenses. During the 1950's, the
refinement of rocket technology allowed for the construction of compact missiles which were
used to deliver explosive warheads to their targets swiftly and accurately. Batteries of surface-to-
air missiles, or SAMs, were built to protect cities and ground installations against airborne attacks.
The long range and high accuracy of SAM batteries provided a much more effective defense than
the anti-aircraft guns of World War II.

@@Sewer System

One of the byproducts of large urban centers is a vast amount of human waste. As the city
continues to grow, steps need to be taken to move the sewage away from inhabited areas and
"treat" it so that it does not become a health hazard to humans or harm the local ecosystem.
Sewer systems carry wastewater to treatment plants where the raw sewage is broken down
through filtration and chemical processes to remove solids and harmful bacteria. The treated
byproduct is then released into rivers and other waterways, where it is eventually washed safely
into the ocean.

@@Solar Power Plant

One of the greatest natural sources of energy available on Earth is the sun. Solar energy can be
converted directly into electrical power without the need for mechanical generators through the
use of photoelectric cells. Alternatively, large solar collectors known as heliostats can be used to
focus solar energy into a water boiler, generating steam to run conventional electrical turbines.
Unfortunately, at our current level of technology, both of these systems are prohibitively
expensive to construct. However, because of the dwindling supply of fossil fuels and increasing
concern over the pollution produced by conventional and nuclear power plants, scientists are
constantly working on a viable way to harness the clean and endless supply of energy provided by
our sun.

@@Stock Exchange

In a free market economy, corporations often raise operating and development capital by selling
"shares" in the corporation to private investors. These shares, which allow investors to share in
the company's profits, were originally sold by brokers and privately hired auctioneers. Early
European stock exchanges, such as the Paris Bourse, allowed anyone to buy and sell stock.
However, it was quickly discovered that a formalized system was necessary in order to enforce
transactions. Thereafter, membership in the exchange was required in order to buy and sell. The
first formal stock exchange in the U.S. was established in 1791 in Philadelphia, and the New York
Stock Exchange was established a year later. Today, stock exchanges are located in many major
cities and commercial centers around the world. Private investment in corporations is vital to
capitalistic economies, allowing corporations to grow more quickly than would otherwise be
possible. The profits and new jobs created as a result improve the economy as a whole.

@@Supermarket

Supermarkets are large, self-service retail stores that sell a wide variety of food items and
household goods to the general public. The first true supermarket, King Kullen, was established in
1930 in the borough of Queens, New York City, by Michael Cullen. Improved storage techniques
and refrigeration allowed supermarkets to stock and sell perishable foods in large quantities,
reducing the price to the consumer. The combination of ready availability and low prices made the
supermarket an instant success in the U.S. during the years of the Great Depression. The
supermarket continues to grow in popularity in countries around the world.

@@Superhighway

Early in his career, President Eisenhower traveled by road, from coast to coast, across the United
States. This trip, which took nearly a month because of the poor system of roads, convinced him
that it was necessary to make all areas of the country easily accessible. Not only were these
improvements important to the growing number of people traveling by automobile, they could
prove invaluable for the movement of troops and military equipment should the need arise. In
1956, Eisenhower established a federal-aid program known as the Highway Trust Fund to
accelerate the construction of a network of interstate roads. By 1991, the Interstate Highway
System in the U.S. consisted of over 42,000 miles of highways. Unlike local roadways,
superhighways were designed to bypass large population centers, and were accessible in limited
locations at planned entrance and exit interchanges. These highly efficient roadways allow
motorists today to travel from one end of the country to the other without having to slow down
for intersections and traffic signals.
@@Harbor

Just because a city is built in a coastal region doesn't guarantee that the city is readily accessible by
ship. In order for a port city to establish a steady trade, fishing, or other shipping industry, the city
must have a harbor. A harbor is a protected body of water that opens into an ocean or lake that
shelters ships from waves and high winds. Although some coastal cities are established in areas
where a natural harbor exists, most seaports are forced either to improve the existing natural
harbor, or to build a man-made harbor to shelter ships and provide channels deep enough to
accommodate large vessels.

@WONDER_DESCRIPTIONS

;Translation Note: The text in this section comes, verbatim, from the WONDER.PDE text file in the
;original Civilopedia. (French and German versions are .PDF and .PDG respectively.)

; The index is a mapping to the rules file. The labels to the right are the entries, IN ORDER,

; that are in the rules.txt file. The number to the left is the description below that

; corresponds to the rules entry, but adjusted by NUM_IMPROVEMENTS.

; For example, Adam Smith's Trading Co. will be the 0'th (remember,

; the list is zero based)(INDEX - NUM_INPROVEMENTS) description below begining with @@.

; Only ONE entry per line, number MUST BE TERMINATED WITH A COMMA.

; The list must terminate with a -2. A -1 indicates no desription, do not list or index.

@@WONDER_INDEX

21, ; Pyramids

9, ; Hanging Gardens

2, ; Colossus

15, ; Lighthouse

7, ; Great Library

20, ; Oracle

8, ; Great Wall
25, ; Sun Tzu's War Academy

13, ; King Richard's Crusade

18, ; Marco Polo's Embassy

19, ; Michelangelo's Chapel

3, ; Copernicus' Observatory

16, ; Magellan's Expedition

23, ; Shakespeare's Theatre

14, ; Leonardo's Workshop

12, ; J. S. Bach's Cathedral

11, ; Isaac Newton's College

0, ; Adam Smith's Trading Co.

5, ; Darwin's Voyage

24, ; Statue of Liberty

6, ; Eiffel Tower

27, ; Women's Suffrage

10, ; Hoover Dam

17, ; Manhattan Project

26, ; United Nations

1, ; Apollo Program

22, ; SETI Program

4, ; Cure for Cancer

-2, ; MUST BE HERE! TERMINATOR!

@@Adam Smith's Trading Co.

Adam Smith is generally regarded as the father of modern economics. In his book "The Wealth of
Nations", he analyzed the economic processes of supply and demand, and discussed how free
trade and individual ambition would lead to both economic and social growth. Smith favored a
political environment where the government would only become involved in business and trade to
preserve justice and order. Smith's ideas of economics and the lack of government involvement
form the basis of modern economic liberalism.
@@Apollo Program

The Apollo Program was begun by the United States in the late 1960s. Following the success of the
manned orbital missions of the Mercury and Gemini programs, the destination of the Apollo
program was the moon. The early Apollo flights concentrated on orbital observations of the moon,
and testing the docking systems of the Apollo craft. The ultimate goal of the Apollo Program was
accomplished by Apollo 11 on July 20, 1969, when Neil Armstrong became the first human to walk
on the moon. Several other landings followed, the last being Apollo 17 in December, 1972. The
Apollo program truly represented a "giant leap for mankind". The U.S. manned lunar missions are
unparalleled feats in space exploration, and the technology originally developed for the Apollo
Program was later found to be invaluable in designing future space vehicles and orbital platforms.

@@Colossus

The Colossus of Rhodes was a bronze statue of Helios, the Greek God of the Sun, erected near the
mouth of the city harbor. It stood over 100 feet high, about two-thirds the height of the Statue of
Liberty. Unfortunately, it was toppled by an earthquake only 56 years after its construction. Taking
the counsel of an oracle, the city elected to leave the statue where it lay. For over 900 years,
people from all over the ancient world came to Rhodes to see the Colossus. It remained where it
was until 654 AD when the Muslims who plundered the city sold the statue for scrap.

@@Copernicus' Observatory

Ancient astronomers originally put forth the theory that the Sun was the center of our solar
system, and that the planets revolved around it. This knowledge was lost during the Dark Ages, but
was re-introduced in the early 16th Century by Nicholas Copernicus. Copernicus' research and
theories form the foundation for modern astronomy. Copernicus collected his data from his
observatory, a small room in the spire of an East Prussian cathedral. His research methods and
observations also marked the rebirth of the scientific method, and were an important step in the
advance of knowledge.

@@Cure for Cancer

Despite the huge outlays of cash for research and study, cancer still looms as a terrifying and
deadly plague on the human race. Although scientists and doctors have discovered many different
forms of cancer, and have identified some of the factors that can trigger the disease, a true cure
still eludes modern medical science. A cure for cancer would put an end to the source of much
suffering and anguish, and allow millions of people, who would otherwise be doomed, to lead
happy and productive lives.

@@Darwin's Voyage
Charles Darwin, the main proponent of the theory of evolution based on natural selection, built up
much of his evidence for this theory during a five-year voyage around the world. His voyage
aboard the H.M.S. Beagle was instrumental not only in the establishment of his theory, but also in
the application of the scientific method to the study of nature. Darwin published his theory of
evolution in his book "The Origin of the Species". His studies were so thorough that the scientific
world never challenged his findings. However, his findings were, and continue to be, challenged on
philosophical and religious grounds. Darwin's research opened many new lines of inquiry, and
inspired a wave of new biological research.

@@Eiffel Tower

The Eiffel Tower is one of the world's most famous landmarks. Built for the Universal Exposition of
1889, the tower rises 984 feet above Paris' Champ de Mars, near the Seine River. Structural
engineer Alexandre Gustave Eiffel built the tower at a cost of more than $1 million to demonstrate
how steel and iron could be utilized in the construction of extremely tall buildings. The tallest
building in the world when it was originally built, the Eiffel Tower drew crowds of awestruck
observers from around the world. Today, it remains one of Paris' leading tourist attractions.

@@Great Library

The Great Library of Alexandria was one of the two most important libraries of the ancient world.
It was founded around 300 BC by Ptolemy I, and was enhanced and expanded by his successors.
The library attempted to obtain copies of all scrolls of any consequence, and eventually contained
over 700,000 volumes. The library was destroyed by religious fanatics in 391 AD, after nearly 700
years of operation. During this period, Alexandria served as the cultural center of the Hellenistic
world. Today, only part of the catalog remains, providing us with a mere hint of what treasures the
library contained.

@@Great Wall

The Great Wall of China, a huge stone structure stretching from the Yellow Sea to the Asian
deserts, was built over a period of approximately 1,800 years. The wall is 25 feet high and 12 feet
thick, and runs nearly 1,500 miles across northern China. The purpose of the Great Wall was to
make it difficult for raiders to escape with their booty, and thereby discourage invasion. Despite its
overwhelming size, the wall was not intended to keep invaders out, since manning such a
defensive structure would have been prohibitively expensive.

@@Hanging Gardens

The Hanging Gardens were a distinctive feature of ancient Babylon. They were a great source of
pride to the people, and were often described in accounts written by visitors to the city. Possibly
built by King Nebuchadnezzar II in 600 BC, the gardens are believed to have been a remarkable
feat of engineering: an ascending series of tiered gardens containing all manner of trees, shrubs,
and vines. The gardens were said to have looked like a large green mountain constructed of mud
bricks, rising from the center of the city.

@@Hoover Dam

For centuries, mankind has been harnessing the power of rivers to move waterwheels for various
purposes. With the advent of electrical power, it was found the rivers were also very useful for
generating electricity. Hydroelectric power plants derive power from rivers by constructing dams
to ensure a dependable supply of water. The overflow is then released through special chambers
where the moving water turns giant turbines, generating electricity. When planned and
engineered properly, this system provides an excellent power source with very limited
environmental impact. The Hoover Dam, constructed on the Colorado River near Las Vegas, was
one of the earliest hydroelectric power plants.

@@Isaac Newton's College

Sir Isaac Newton, a mathematician and physicist, is considered to be one of the greatest scientists
of all time. He is credited with many important discoveries including the laws of gravity, the color
spectrum of light, calculus, fluid dynamics, and an understanding of ocean tides. He also built the
world's first reflecting telescope. For 32 years, he held an important teaching post at Cambridge
University, where he continued his own research while instructing a generation of students.

@@J.S. Bach's Cathedral

Few composers were more prolific or beloved than Johann Sebastian Bach. Bach, the most well-
known member of a gifted family of German musicians, was perhaps the finest composer of the
baroque style of music. In his time, he wrote numerous choral and orchestral pieces. During his
lifetime, he was renowned as an organist and music director of St. Thomas' Church in Leipzig, and
many of his compositions were religious in nature. After his death, Bach's music gained worldwide
appreciation.

@@King Richard's Crusade

The Crusades were a series of military expeditions by European Christians between 1095 and 1270
AD intended to recapture the Christian Holy Land from Muslim control. The most successful was
the Third Crusade, in which a tremendous force led by King Richard I and Philip Augustus managed
to regain control over a number of cities along the Mediterranean coast and reconstitute the Latin
Kingdom in Palestine. In addition to their more altruistic goals, the Crusades also served to extend
the political and religious power of the Pope over a larger area of the world. This great burst of
territorial expansion led to an increase in both the population and the productivity of Europe. The
ongoing wars provided lucrative business for Western European traders and merchants.
@@Leonardo's Workshop

Leonardo da Vinci was one of the most celebrated painters of the Italian Renaissance. His most
famous works include the "Mona Lisa" and "The Last Supper". Although best known for his art, da
Vinci was also an accomplished observer and designer. Preserved in his sketch books are ideas for
dozens of inventions, many of them centuries ahead of their time. These include designs for such
devices as draw bridges, construction equipment, parachutes, and even helicopters. His scientific
and technical drawings became the basis for the development of many of these modern devices.

@@Lighthouse

The Pharos was a marble watch tower and lighthouse built in 280 BC on an island in the harbor of
Alexandria, Egypt. Estimated to have been 300 feet high, the primary function of the lighthouse
was to guide approaching ships to the harbor on an otherwise unmarked coast. Historians debate
whether fires were burned on the top of the tower, or whether mirrors were used to reflect
sunlight. Since ships rarely sailed along coasts at night, there was probably little need for the
lighthouse after dark. The Pharos was destroyed in the 14th century, after having been damaged
by several earthquakes.

@@Magellan's Expedition

In 1519, Ferdinand Magellan sailed from Spain with the intention to reach the spice-rich
Malouccas Islands of Indonesia by sailing west, instead of east. Although Magellan himself was
killed by natives in the Philippines, his expedition went on to prove conclusively that the world was
round. More importantly, it proved that the Americas were indeed a New World. Magellan's
expedition was one of the great sea voyages of history, and it inspired further expeditions by other
explorers. The discoveries made along the way reduced the dangers to all the sea expeditions that
followed.

@@Manhattan Project

The Manhattan Project was the code name for an intensive and costly research effort during
World War II that resulted in the development of atomic weapons. The first two such weapons,
the bombs dropped on Nagasaki and Hiroshima in 1945, brought an end to the second World War.
For a short time, the United States held a monopoly on atomic weapons. However, by 1949 the
Soviet Union had also developed similar technology, based in part on Manhattan Project
information obtained through espionage. The nuclear standoff that has resulted from this balance
of power may be largely responsible for the absence of major wars since World War II.

@@Marco Polo's Embassy

Marco Polo was a trader, writer, and world traveler who lived in the late 13th and early 14th
century. Starting as a young boy, he began traveling with his father and uncle, who were
merchants and traders in Venice, along a route that would take him throughout Europe, the
Middle East, and Asia. Throughout his life, he visited many places bringing back detailed
information concerning lands that no European before him had visited. Polo's book, "The Travels
of Marco Polo", was the only existing source of reliable information on such exotic locales as Siam,
Japan, Java, Tibet, and India that existed in medieval Europe.

@@Michelangelo's Chapel

The beauty of Rome's Sistine Chapel has long served as a testament to the mixture of strong
religious beliefs and the love of art shared by the people of Renaissance Europe. Michelangelo
devoted four years to painting the mural that adorns the ceiling, a work depicting events in the
book of Genesis and other Biblical stories. Few visitors to the Sistine Chapel have failed to be
moved by the artist's dedication to his subject, or his feeling for the nature of human struggle,
suffering, and spiritual triumph.

@@Oracle

In ancient Greek religion, an oracle was a priest or priestess through whom the gods spoke in
response to questions. The oracle interpreted dreams, the actions of entranced persons, and
physical signs found in the entrails of sacrificed animals. The most famous oracle resided in the
shrine of Apollo at Delphi, located on the slopes of Mount Parnassus. This oracle was consulted for
centuries by Greeks, Romans, and others about public policy and private matters. A priestess
called the Pythia would, for a fee, make public predictions for the future. These ecstatic
pronouncements became infamous for their ambiguity.

@@Pyramids

Built by the fourth dynasty of Egyptian rulers, the Pyramids represent the pinnacle of ancient
Egyptian cultural achievement. Constructed on the Giza plateau outside modern-day Cairo, these
structures were burial tombs and monuments for the Pharaohs, and may have taken generations
and tens of thousands of workers to complete. The Pyramids are the only one of the generally
accepted man-made wonders of the ancient world that remain in existence today.

@@SETI Program

The Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI) was officially initiated by the United States in the
latter half of the 20th Century. The purpose of the program was to find some sort of conclusive
evidence that intelligent life existed beyond the confines of our planet. Employing banks of radio-
telescopes and other detection equipment, SETI scans the skies hoping to find proof of
extraterrestrial life in the form of radio transmissions and other activity. Although the program has
yet to find such proof, the effort has produced many useful benefits to astronomy,
telecommunications, and other high-tech fields.

@@Shakespeare's Theatre

Most of the plays of William Shakespeare were first performed on the stage of London's Globe
Theatre during the 1600s. Theater offered people a diversion from their everyday lives by allowing
them to enjoy comedies, tragedies, and triumphs acted out on stage. Similar theaters, such as the
Comedie Francaise in Paris, and La Scala in Milan, fulfilled similar roles by offering entertainment
to the citizens of their cities. Although the original Globe Theatre burned down, Shakespeare's
plays are still performed in a new theater bearing his name, and in other theaters throughout the
world.

@@Statue of Liberty

The Statue of Liberty is one of the largest statues in the world. Measuring over 300 feet tall from
the base of her pedestal, the statue was originally constructed of copper plating over an iron
framework and weighs over 250 metric tons. Designed by French sculptor Frederic Bartholdi, the
statue with her upraised torch and the broken chains of tyranny at her feet, was presented to the
United States by the French government in 1886 to commemorate 100 years of American
independence. The statue itself, Liberty Island, and nearby Ellis Island became a national
monument in 1924. For more than a century, the Statue of Liberty has stood at the mouth of the
New York harbor. Often the first sight seen by immigrants arriving in America, Lady Liberty
symbolizes the ideals of freedom upon which the United States was founded.

@@Sun Tzu's War Academy

One of the earliest pieces of military literature is "The Art of War", written by Chinese general Sun
Tzu in the 6th century BC. This book contained a detailed explanation and analysis of the Chinese
military, from weapons and strategy to rank and discipline. Sun Tzu also stressed the importance
of intelligence operatives and espionage to the war effort. Because Sun Tzu has long been
considered to be one of history's finest military tacticians and analysts, his teachings and strategies
formed the basis of advanced military training for centuries to come.

@@United Nations

Established following World War II, the United Nations is an international organization dedicated
to promoting world peace and security. The U.N. also attempts to achieve international
cooperation in solving world problems concerning the environment, economics, and cultural
issues. Although its peace keeping role is not always entirely successful, it has remained an
effective forum for debate where all nations can voice their concerns on matters of worldwide
importance.
@@Women's Suffrage

After decades of struggle, women in the United States won the right to vote in 1920 with the
passage of the 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. The achievement of women's suffrage
was accelerated by the excellent record of women working in jobs traditionally held by men during
World War I. Full voting rights were granted to women in Great Britain in 1928. Since that time,
women have gained the right to vote in most countries in the developed world.

@UNIT_DESCRIPTIONS

;Translation Note: The text in this section comes, verbatim, from the UNITS.PDE and UNITS2.PDE
text ;files in the original Civilopedia, strung together to make one contiguous section. (French and
German ;versions are .PDF and .PDG respectively.)

; The index is a mapping to the rules file. The labels to the right are the entries, IN ORDER,

; that are in the rules.txt file. The number to the left is the description below that

; corresponds to the rules entry. For example, Settlers will be the 50'th (remember,

; the list is zero based) description below begining with @@.

; Only ONE entry per line, number MUST BE TERMINATED WITH A COMMA.

; The list must terminate with a -2. A -1 indicates no desription, do not list or index.

@@UNIT_INDEX

49, ; Settlers

21, ; Engineers

43, ; Warriors

46, ; Phalanx

2, ; Archers

33, ; Legion

47, ; Pikemen

36, ; Musketeers

23, ; Fanatics
45, ; Partisans

1, ; Alpine Troops

48, ; Riflemen

34, ; Marines

44, ; Paratroopers

35, ; Mech. Inf.

29, ; Horsemen

13, ; Chariot

20, ; Elephant

14, ; Crusaders

32, ; Knights

19, ; Dragoons

12, ; Cavalry

3, ; Armor

11, ; Catapult

7, ; Cannon

4, ; Artillery

30, ; Howitzer

24, ; Fighter

6, ; Bomber

28, ; Helicopter

39, ; Stlth Ftr.

38, ; Stlth Bmbr.

42, ; Trireme

9, ; Caravel

27, ; Galleon

26, ; Frigate

31, ; Ironclad

17, ; Destroyer
16, ; Cruiser

0, ; AEGIS Cruiser

5, ; Battleship

40, ; Submarine

10, ; Carrier

41, ; Transport

15, ; Cruise Msl.

37, ; Nuclear Msl.

18, ; Diplomat

50, ; Spy

8, ; Caravan

25, ; Freight

22, ; Explorer

-1, ; Extra Land

-1, ; Extra Ship

-1, ; Extra Air

-1, ; Test Unit 1

-1, ; Test Unit 2

-1, ; Test Unit 3

-1, ; Test Unit 4

-1, ; Test Unit 5

-1, ; Test Unit 6

-1, ; Test Unit 7

-1, ; Test Unit 8

-2, ; MUST BE HERE! TERMINATOR!

@@AEGIS Cruiser

Cruisers have long served in the role of escort and defensive vessels, screening carrier task forces
and amphibious assaults from enemy ships and aircraft. In recent years, the abilities of the cruiser
have been upgraded significantly. In addition to their traditional five-inch guns, cruisers also carry
batteries of Harpoon and Tomahawk missiles. The latest development in cruiser armament is the
AEGIS surface-to-air missile system, which allows cruisers to target and fire their missiles more
accurately and more effectively than ever before. The cruisers of today are highly capable of
intercepting and destroying enemy submarines, surface ships, aircraft, and missiles.

@@Alpine Troops

In the colder regions of the world, where winter months tend to leave the ground snow covered,
skiing often became one of the most reliable means of transportation. In the alpine countries of
Europe, it became commonplace to train special groups of soldiers to take advantage of the snow
covered, mountainous terrain by traveling on skis. This proved to be a huge advantage, especially
if the enemy forces were not likewise equipped. In November 1939, for example during the Russo-
Finnish War, the Finns managed to cut off the supply and communications lines of the vastly
superior Russian army through the use of their extremely mobile ski troops, and the Finns
continued to hold an advantage throughout the winter months. Alpine troops continue to be
trained and utilized in military forces of the present day.

@@Archers

The bow and arrow, invented in prehistoric times, greatly improved the hunting skills of early man,
allowing him to kill his targets from a distance. The bow was eventually adapted for use in battle,
and was first used by Egyptian, Persian, and Assyrian armies as early as 5000 BC. The range
provided by the bow allowed small forces of archers to rout armies of superior number who were
armed with hand-to-hand weapons. Archers were often used to soften enemy resistance prior to
sending in mounted and skirmishing forces. Refinements in design and construction allowed the
bow to remain an effective weapon until it was finally replaced by firearms in the 1500's.

@@Armor

The rise in the use of semi-automatic and automatic firearms in the late 19th and early 20th
century led to the demise of horse-mounted cavalry. Attackers lost a significant advantage in both
scouting and deployment as a result of the cavalry's vulnerability. It was only with the
development of tanks, armored mobile attack vehicles equipped with high caliber guns, that a
weapon was found which could once more be used to punch a hole through enemy field forces.
First appearing in World War I, armored attack vehicles moved quickly and struck with power,
while still possessing an effective defensive strength. Tanks are a powerful weapon against any
ground unit.

@@Artillery

Artillery is a general term covering several varieties of large caliber weapons including mortars and
field guns. Mortars fire an explosive projectile in a high arc, and are particularly effective against
small, concealed targets. Field guns, long-range weapons that fire their projectiles in a flat arc, are
used primarily for their ability to penetrate hard targets. Powerful enough to batter opposing
forces even behind the strongest fortifications, artillery is also able to move quickly from one firing
position to another. This is an important capability when fighting a moving battle or when avoiding
enemy fire.

@@Battleship

The battleship was once the most powerful vessel on the seas. Heavily armored and difficult to
destroy, its massive guns could accurately fire heavy projectiles at targets miles away. The
battleship had two primary functions: clearing the seas of enemy ships and bombarding enemy
coastal targets, usually in preparation for an invasion. The battleship's importance began to
decline in World War II when the increasing use of fighters and bombers launched from aircraft
carriers greatly extended the range of naval conflicts. Ship-to-ship combat became less frequent
than long-range air attacks against enemy battle groups. The last of the U.S. Navy's battleships was
decommissioned shortly after the Vietnam War, but the four battleships of the Iowa class were
remodeled and recommissioned in the 1980's.

@@Bomber

The bombing of strategic targets from the air dates back to the beginning of World War I, when
the Germans used zeppelins to bomb Paris and London. Because zeppelins proved to be extremely
vulnerable, they were withdrawn from war in favor of airplanes. By the end of World War I, planes
were being designed specifically as bombers. The bomber's job is to carry bombs into enemy
territory, normally beyond the range of artillery, and destroy targets of military and economic
value. Bombers were often designed for specific missions, such as attacking ships, bombing
vehicles and railroads, daylight precision bombing, and carpet bombing.

@@Cannon

Closely following the invention of gunpowder, the development of the cannon caused a revolution
in siege warfare. Invented by a German monk in the 14th century, early cannons used gunpowder
charges to fire rocks or metal balls. The cannon forced a redesign of most fortifications because
the straight, high walls surrounding most cities could be easily destroyed by direct fire. This was
the fate of the walls of Constantinople, which had held against countless sieges for over a
thousand years. The cannon quickly assumed an important role on the battlefield.

@@Caravan

Trade has been a major source of income to civilizations throughout history. Journeying to distant
lands, caravans exchanged their loads of goods for money or other items of value. In addition, the
traders who accompanied the caravans often brought back new knowledge about the advances
made by the civilizations with whom they did business. Marco Polo, for example, went with
traders to China. He remained there for many years, and brought back much valuable information
to the West.

@@Caravel

The caravel was a small sailing ship with three or four masts, a broad bow, and a high, narrow
stern.. Though often used as a warship, the caravel could also carry just over 100 metric tons of
cargo. Caravels were commonly used by the Spanish and the Portuguese for both commerce and
exploration. Christopher Columbus' three ships, the "Nina", "Pinta", and "Santa Maria", were all
caravels.

@@Carrier

The aircraft carrier first came into widespread use during World War II. Carriers act as floating
airfields, carrying fighters and bombers far from friendly territory to be launched against enemy
targets. This allows an air strike against targets on both land and sea that would otherwise be far
out of range. Carriers also have the capability to launch nuclear weapons. The range of the aircraft
launched from carriers forever changed the methodology of naval battles. Opposing fleets could
now engage in battle without either fleet ever entering the other's visual range, ending the
dominance of the battleship as the strongest vessel on the sea.

@@Catapult

The catapult was one of the earliest forms of artillery. It was a large mechanical arm that propelled
heavy stones and other missiles from a great distance, battering down walls and inflicting damage
on buildings and defenders. Though cumbersome and nearly useless on the battlefield, the
catapult was an effective weapon for attacking cities and fortified enemies.

@@Cavalry

Cavalry are mounted soldiers trained to fight on horseback. Because of their speed, cavalry units
were often used for reconnaissance missions and hit-and-run raids on enemy installations and
troops. Although warriors fighting from horseback with a variety of weapons dates back to ancient
Egypt, horse-mounted cavalry as we generally think of it today actually began in the late 1700's.
Under Napoleon, the cavalry became an elite force, frequently deployed simultaneously with foot
soldiers, to mask the movements of the main battle force. Cavalry were used extensively in the
American Civil War, and in other conflicts throughout the mid to late 19th century. When the
repeating rifle replaced earlier single-shot firearms, horse-mounted troops became easy targets
for infantrymen. The South African War, from 1899 to 1902, was the last major conflict where
cavalry played a major role. Today, the roles once performed by horse-mounted cavalry have been
assumed by troops utilizing armored assault vehicles and aircraft.
@@Chariot

The chariot was the first true fighting vehicle. It was used by ancient armies to transport archers
and other troops to the battlefield, where they would disembark and fight. The chariot was turned
into a fearsome offensive weapon by the Assyrians, whose archers and spearmen fought from
inside the chariot itself. Few enemies were able to withstand an onslaught of Assyrian chariots.
This devastating form of attack was soon adopted by many of the Assyrian's enemies, who used
the chariot against them with good effect.

@@Crusaders

Between 1095 and 1270, European Christians waged a series of wars known as the Crusades.
These holy wars, sanctioned by the Pope, were fought to free the Christian Holy Lands from
Muslim control. The crusaders themselves were a mixed lot, with many different backgrounds and
reasons for fighting. However, most of them joined the ranks out of religious fervor, and a feeling
that their personal salvation was guaranteed when fighting for such a holy cause. Despite the fact
that the crusaders fought with all the strength of their religious conviction, the Crusades
accomplished very little in a military sense; however, the European economy and desire for
exploration was greatly increased.

@@Cruise Missile

One of the most effective weapons in modern military arsenals is the cruise missile. Cruise missiles
such as the AGM-86 and the Tomahawk can be launched against a strategic target hundreds of
miles away, traveling low to avoid radar and other means of detection, and hitting its target with
unnerving accuracy. They can also be used against short-range, tactical targets such as ships. In
this role, it is often possible for a single, $1 million missile to seriously damage or even destroy $80
million warships. These versatile weapons can be launched from air, sea, or land with equal
effectiveness.

@@Cruiser

The cruiser is the modern equivalent of the frigate. Although much more powerful than its sailing
forebearer, it is designed for the same type of mission: to act as a sea raider and escort. Cruisers
can conduct shore bombardments, though their firepower cannot match the destructive force of
the battleship. The cruiser's defensive capabilities are also inferior to those of the battleship.
These shortcomings are balanced by the cruiser's lower cost and higher speed. Cruisers serve an
important role in scouting missions, convoy escorts, and the attack of transport vessels.

@@Destroyer
Destroyers are small escort ships that serve a variety of useful functions. These light, fast vessels
were used extensively in World War II to provide air and sea cover for carrier groups. One of the
primary functions of the destroyer is to locate and destroy enemy submarines. Using their sonar
equipment to locate the subs, and their batteries of depth charges and torpedoes to destroy
them, the destroyer forces of World War II were the key to the success of many crucial naval
operations. Modern destroyers are still used in much the same role, as escorts for larger vessels
and as submarine hunters. In addition to five-inch guns, the arsenal of today's destroyer includes
antisubmarine helicopters, anti-ship cruise missiles, and the Phalanx system for defense against
anti-ship missiles.

@@Diplomat

Diplomats serve their homeland in a variety of ways. Their primary function is to maintain contact
with other civilizations, and report on any developments of interest. Diplomats are also capable of
engaging in less reputable activities, including sabotage of enemy production; the theft of
civilization advances; and the subversion of enemy troops and cities. Although they have no
combat value, diplomats are nevertheless potent weapons if utilized properly.

@@Dragoons

Dragoons were mounted soldiers armed with short muskets who fought, both on horseback and
on foot, during the time of the American Revolution. The name comes from the French word for
"dragon", and refers to the "fire breathing weapons" used by these troops. British general John
Burgoyne utilized a force of Hessian dragoons to attack an American supply base in the Battle of
Bennington in 1777. Despite their large numbers, the dragoon mercenaries were severely routed
by several detachments from the New Hampshire militia.

@@Elephant

The elephant is the largest living land mammal, reaching a size of 10 to 13 feet in height depending
on the species. Descended from the ancient mammoths and mastodons, elephants can be trained
to serve humans in many fields of endeavor. One such use of elephants in ancient times was as
beasts of war. Elephants were used in battle against Alexander the Great in 326 BC, and they were
used both as pack animals and in battle by Hannibal of Carthage in his famous alpine crossing in
218 BC. Although generally impractical as mounts due to their slow speed, the mere mental
impact of seeing such massive beasts included in the advancing enemy ranks could provide an
attacker with the element of surprise.

@@Engineers

As technology progressed through the centuries, people began to specialize in a single skill or field
of knowledge. The early pioneers who acted in the multiple roles of farmers, builders, and just
about any other occupation required by their situation, were replaced by engineers specifically
trained in a single discipline. Specialized training provided engineers the time and the skill
necessary to accomplish feats of construction and environmental manipulation never before
experienced in history.

@@Explorer

Since the dawn of history, there has been a need for humans to investigate their surroundings and
expand their knowledge of the world around them. Even the earliest civilizations sent people in
search of wealth and resources in distant lands. With the advent of extensive sea travel, explorers
such as Christopher Columbus and Amerigo Vespucci mapped and charted territories far from
their homelands. These early explorers opened the New World to trade and colonization.

@@Fanatics

Certain circumstances, such as strong religious beliefs or a totalitarian system of government, can
"inspire" citizens or factions to nationalism that approaches maniacal fervor. Fanatical groups can
often succeed in seemingly hopeless situations, fighting and defeating superior enemy forces.
Often, fanatics pursue military and terrorist activity for years, even decades, before they can be
caught or stopped. Their strength for both attack and defense comes from their willingness to
fight for the ideals they believe in, and, if necessary, sacrifice their lives in the name of their cause.

@@Fighter

The earliest military aircraft were used primarily in a reconnaissance role. In 1915, during World
War I, aircraft designer Anthony Fokker developed a gear system that allowed a plane-mounted
machine gun to fire through the propeller, giving birth to the first fighter aircraft. The fighter's
mission was to shoot down enemy reconnaissance and fighter planes. Later, as the use of bombers
became more widespread, fighters were called upon to act as interceptors against enemy
bombing runs and escorts for friendly bombers. The best way to ensure the safe passage of
friendly bombers to their selected targets is the destruction of enemy fighters.

@@Freight

Freight units are the modern day equivalent of the trade caravans in the ancient world. Whereas
in early history raw materials, trade goods, food, and manufactured items were transported by
camel or wagon, modern shipments are transported by a variety of methods including trucks and
railroads. The speed and convenience of modern transportation methods allows civilizations to set
up supply routes and move large quantities of merchandise and trade goods farther and faster
than ever.
@@Frigate

The frigate was a fast and powerful sailing warship that evolved to fill several important naval
roles, primarily to raid enemy shipping. These three masted ships were lighter and faster than the
European great ship or man-of-war, and usually carried 36 or fewer guns. The frigate was powerful
enough to overcome most of its prospective opponents and fast enough to escape those it could
not outgun. Because of their speed and strength, frigates were often employed as escorts for
merchant vessels during times of war. The frigate remained the most useful and dominant naval
vessel until the development of the ironclad.

@@Galleon

By the late 15th century, oar-powered vessels had all but disappeared from the world's oceans, to
be replaced by sailing vessels of various types. The galleon was one such vessel. Galleons were
three- or four-masted ships, built high in both the forecastle and the stern. Developed in the 15th
and 16th century, these versatile ships were mainly used as cargo vessels, although they were
sometimes outfitted as light warships as well. Ships of this type served European nations well into
the 1700s.

@@Helicopter

The concept that was to become the modern helicopter was first explored by artist/engineer
Leonardo da Vinci. He made sketches of a rotor-driven aircraft in the early 16th century. It was not
until 1939, however, that the first practical helicopter design was developed. Helicopters have a
distinct advantage over fixed-wing aircraft in that they can take off and land vertically. This makes
it possible for helicopters to operate in many places that would be too small to accommodate a
runway. Today, helicopters are used in civilian roles as rescue vehicles and by law enforcement
agencies. All branches of the military utilize many different types of helicopters, from giant cargo
and troop carriers to fast and maneuverable gunships used as air support for ground troop
operations.

@@Horsemen

The necessity for speed and mobility in times of war was recognized even in ancient times. The
infantrymen of some ancient armies would ride horses to get from one engagement to another,
dismounting to fight when they reached the battlefield. Because of their speed, horsemen could
also be used as scouts to pinpoint enemy positions. In the second century BC, the Chinese
invention of the stirrup allowed this concept of mobility to go one step further. Stirrups provided
the stability and leverage necessary to allow soldiers to fight from horseback, leading to the
earliest examples of cavalry units. Continuous developments in arms and armor eventually led to
knights, dragoons, and finally the advanced cavalry of the 18th and 19th century.
@@Howitzer

The howitzer is a specialized piece of artillery. As originally designed, the howitzer was a cross
between the short-ranged mortar and the long-ranged field gun. When fired in a high arc, the
howitzer shell was able to achieve the mortar's effectiveness against small, concealed targets.
When fired in a flat trajectory, the shell had more range than the mortar and the penetration
power of the field gun. Howitzers were easier to transport than other types of heavy artillery due
to their smaller size, and could be mounted on wheels and towed by a truck. Modern light
howitzers fire a variety of specialized ammunition, and their accuracy now makes them more
efficient and lethal than older heavy howitzers and field guns.

@@Ironclad

Ironclads were the forerunners of future generations of armored naval vessels. Instead of the
simple wooden hulls found on the other ships at the time, ironclads were covered with strong
metal plating. This plating made them nearly impervious to large-caliber explosive shells that
would easily penetrate and destroy wooden vessels. Ironclads made their first appearance during
the American Civil War, and quickly gained dominance over other ships of that era. Perhaps the
most famous naval battle of the Civil War was the battle between the Confederate ironclad
"Merrimack", and the Union ironclad "Monitor", which lasted for several hours before the
"Merrimack" was forced to withdraw.

@@Knights

Knights were heavily armored, mounted men-at-arms in medieval Europe. Like the samurai of
ancient Japan, knights followed a strict code that covered their behavior both in battle and in their
personal pursuits. Fighting astride powerful horses, armored knights had a distinct advantage over
enemies on foot and remained the dominant force on the battlefield when battles were primarily
fought hand-to-hand. Occasionally, brilliant tactics allowed knights to be outmaneuvered, but it
wasn't until the development of gunpowder that knights were rendered obsolete.

@@Legion

The Roman Legions, created during the early wars of the Republic and tested during the three
Punic Wars against Carthage, were the fighting force that conquered and held the Roman Empire
for five centuries. Each legion was composed of 6000 men, divided into 60 smaller groups known
as centuries. Nearly unstoppable on the attack, the legion was relatively weak on defense. The
legion's demise as a military unit was accelerated by the destruction of Emperor Valens' army by
gothic knights in the 4th Century.

@@Marines
The Marines are a branch of the military service that operates separately, but is under the
ultimate control of the secretary of the navy. The Marine Corps is a combined branch of the
military; their training prepares them to carry out integrated land, sea, and air operations. The first
marines were commissioned during the American Revolution, only to be inactivated after the war.
The Marine Corps was then permanently reestablished by Congress in July, 1798. Legendary for
their toughness, rigid codes of behavior, and adaptability, they have played an important role in
almost every major war and conflict of the 19th and 20th centuries.

@@Mechanized Infantry

The introduction of armored tanks meant that armies could quickly break through enemy
defensive positions and move aggressively forward on the battlefield. Such a quick advance,
however, left the ground won in the advance largely undefended. Mechanized infantry, which was
first used during World War II, was designed to be able to move in quickly and defend the area
behind the tanks. Infantry were mounted in armored vehicles, such as half-tracks and Armored
Personnel Carriers (APCs), to carry them quickly and safely along with the rapidly advancing
armored divisions.

@@Musketeers

One of the most important developments in the history of warfare was the invention of firearms.
Originally developed in the 14th century, firearms evolved quickly, and by the late 17th century
flintlock muskets had become commonplace in battle. Musketeers, who were relatively
inexpensive to equip and train, proved a deadly foe for the knights who had dominated the
battlefield for so many years. Armies were often comprised of a combination of musketeers,
cannon, and knights, each complementing the strengths and weaknesses of one another. Large
forces of musketeers within a fortress or behind city walls proved an exceedingly difficult obstacle
to an attacking army. Muskets were the primary firearm in use until they were replaced by
repeating rifles in the mid-19th century.

@@Nuclear Missile

The deployment of atomic bombs at Nagasaki and Hiroshima at the end of World War II changed
the world's standards for measuring military power. Nuclear weapons can eradicate ground forces
and armored divisions, and flatten cities with their awesome explosive power. In the years
following World War II, arsenals of nuclear weapons were built up rapidly by opposing nations,
each fearing the capabilities of the other. This massive arms build up has acted as a deterrent to
full-scale war, since all the governments involved are aware of the consequences should such a
war take place. The threat imposed by the huge nuclear arsenals of the world powers may one day
be eradicated by the development of the Strategic Defense Initiative, or SDI, a system designed to
destroy enemy missiles in flight before they can reach their targets.
@@Stealth Bomber

Concurrent with the development of a stealth fighter, aeronautical engineers began to apply
stealth technology to a full-scale bomber. The B-1B bomber, which went into service in 1986 as a
replacement for the B-52, incorporated some of these innovations. The radar signature of the B-1B
was reduced to a mere 1 percent that of the B-52 due to its low cross-section and its minimal use
of radar-reflective, hard-edged surfaces. Soon after the B-1B entered service, the U.S. Air Force
commissioned Northrop to develop a true stealth bomber as an eventual replacement. First
revealed to the public in 1988, the B-2 stealth bomber uses a flying wing design similar in shape to
the F-117A stealth fighter. The flying wing design reduces the profile of the B-2 by incorporating its
engines into the body of the plane. The engine exhausts and intakes are shielded to prevent
infrared tracking. The B-2 also makes use of curved surfaces and radar-absorbing materials to
enhance its "invisibility", and make it far less detectable than the B-1B. As of the late 1980s, it was
announced that 132 B-2's would be constructed, and would enter service sometime in the 1990s.

@@Stealth Fighter

Starting in the Second World War, radar technology came into widespread use both for detection
and targeting of aircraft. Because of this, aeronautical engineers began searching for ways to make
aircraft less "visible" to electronic tracking and weapon systems. The earliest stealth technologies
consisted of coating aircraft with materials that would absorb rather than deflect a radar signal. In
the late 1970s, designs incorporating this technology, as well as a unique fuselage shape designed
to deflect radar away from its source, were prototyped. The first true stealth fighter, the Lockheed
F-117A, flew for the first time on June 18, 1981. This fighter, incorporating the latest anti-radar
and anti-thermal innovations, is capable of entering enemy territory, delivering its payload, and
returning to base with little chance of detection. These unique, black aircraft served well in the
Persian Gulf War in 1991, and have served as the basis for further development of stealth aircraft
technology.

@@Submarine

A submarine is a submersible warship, designed to attack enemy vessels while remaining hidden
underwater. Although defensively weak, submarines are feared because of their ability to make a
stealthy approach and attack without warning. Often, the presence of a submarine is not detected
until the first of the sub's torpedoes strikes its target. Submarine warfare was first used
extensively by the Germans during World War I. Developments after the war, such as sonar, made
the submarine even more effective. During World War II, submarines were used extensively by all
the world's naval powers. Today's submarines, in addition to their role as fast attack vessels, also
carry nuclear weapons that can be fired from underwater positions just off the coast of an enemy
country.

@@Transport
The troop transport ship, which in peacetime serves as a cargo or passenger vessel, is the principle
means used by modern powers to move large quantities of military equipment and personnel over
long distances. Because transports lack offensive weaponry, they require armed vessels as escorts
during times of war. A properly escorted transport can move large military forces to a new area
quickly to act as reinforcements or as an attacking force.

@@Trireme

The trireme was the first ship designed for war. Introduced by the Greeks, triremes were powered
by three banks of oars on each side, manned by well-trained oarsmen. These oarsmen were highly
paid professionals or patriotic citizens, not slaves and prisoners as depicted in fiction. A huge,
bronze "beak" mounted at the bow of the ship was used to ram and sink enemy ships. Because of
its long, narrow hull, the trireme was very unstable in all but the calmest waters, and as a
consequence its crew rarely ventured out of sight of land for long periods of time, lest the ship be
caught in a storm and sunk.

@@Warriors

The earliest military forces were simply the citizens of the city, armed with whatever implements
they could use as weapons. Although a militia made up of warriors was inexpensive, they were no
match for organized armies. Warriors were usually used as a stopgap measure while waiting for
superior units to be trained, or to defend a city that has been temporarily cut off from military
support. In a crisis situation, an assembly of warriors is a better choice than no defense at all.

@@Paratroopers

Although the idea of the parachute was suggested in the 16th century drawings of Leonardo da
Vinci, the first parachute was not invented until the late 1700's. For years, parachutes were
standard emergency equipment for balloonists. Claire Chennault, an American pioneer of aviation
pursuit tactics during World War I, was the first to suggest using parachutes to drop troops behind
enemy lines. This idea was widely used. Paratroopers were flown behind enemy lines in transport
planes and dropped from low altitude, allowing them to attack the enemy from behind. Today,
paratroopers are usually highly-trained special forces personnel, trained to covertly infiltrate
enemy territory.

@@Partisans

Partisans are militant groups who pledge their support to a leader or a system of government.
Partisans differ from fanatics in their methods. Whereas fanatics are usually radicals prone to use
terrorist tactics, partisans are usually trained soldiers who practice the more organized tactics of
guerrilla warfare. Partisan groups have existed at various times throughout history. Partisans were
particularly active in the Nazi occupied countries of Europe during World War II, where their acts
of sabotage against their conquerors often kept German troops busy quelling partisan uprisings
while they should have been fighting on the front lines. Because of their unflagging dedication to
their cause, partisans make formidable opponents.

@@Phalanx

The phalanx was a military formation developed in Greece, and perfected in Macedonia. It
consisted of a large group of soldiers in ranks and files, usually from 8 to 32 men deep, armed with
spears, swords, and large shields. The first five ranks of men pointed their weapons forward,
forming a bristling barrier of spearpoints, while the others kept their spears upright to deflect
incoming missiles. An enemy had difficulty approaching this formation. The attacking army was
faced with a densely packed body of warriors, who were often advancing on the run. This usually
caused the attackers to give ground rather than risk being impaled. Unfortunately, the phalanx
lacked maneuverability, and became less prevalent when enemy forces became more professional
and learned to outflank the formation.

@@Pikemen

The growing deployment of knights on the battlefield demanded that foot soldiers develop new
means of fighting that would lessen their vulnerability against mounted opponents. One of the
best ways to do this was to lengthen the reach of the infantrymen by arming them with long,
sturdy spears known as pikes. Massed infantry armed with pikes, in conjunction with archers,
managed to even the battlefield odds. Armies equipped in this manner managed to hold their own
until the invention of gunpowder made knights a thing of the past.

@@Riflemen

Two developments in the 19th century made early firearms such as the musket obsolete. The first
was the use of a spiral groove, or "rifling", inside the barrel of a gun. Second, was the development
of the repeating rifle, which could fire multiple shots before it required reloading. The rifle was a
better weapon than its ancestors, with much more accuracy over a greater range than the musket.
Riflemen were first employed in large numbers during the American Civil War. The rifle gave a
strong defensive advantage, since riflemen could fire several times while the attackers advanced.
This was normally enough to hold any position. Riflemen held the advantage on the battlefield
until the appearance of armored attack vehicles.

@@Settlers

When cities grew to a size where the resources were insufficient to adequately insure a decent
standard of living for the populace, adventurous groups of citizens set out on their own in search
of a place to build a new city. Once a suitable site was found, the settlers would build their new
homes, and develop the land surrounding the city. Eventually, the whole process repeated, and
the new city would send out settlers of its own. This process allowed civilizations to grow
throughout history, from the empires of the ancient world to the discovery and settlement of the
New World.

@@Spy

One of the most effective ways to compile information about an enemy (or potential enemy) is by
infiltrating the enemy's ranks. This is the job of the spy. Spies can bring back all sorts of
information concerning the size and strength of an enemy army. They can also find dissidents
within the enemy's forces and influence them to defect. In times of crisis, spies can also be used to
steal technology and to sabotage the enemy in various ways. Counterintelligence operatives can
feed false information to enemy spies, protecting important domestic secrets and preventing
attempts at subversion. Nearly every society has very strict laws concerning espionage, and the
penalty for being caught is often death. However, the benefits that can be gained through
espionage are generally felt to outweigh the risks.

@TERRAIN_AND_RESOURCE_DESCRIPTIONS

;Translation Note: The text in this section comes, verbatim, from the TERRAIN.PDE text file in the
;original Civilopedia. (French and German versions are .PDF and .PDG respectively.)

; The index is a mapping to the rules file. The labels to the right are the entries, IN ORDER,

; that are in the rules.txt file. The number to the left is the description below that

; corresponds to the rules entry. For example, Settlers will be the 50'th (remember,

; the list is zero based) description below begining with @@.

; Only ONE entry per line, number MUST BE TERMINATED WITH A COMMA.

; The list must terminate with a -2. A -1 indicates no desription, do not list or index.

@@TERRAIN_INDEX

0, ; Desert

8, ; Plains

3, ; Grassland

1, ; Forest

4, ; Hills
6, ; Mountains

11, ; Tundra

2, ; Glacier

10, ; Swamp

5, ; Jungle

7, ; Ocean

24, ; Oasis

12, ; Buffalo

3, ; Grassland

18, ; Pheasant

13, ; Coal

21, ; Gold

18, ; Game

23, ; Ivory

26, ; Peat

20, ; Gems

14, ; Fish

25, ; Desert Oil

30, ; Wheat

3, ; Grassland

27, ; Silk

31, ; Wine

22, ; Iron

16, ; Furs

25, ; Glacier Oil

28, ; Spice

15, ; Fruit

29, ; Whales

-2, ; MUST BE HERE! TERMINATOR!

;Terrain Types

@@Desert

Deserts are arid stretches of land characterized by an annual rainfall of less than ten inches.
Adding to the dry environment is the fact that, because the desert atmosphere has such low
humidity, evaporation of moisture from the ground exceeds precipitation. Many deserts are
characterized by extremely high daytime temperatures and equally low night time temperatures.
Only the hardiest plants and animals can survive in the harsh desert environment. Despite the
perception that deserts are composed of useless sand, most desert soil is naturally fertile because
little water moves through the desert to carry away nutrients. Through the use of artificial
irrigation, humans have managed to grow crops in desert environments. If this is not done
carefully, it can lead to irreversible environmental damage when the meager water supply that is
tapped for the irrigation process is depleted.

@@Forest

Extensive areas of land covered by a thick growth of trees and related ground vegetation are
classified as forests. There are several different types of forest, determined primarily by climate
and the type of vegetation they contain. Forests of some type exist on nearly every continent in
the world. Forests are a valuable source of natural resources, providing wood for paper products,
building, and other purposes. The harvesting of trees must be done carefully, however. If not done
in moderation, lumbering can destroy the natural habitat for indigenous animal species, and
destroy the ecology of the land. Government regulations limiting the amount of trees that can be
cut, and requiring the lumber industry to plant new trees to replace what they have harvested,
help to prevent major ecological damage as a result of deforestation.

@@Glacier

Glaciers are large masses of ice and snow found in mountain regions, and near the north and
south poles of the planet, where the rate at which snow and ice melt is less than the rate of
snowfall. There are several varieties of glaciers: alpine and piedmont glaciers, which are formed in
the valleys of high mountain regions; and ice cap and continental glaciers that may cover large
portions of a continent. All glaciers are similar in composition, consisting of upper layers of softer
snow and ice crystals, and lower layers of highly compressed, solid ice. Although some glaciers are
stationary, some may move anywhere from a few feet to more than 100 feet each day, carving
and reshaping the land as they go. Glacial regions are inhospitable, containing little animal life, no
plant life, and virtually no resources of any kind.

@@Grassland
The areas of land between desert regions and forests in temperate and tropical climates usually
consist of grasslands. These fertile regions, covered with various types of vegetation, once
occupied large areas of North and South America, Africa, and Eurasia. These areas are
characterized by marked wet and dry seasons, with annual periods of drought. Although many
grasslands are naturally occurring, grasslands can also be created through deforestation of
woodland areas. Grasslands are often cultivated and used as pastures and grazing lands. Because
of the relatively low rainfall in these regions, the topsoil is high in nutrients. Grasslands are,
therefore, well suited for growing crops, especially grain crops.

@@Hills

Rolling areas of the countryside, often found between plains and more mountainous regions are
known as hills, or foothills. These areas, often covered with rich soil and grasses or heavily
forested, are rich in resources. Coal, iron, lead, copper, and even gold and silver may be found in
these regions, making them profitable areas for the mining industry. In areas where the below-
ground resources are scarce, hill areas are often cultivated for agricultural purposes. Certain crops
such as coffee and grapes thrive in these regions, given the proper climate.

@@Jungle

In heavily forested areas where rainfall is high, the growth of both trees and other indigenous
plants is profuse. The dense, tangled environment of the jungle is home to wide varieties of plant
and animal life. Although mineral deposits and fruit-bearing plants can sometimes be found in
these regions, jungles tend to lack both mineral and food resources. This, combined with the sheer
density of the native plant life, makes jungles inhospitable to humans. In order to make these
areas more useful, jungles are often destroyed through forestation and burning to yield areas of
grassland. While this improves the usefulness of the land for humans, it destroys the habitat of the
indigenous animals of the region. It is estimated that hundreds of undiscovered species of insect
and animal life are made extinct every day as a result of the destruction of jungles and rain forests.

@@Mountains

Mountains are areas of high elevation, usually consisting of a chain of rugged peaks and valleys.
Most mountains are formed when the plates making up the Earth's crust impact or slide against
one another, raising layers of rock above the surrounding land. Mountains can also be formed by
volcanic action, or through the effects of erosion. Although generally poor agricultural regions,
mountains are often a source of great mineral wealth, with large deposits of gold and other
valuable ores. Aside from their economic value, mountains provide a natural defensive barrier,
shielding human settlements from invaders. Extensive mountain ranges can also greatly affect the
weather patterns of a region by blocking and diverting wind and storms.
@@Ocean

The oceans and seas of the world cover almost three-quarters of our planet. They are home to
millions of life forms ranging from microscopic plankton to whales, the largest mammals in the
world. The animals and plants that inhabit the sea provide an excellent source of food. For
centuries, coastal and island cultures have thrived on the resources and easy access to trade
provided by the sea. Unfortunately, in many parts of the world, a combination of over-harvesting
of marine animals and increased pollution have begun to threaten fragile coastal ecologies. Some
species of marine life are seriously threatened. For example, the whaling industry, which thrived in
the 19th and early 20th century, is responsible for hunting certain species of whales to near-
extinction. Government regulations concerning the dumping of pollutants and the indiscriminate
harvesting of marine life are constantly being updated in response to these growing problems.

@@Plains

Plains are vast, open tracts of land, usually with very few trees and covered with vegetation such
as sage brush and various grasses. Plains are similar to grasslands, except that the topsoil is often
not as well suited for growing food. Often, rich deposits of minerals are also found in plains
regions. The indigenous plants of the plains makes them well suited for grazing. Large herds of
buffalo and other animals can often be found roaming the area. With the proper irrigation, plains
can be easily cultivated into adequate farmland for the production of grains and the raising of
livestock.

@@River

Fed by natural springs, snow melt, and small tributary streams, rivers flow from mountains and
other upland sources into larger rivers, lakes, and oceans. Rivers can be found in almost any
terrain, from lush jungles and forests to arid desert regions. Since the dawn of civilization, towns
and cities have grown up around rivers because the land in river valleys is usually very fertile, and
well-suited for farming. In addition, the river provided easy and quick access between towns by
boat for trade and travel. Water could be channeled from rivers via aqueducts to cities some
distance from the river for the purposes of irrigation. Rivers are also good sources of mineral
resources, and can provide power to run machinery and generate electricity.

@@Swamp

Swamps are wetlands which are largely uninhabitable by humans. These areas are usually flooded
with water, ranging in depth from a few inches to several feet, due to heavy rainfall and overflow
from nearby lakes and rivers. Although inhospitable for human life, swamps are teeming with both
animal and plant life. Certain spices and useful substances such as peat, which is used as a
fertilizer, can be found in abundance in certain swamp areas. Swampland is often drained, and
converted into grassland and plains in order to make it more useful for resource and food
production. However, environmental groups have been successful in slowing the destruction of
wetlands, and setting up sanctuaries for the wildlife that inhabits these regions.

@@Tundra

In the far-northern regions of the world, and in isolated regions in the Antarctic, there are
thousands of miles of barren plains known as tundra. These regions have an extremely low
average temperature, and a very short summer season. The primary characteristic of the tundra is
a layer of permanently frozen soil known as permafrost just below the topsoil layer, which
prevents many plants from taking root and making agriculture all but impossible. Like deserts, the
tundra receives little precipitation; however, the flat, frozen ground keeps groundwater from
draining, forming bogs where various grasses, moss, and other simple vegetation can grow.
Despite the harsh environment, a wide variety of animal life flourishes in the tundra, providing
possible sources of food, and providing trade potential for the fur and trapping industry.

;Special Resources

@@Buffalo

The plains areas of the world are inhabited by roaming herds of many different varieties of
animals. These herd animals have been hunted, both for sport and for food and pelts, throughout
history. Some of these animals can even be domesticated and used for farming and other
purposes. One of the most widespread herd animals is the buffalo, various species of which are
found throughout the world. Bison, commonly referred to as buffalo, were once the most
dominant species of the North American plains. Bison were a valuable resource to native American
tribes, who hunted the animals as a source of food and pelts. When European settlers began to
expand to the west, the bison was hunted to the brink of extinction by thrill-seekers and sports
hunters.

@@Coal

More than 300 million years ago, plant life growing in swamps began to decompose. Layers of
sand and mud covered the decomposing plants, and the decaying plants were compressed by the
combined weight of water and sediment. Over time, the plant matter hardened and became coal.
Coal deposits are mined all over the world, and coal was one of the major fuel sources in the world
through the 1970's. In many countries, concern over the environmental effects of the burning of
coal has led to a decline in its use. The smoke produced by burning coal has a high acid content,
and creates an environmental condition known as "acid rain", which is harmful to plant and animal
life. Despite the environmental concerns, some of the largest coal mines in the U.S. each still
produce more than 450,000 metric tons annually, making coal mining a very profitable industry.
@@Fish

Prevailing winds, ocean currents, and deep water trenches can often combine to produce
conditions that are optimum for fishing. In areas such as the Pacific coast of Central and South
America, offshore winds push the warm surface waters out to deeper waters. Underwater
currents push cold, nutrient-rich water from deep below the surface back toward the coast. The
high concentration of nutrients in this colder water, caused by decomposition of organic matter at
extreme depths, creates an ideal environment for fish and other sea life. Civilizations with access
to areas such as this can significantly increase their food supply by establishing a thriving fishing
industry.

@@Fruit

The tropical environments that are so conducive to the growth of jungles also provide the perfect
environment for growing certain fruits. Bananas, for example, originally native to the jungles of
Southeast Asia, are an excellent, naturally occurring food crop. Many such fruits, including the
banana, can be transplanted and grown in similar climates all over the world.

@@Furs

Throughout history, animal furs have been valuable commodities for trade and sale. Many
different types of animals including minks, rabbits, and beavers have been captured by trappers
for the purpose of obtaining their pelts for use in the making of clothing and other items. The
exploration and colonization of the New World caused the fur industry to boom by making a
variety of furs readily available. By the late 1800's, farms were set up specifically to raise animals
for the fur industry. Starting in the 1970's, environmentalists and animal rights groups have
lobbied to change public opinion concerning the harvesting and sale of furs. Despite these vocal
groups, the fur industry remains profitable, if not as wide spread, in the world today.

@@Game (Forest)

@@Pheasant

Since ancient times, hunting of game animals has been important both for survival and for sport.
Forested areas containing a large concentration of deer, elk, and smaller game were very valuable
as a source of food for nearby settlements and cities. Though the widespread practice of farming
domestic animals for food purposes has made hunting for sport much more common than hunting
for food, certain animals such as geese, ducks, and deer are still frequently hunted and killed for
food.

@@Musk Ox
Settlements in the sparse tundra regions of the arctic cannot raise crops and domestic animals for
food due to the harsh conditions. They are, therefore, much more dependent on the hunting and
trapping of local wildlife for food. The many species of birds and small game, as well as larger
animals such as elk and caribou, provide a source of food in an environment that is otherwise
barren and inhospitable.

@@Gems

Gemstones, treasured throughout time for their beauty and value, have always been a sought-
after commodity. Most gemstones, such as diamonds, are mined in various areas throughout the
world, most notably Africa. Some of the most notable gem deposits, however, have been found in
archeological digs. The ruins of ancient civilizations in the jungles of Central and South America
have sometimes been found to hide large quantities of precious and semi-precious gems, as well
as gold and other items of value. The discovery of such a site can lead to an increase in trade in the
areas surrounding the dig, as both professional and amateur treasure hunters swarm to the region
to seek their fortune.

@@Gold

Gold has always been one of the most highly valued metals in the world. It is used in the
manufacture of everything from jewelry to electronics, and has been established as the basis for
monetary systems world wide. The factor that makes gold valuable is its rarity. Although gold can
be found in many different areas, the most valuable deposits are large veins of gold ore running
through mountains. When a large deposit is found, mining the deposit greatly boosts the economy
in settlements and cities near the mine. An historical example of this phenomenon are the many
towns that grew and prospered over a relatively short time during the California gold rush in
America during the 1800's.

@@Iron

When early civilizations began to use metal to construct tools and weapons, the most commonly
used metal was bronze. Bronze had the advantage of being readily available and easy to work
with. Unfortunately, it was too soft to hold an effective edge. In the mid-14th century in central
Europe, iron replaced bronze as the metal of choice, and the Iron Age was begun. Since this time,
iron has been a valuable commodity. Deposits of iron and iron ore found in mountains are mined
and processed for use in their raw form, and in the production of steel.

@@Ivory

Ivory, the hard substance of which elephant tusks are composed, is highly sought for the carving of
ornamental objects. Most ivory is obtained from the tusks of African elephants, but other sources
include the tusks of walruses and the fossilized tusks of prehistoric elephants and mammoths
found in the northern glacial regions of the world. Although importation of ivory has been banned
in many countries due to the fact that many of the species from which it is obtained are now
endangered, the ivory trade was once a widespread and profitable venture.

@@Oasis

In rare instances, underground reservoirs or rivers beneath a desert may run near the surface,
forming a lake in the middle of an otherwise barren region of land. The presence of water allows
plants to grow, and may even attract animal life. An oasis makes it easier for human settlements
to survive in desert climates by providing rich soil for the growing of food crops. Since they are so
rare, oases are fiercely guarded by desert dwellers who are lucky enough to stumble across them.

@@Oil

Oil has been known to humans since ancient times. Oil deposits found on the surface were used
for centuries for waterproofing and fuel purposes. But it was not until the coming of the Industrial
Revolution that civilization began to form a dependence on petroleum products. The widespread
use of oil for fuel, lubrication, and other purposes led to a search for larger supplies. In the mid
1800's, the first oil wells were drilled, marking the beginning of a tremendously important and
profitable industry. Today, with the world's oil supplies dwindling and the demand for oil
constantly rising, oil is a more valuable resource than ever.

@@Peat

Some bogs and swamps contain a brown organic material known as peat. Peat is made up of
partially-decomposed plant matter, and has a high carbon content. Although dried peat is
sometimes compressed and burned as fuel, the most valuable use for peat is as a fertilizer and
mulch for farming and gardening. The high mineral content and its ability to retain moisture make
peat well-suited to this purpose.

@@Silk

Silk has been a valuable commodity for textiles since its properties were discovered in the 27th
century BC. Silk is obtained from the cocoon of the silkworm moth, which was originally native to
the forests of China. The fine fibers of the cocoon is woven into cloth, which is used to make all
types of clothing. Raw silk was obtained only from Asia until 550 AD, when two monks sent from
the Roman Empire secretly stole silkworm eggs from China and brought them to Europe.
Eventually, silkworms were found in many areas throughout the world. Less expensive synthetic
fibers of the 20th century led to a decline in the silk market, but silk is still very popular in many
types of clothing and other goods.
@@Spice

Certain types of plants have evolved in such a way that they produce mild toxins or repellents that
make their odor or flavor distasteful to animals. Oddly enough, many of these plants were sought
by humans because of these smells and tastes. A profitable spice trade was begun by merchants in
the Middle East before 2000 BC. Spices are used now, as they were in the ancient world, to
preserve food and enhance its flavor. Although spices are now commercially cultivated and
prepared, most types can still be found in abundance in nature. Many of the most popular spices,
such as cloves and nutmeg, are extracted from plants that grow in tropical or swampy regions of
the world.

@@Whales

Whaling, the hunting and killing of whales for oil and other byproducts, was practiced as an
organized industry as early as 875 AD. By the 16th century, it had risen to be the principle industry
in the coastal regions of Spain and France. The industry spread throughout the world, and became
increasingly profitable in terms of trade and resources. Some regions of the world's oceans, along
the animals' migration routes, had a particularly dense whale population, and became the targets
for large concentrations of whaling ships, and the industry continued to grow well into the 20th
century. The depletion of some whale species to near extinction led to the banning of whaling in
many countries by 1969, and to a worldwide cessation of whaling as an industry in the late 1980's.

@@Wheat

Wheat has been a staple crop for civilizations occupying temperate zones of the planet since pre-
historic times. There is archeological evidence that bread wheat was cultivated in southern
Turkestan as early as 6000 BC, though naturally occurring wheat was probably used for food
purposes much earlier. Throughout the temperate zones, wheat has become the primary food
crop. It is particularly well suited for growth in vast, open plains like those found in the central
United States.

@@Wine

Wine, a beverage made from fermented grapes, was first produced as early as 6000 BC. Its use
spread throughout the Middle East and Egypt, and it quickly became a popular beverage of the
ancient world. The grapes used for the making of wine are grown in many different regions of the
world. Most vineyards are located in hills and valleys of temperate regions. Wine making as an
industry has been perfected over several centuries. Many regions such as the Rhine and Loire
valleys of Europe are well known for their fine wines, and derive a significant portion of their
economy from wine making.

@GOVERNMENT_DESCRIPTIONS
;

;Translation Note: The text in this section comes, verbatim, from the GOVERN.PDE text file in the
;original Civilopedia. (French and German versions are .PDF and .PDG respectively.)

; The index is a mapping to the rules file. The labels to the right are the entries, IN ORDER,

; that are in the rules.txt file. The number to the left is the description below that

; corresponds to the rules entry. For example, Fundamentalism will be the 5'th (remember,

; the list is zero based) description below begining with @@.

; Only ONE entry per line, number MUST BE TERMINATED WITH A COMMA.

; The list must terminate with a -2. A -1 indicates no desription, do not list or index.

@@GOVERNMENT_INDEX

0, ; Anarchy

1, ; Despotism

5, ; Monarchy

2, ; Communism

4, ; Fundamentalism

6, ; Republic

3, ; Democracy

-2, ; MUST BE HERE! TERMINATOR!

@@Anarchy

Anarchy represents not so much a government type as the lack of any stable government. Anarchy
occurs when your civilization's government falls, or when you decide to have a Revolution. After a
few turns of Anarchy, you can rebuild a new government. Anarchy is similar to Despotism, except
that the corruption rate is VERY HIGH. However, no taxes are collected during a period of Anarchy,
and no scientific research is conducted.

@@Despotism
In a Despotism, the ruler has absolute control over his or her subjects, and this control is usually
enforced by the military. This system has a tendency to minimize individual freedom, and reduce
the efficiency of production efforts.

* Each unit above the city size costs one Shield per turn.

* Settlers eat one Food per turn.

Up to three military units in each city institute "martial law". Each of these units makes one
unhappy citizen content.

Despotism has a high rate of corruption and waste. The farther a city is from your capital, the
higher its level of corruption.

* Under a Despotism, Tax/Luxury/Science rates cannot be set higher than 60%.

* Any terrain square that ordinarily produces three or more of any resource (Food, Shields, or
Trade) produces one less.

* Because of Despotism's high rate of corruption, it is almost always an inferior form of

government. Try to switch to a Monarchy as soon as possible.

@@Communism

A Communist government is ruled by a controlling party, with a single person, known as a

chairman, acting as the head of state. In a true Communist system, all property is owned
collectively by the people, and labor is organized to be equally advantageous to all people. This
ideal has never truly been realized, however, and the "Communist" governments of the world are
usually much different.

* Each unit beyond the third unit costs one Shield per turn.

* Settlers eat one Food per turn.

Up to three military units in each city institute "martial law". Each of these units makes two
unhappy citizens content.
Under Communism, state control of the economy eliminates organized crime. Your cities,
therefore, experience no corruption.

* All Spy units produced under Communist governments are Veterans.

* Under Communism, Tax/Luxury/Science rates cannot be set higher than 80%.

* Communism is best for large, far-flung empires that need to maintain a large military.

* Use your powerful Spies to steal technology from the capitalist pigs!

@@Democracy

A Democracy is ruled by a president elected by the people. The rulings of the president are subject
to review by the Senate, a group of elected representatives who serve the best interests of the
citizens. Democracy allows its citizens a higher degree of personal freedom and involvement than
any other form of government.

* Each unit costs one shield per turn.

* Settlers eat two Food per turn.

Each unit that is not in a friendly city (or in a Fortress within three squares of a friendly city) causes
two citizens in its home city to become unhappy.

Democracies experience no corruption or waste.

* Tax/Luxury/Science rates can be set to any level desired.

* Under a Democracy, each square that ordinarily produces at least one unit of Trade produces an
extra unit of Trade.

* The units and cities of a Democracy are immune to bribery in any form.

* Your senate may force a peaceful solution in a conflict.

* Democracies can produce spectacular amounts of revenue and scientific research. However,
because of the severe happiness restrictions on military units, this form of government tends to be
viable only for large, advanced civilizations.
* Increasing your Luxury rate and building Improvements and Wonders can help alleviate
unhappiness.

@@Fundamentalism

Fundamentalism is a form of government organized around a central set of beliefs. These beliefs,
usually religious in nature, form a rigid guideline for the actions and reactions of both the ruler and
the people. In a Fundamentalist society, the people and the rulers are entirely devoted to their
beliefs, and are usually willing to die to preserve them.

* Each unit beyond the tenth unit costs one Shield per turn (except Fanatics, which never require
maintenance).

* Settlers eat two Food per turn.

Under Fundamentalism, no citizen is ever unhappy!

Fundamentalism has a very low rate of corruption.

* Under Fundamentalism, Tax/Luxury/Science rates cannot be set higher than 80%.

* Under Fundamentalism, all Science production is HALVED.

* Improvements that normally convert unhappy citizens to content citizens produce "tithes"
(money) equivalent to the number of people they would normally convert, and require no
maintenance.

* The diplomatic penalties for terrorist acts committed by Diplomats and Spies is reduced.

* Fundamentalism eliminates all happiness problems and provides excellent revenue, although
research tends to languish.

@@Monarchy

A Monarchy is ruled by a single person, known as a monarch. The monarch's rule is less absolute
than that of a despot, and he or she usually has the acceptance of at least the upper-class. The
aristocrats under this system of government have some economic freedom, allowing the
civilization to be more productive.
* Each unit beyond the third unit costs one Shield per turn.

* Settlers eat one Food per turn.

Up to three military units in each city institute "martial law". Each of these units makes one
unhappy citizen content.

Monarchy has a moderate rate of corruption and waste. The farther a city is from your capital, the
higher its level of corruption.

* Under a Monarchy, Tax/Luxury/Science rates cannot be set higher than 70%.

* Monarchy is an excellent form of government for a young civilization.

@@Republic

A Republic is an assembly of autonomous city-states under the control of a central government.

Although the central government has the ultimate say in matters that affect the society as a
whole, the city-states are given a certain amount of latitude in the governing of local affairs.
Decisions are made by the ruler, but are subject to review by a group of officials known as the
Senate.

* Each unit costs one shield per turn.

* Settlers eat two Food per turn.

Each unit beyond the first unit that is not in a friendly city (or in a Fortress within three squares of
a friendly city) causes one citizen in its home city to become unhappy.

Republics experience a low rate of corruption and waste. The farther a city is from your capital,
the higher its level of corruption.

* Under a Republic, Tax/Luxury/Science rates cannot be set higher than 80%.

* Your senate may force a peaceful solution in a conflict.

* Switching to a Republic can give an astounding boost to your Science and Luxury revenues,
although you will probably be forced to shift some Trade to Luxuries in order to prevent
unhappiness.

* Republics make it difficult and expensive to keep a sizable army in the field, but building certain
Improvements and Wonders can help to alleviate this problem.

@CONCEPT_DESCRIPTIONS

;Translation Note: The text in this section comes, verbatim, from the CONCEPT.PDE text file in the
;original Civilopedia. (French and German versions are .PDF and .PDG respectively.)

@@Disband

When a friendly unit becomes obsolete, costs too much to maintain, or causes unhappiness
among your population, you might want to eliminate the unit. To eliminate a unit, order it to
disband by holding down the shift key and pressing "D", or by selecting "Disband" from the Orders
menu. Once disbanded, the unit is permanently removed from the game.

When a unit is disbanded inside a friendly city, half of the unit's production cost in Shields is added
to the production of whatever unit, Improvement, or Wonder is currently under production in the
city.

@@Fortify

Roman legions on campaign halted their march early enough each evening to build a completely
fortified camp for the night. They had learned the value of defensive fortifications when under
attack. Where possible, it was the standard practice of most armies to build defensive works of
some type whenever expecting an attack. Fortified defenders had their fighting strength
multiplied, making it much harder to defeat them.

Ground units can be ordered to fortify by pressing the "F" key, or by selecting "Fortify" from the
Orders menu. The defensive value of fortified units is increased by 50 percent.

@@Fortress
Once your civilization has discovered Construction, Settlers and Engineers have the ability to
construct fortresses. Fortresses can be utilized to defend city perimeters and to block key points of
access from enemy armies. A properly manned fortress can provide an effective defense by
doubling the defensive strength of all units stationed within. Unlike normal combat, units stacked
within a fortress defend and are destroyed one at a time in battle, rather than being destroyed
simultaneously. Fortresses themselves do not suffer damage in the attack.

Settlers and Engineers can construct fortresses by pressing the "F" key, or choosing the Build
Fortress command from the Orders menu. Units within a fortress have their defensive strengths
doubled. Under a Republic, units stationed inside fortresses built within three squares of their
home city do not cause unhappiness.

@@Irrigation

When the early farmers moved down from the hills into the valleys of the Nile, Tigris, and
Euphrates Rivers, they had to develop the technology of irrigation. The freshwater rivers passed
through lands essentially barren due to the lack of rainfall. Through irrigation, water could be
removed from the rivers and spread on the nearby land, making it suitable for farming.

Irrigation increases Food production in Grasslands, Plains, Deserts, and Hills. Only squares
vertically or horizontally adjacent to water (Oceans or Rivers) or another irrigated square can be
irrigated. After the discovery of Refrigeration, terrain squares can be double-irrigated to create
farmland. Settlers and Engineers can be ordered to irrigate by pressing the "I" key, or by selecting
"Build Irrigation" from the Orders menu.

@@Luxuries

The provision of Luxuries for your citizens is indicated by the goblet icons in the Resource Box of
the City Display. Each two Luxuries makes one content citizen happy, or one unhappy citizen
content. The amount of Luxuries a city produces is mainly determined by the percentage of Trade
you have allocated to Luxuries. This can be adjusted using the "Change Tax Rate" command on the
Kingdom menu. A city's Luxuries can also be increased by building certain City Improvements and
Wonders of the World, and by converting citizens into Entertainers.

@@Mining

Early civilizations had little difficulty locating nearly pure deposits of useful metals, such as gold,
silver, and copper, lying exposed on the Earth's surface. As time passed, the surface deposits were
exhausted, and people began digging into the ground to look for more. Mining and excavation for
metals and other valuable materials continues today.
Mining increases the Shield production of Deserts and Mountains by one, and increases the Shield
production of Hills by 3. Settlers and Engineers can be ordered to dig mines by pressing the "M"
key, or by choosing the "Build Mine" command from the Orders menu.

@@Pillage

The terrain improvements built by other civilizations (irrigation, mines, roads, etc.) can be
destroyed by moving a unit into the improved terrain square and ordering the unit to pillage. This
reduces the production value of the land, and forces your enemy to re-develop the terrain.

Units can be ordered to pillage by holding down the shift key and pressing "P", or by choosing the
"Pillage" command from the Orders menu. The unit must be ordered to pillage once for each of
the terrain improvements you want to destroy. A fully developed terrain square (farmland with a
railroad, for example) must be pillaged four times in order to remove all improvements.

@@Pollution

Pollution is most commonly caused by the excessive production of Shields in a city; however, it
may also be caused by large city populations (after the discovery of the Automobile), nuclear
attacks, or the meltdown of a Nuclear Plant. When a city poses a potential pollution problem,
skulls on yellow triangles appear in the Information Box of the City Display. The more skulls a city
generates, the higher the city's chance of polluting a terrain square within the city radius each
turn. When world pollution reaches sufficiently critical levels, there is a chance that global
warming can occur.

Pollution can be cleaned up by moving Settlers or Engineers into the polluted square and pressing
the "P" key, or choosing the "Clean Up Pollution" command from the Orders menu. Pollution
production of cities can be reduced through the construction of certain City Improvements, or by
reducing the city's Shield production.

@@Railroads

Railroads revolutionized transportation by providing a relatively cheap and fast method of moving
people, raw materials, finished goods, and troops over great distances. Not only did they support
and encourage industrial growth by dramatically reducing transport time and costs, they also
spurred technological research. Railroads were among the first great industrial corporations.
Railroads can be built by Settlers and Engineers after the discovery of the Railroad. They are
constructed by moving onto terrain containing a road, and pressing the "R" key, or by selecting the
"Build Railroad" command from the Orders menu. Units moving along a railroad expend no
movement points. Railroads increase Shield and Trade production by 50 percent (rounded down).

@@Roads

A network of good quality roads improves travel between cities. Roads were important to ancient
civilizations for trade and the movement of troops. As technology grew, roads were improved.
Modern, paved roads are passable in almost any type of weather, and can be traversed much
more quickly than dirt roads.

Roads can be built by Settlers and Engineers by pressing the "R" key, or by selecting the "Build
Road" command from the Orders menu. Roads can be built in any terrain except Oceans; however,
they cannot be built in a River square until the discovery of Bridge Building. Units moving along
roads expend only one third of a movement point per square, regardless of terrain type. Roads
also increase the amount of Trade produced by Deserts, Plains, and Grasslands.

@@Science

The amount of scientific research contributed by a city is indicated by the beaker icons shown in
the Resource Chart of the City Display. At the start of each turn, the science output of each city is
added to the research project currently in progress, eventually resulting in the discovery of a new
Civilization Advance. The more beakers each city produces, the faster new Advances are
discovered. The amount of science produced by your civilization is primarily determined by the
amount of incoming Trade you have allocated to science. This percentage can be adjusted by
selecting the "Change Tax Rate" command on the Kingdom menu.

The science output of individual cities and your civilization as a whole can also be increased by
building certain City Improvements and Wonders of the World, or by converting citizens into
Scientists.

@@Sentry

Units ordered to go on sentry duty appear as gray silhouettes. These units are removed from the
movement queue, and remain on sentry duty until another unit moves into their sight range or
until they are manually reactivated. Units on sentry duty inside a city are automatically loaded
onto ships (up to the ship's unit carrying capacity) when the ship leaves the city.
Units are placed on sentry duty by pressing the "S" key, or by choosing the "Sentry" option on the
Orders menu. Damaged units placed on sentry inside a city become active when they have been
completely repaired.

@@Shields

The production of raw materials by your cities is represented by shield icons. Thus, raw materials
are commonly referred to as "Shields". The number of Shields produced by each city is displayed in
the Resource Chart of the City Display. Shields are used to support units. Each unit might,
depending on government type and other circumstances, require that its home city expend one
Shield per turn to support the unit. Excess Shields not used to support units are used for the
production of City Improvements, Wonders of the World, and new units.

Shield production largely depends on the type of terrain surrounding the city. In most
circumstances, Shield production of a city can be increased through the construction of certain
Improvements and Wonders. The construction of mines also improves Shield production in certain
types of terrain.

@@Specialists

The citizen icons displayed in the Population Roster of the City Display represent the city's work
force. Each citizen added to the roster is automatically put to work developing one of the terrain
squares within the city radius. In certain situations it may become necessary to remove a citizen
from terrain production in order to perform a specific task. Citizens so removed are called
specialists. There are three types of specialist, each of which increases one of the three
components of Trade produced by a city. Entertainers increase Luxuries, Tax Men increase Taxes,
and Scientists increase Science production.

To create a specialist, click on any production square in the City Map. The production icons
disappear from the square, and an Entertainer appears in the Population Roster. To create a Tax
Man, click the Entertainer icon once. To create a Scientist, first create a Tax Man, then click the Tax
Man icon once. Cities must be size five or larger to support Tax Men and Scientists.

@@Taxes

The Taxes collected by a city are indicated by gold coin icons in the Resource Chart of the City
Display. Taxes are used primarily to pay the maintenance cost of City Improvements each turn.
Any tax revenues not used for maintenance of Improvements are added to your treasury. The
amount of Taxes generated by the city is primarily determined by the amount of incoming Trade
you have allocated to Taxes. This can be adjusted by selecting the "Change Tax Rate" option from
the Kingdom menu.

Tax revenues can also be increased through the construction of certain City Improvements and
Wonders of the World, or by converting citizens into Tax Men.

@@Trade

Trade represents more than just the exchange of goods and cash between cities and civilizations.
Trade also represents the exchange of knowledge and ideas, and the recreational travel and
activities of the citizens of your civilization. The total amount of Trade produced by each city is
represented by double-arrow icons displayed in the Resource Chart of the City Display. Trade is
then broken down into three separate components: Taxes, Luxuries, and Science. The amount of
Trade allocated to each of these areas is controlled by selecting the "Change Tax Rate" option on
the Kingdom menu.

Trade can be increased through the construction of certain City Improvements and Wonders of
the World. It can also be increased through terrain improvements, and through the establishment
of trade routes.

@@Trade Routes

Trade routes are established by moving a Caravan or Freight unit into a city at least ten squares
from the unit's home city. You receive an immediate cash payment on the turn that the route is
established. On each ensuing turn, each city receives a Trade bonus for as long as the trade route
exists. The farther apart the two cities are, the more valuable the trade route. Trade routes
established with cities of a rival civilization tend to be more profitable than those established
between friendly cities. Each city may have up to three active trade routes at any time.

When using the Advanced Trade rules, the value of a trade route is also affected by the type of
goods traded. When trading a commodity that is demanded by the destination city, the trade
route is much more profitable.

@@Veteran Units

During the American Civil War, soldiers who had never been in battle were said to have "seen the
elephant" after being under fire for the first time. Afterward, they were considered veterans.
History shows that well-trained, veteran soldiers are much more likely to survive a battle than
inexperienced troops.
Units have a 50 percent chance of becoming Veterans each time they survive a combat encounter.
Cities with a Barracks Improvement automatically produce Veteran units, as do all cities under the
influence of the Sun Tzu's War Academy Wonder. The attack and defense factors of Veteran units
is increased by 50 percent.

@@Corruption and Waste

As your civilization grows, you might notice that some of your cities are losing some of their Trade
and Shields to corruption and waste. Corruption is Trade income that is lost to theft,
embezzlement, and other illegal practices. Waste is Shield production that is lost to inefficiency.
The farther a city is from your capital, the more corruption and waste it experiences. The amount
of corruption and waste is also affected by the system of government you are using.

Corruption and waste, if left unchecked, can significantly slow the development of your
civilization. Both corruption and waste can be reduced by 50 percent by building a Courthouse in
the city experiencing the problem. The best solution, however, is to switch your system of
government to a more advanced form. The more advanced the government, the less corruption
and waste you experience. Communism and Democracy alleviate this problem altogether.

@@Unhappiness Due to Civ Size

Once you have built a certain number of cities, your citizens start to worry about your ability to
effectively govern your civilization. When this occurs, additional unhappy citizens appear in each
city.

The number of cities you can build before causing additional unhappiness is based on a number of
factors, including game difficulty level and government type. The number of cities is higher for
more advanced governments and lower levels of difficulty.

@@Combat Damage

It is now possible for units to be damaged as a result of combat. In each successful attack, a unit
inflicts an amount of damage equal to its Firepower rating. The amount of damage a unit can
sustain before it is destroyed is determined by multiplying the unit's Hit Point rating by ten.

The approximate amount of damage a unit has sustained can be determined by the length and
color of the unit's damage bar (the colored bar at the top of the unit's shield symbol). A green bar
indicates that the unit has lost from 0 to 33 percent of its Hit Points, a yellow bar shows that the
unit has lost from 34 to 66 percent, and a red bar indicates that it has lost 67 percent or more.

Damage also affects the movement of a unit. The percentage of movement lost is equivalent to
the percentage of Hit Points lost. Sea units can never have their movement reduced below two.
The movement of air units is not affected by damage.

@@Transforming Terrain

In addition to the changes to Terrain that can be made through irrigation and mining, Engineers
are able to transform map squares into a radically different Terrain types by using the "Transform"
command on the Orders menu. Terrain transformation is particularly useful if the Terrain
surrounding a city doesn't produce sufficient resources.

See the Civilopedia entries for each Terrain type for the results of Engineer transformation.

@@Airbases

After the discovery of Radio, your Settlers and Engineers have the ability to construct Airbases.
Airbases act as remote refueling stations for Fighters, Bombers, Stealth Fighters, and Stealth
Bombers. Strategically placed Airbases effectively extend the range of these units, allowing them
to operate farther from friendly cities and Carriers.

To build an Airbase, chose the "Airbase" command from the Orders menu, or press the "e" key.

@@Airlift

After the discovery of Combined Arms, you have the ability to perform Airlift operations between
your cities. Airlifting allows you to move units instantly over great distances. In order to Airlift a
unit between two cities, both cities must have an Airport.

To Airlift a unit, move the unit into a city with an Airport and choose "Airlift" from the Orders
menu, or press the "l" key. A menu of possible destinations appears. Choose the destination city
from the menu, and the unit is instantly transported to that city. The unit becomes available for
use on the following turn.

@@City Squares
;Translation Note: This refers to the map squares occupied by cities, not "Town Squares".

The resources utilized by a city are not only generated in the squares surrounding the city: they
are also generated by the city square itself. The city square generates all the resources normally
produced by the Terrain type on which the city is built. In addition, the Terrain square occupied by
the city is improved to the maximum extent possible. The city square automatically contains a
road, which is upgraded to a railroad when the Railroad Advance is discovered. The city square is
also automatically irrigated or mined, depending on the type of terrain. Finally, if the city is built
on Terrain that normally produces no Shields, one Shield is automatically added to the other
resources generated in the city square. These enhancements ensure that the city square produces
the maximum amount of resources possible.

@This must be here to terminate search!!!