Chapter 2 Dynamic Force Analysis

2.0 Introduction
2.1 Newtonion Solution Method
2.2 Single Link in Pure Rotation
2.3 Force Analysis of a Threebar Crank Slide Linkage
2.4 Force Analysis of a Fourbar Linkage
2.5 Force Analysis of a Fourbar Slider-Crank Linkage
2.6 Shaking forces and Shaking Torque
2.7 Linkage Force Analysis by Energy Method
2.8 Control Input Torque Flywheels

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2.0 Introduction

When kinematic synthesis and analysis have been used to define a

geometry and set of motions for a particular design task, it is logical and
convenient to then use a kinetostatic / inverse dynamics solution to
determine the forces and torques in the system.

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2.1 Newtonion Solution Method

Dynamic force analysis can be done by several methods. The one

gives the most info about internal to the mechanism requires only the
use of Newtons law. These can be written as a summation of all
forces and torques in the system.
F ma T IG - equation 2.1(a)

Fx max Fy may T IG - equation 2.1(b)

Could be separate into x and y direction.

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 Consider the single link in pure rotation shown in figure below. In any of
these kinetostatic dynamic force analysis problems, the kinematics of the
problem must first be fully defined. That is, the angular accelerations of
all rotating members and the linear accelerations of the CGs of all
moving members must be found for all positions of interest. The mass of
each member and the mass moment of inertia IG with respect to each

Rotation
2.2 Single Link in Pure
members CG must also be known. In addition there may be external
forces or torques applied to any member of the system.

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2.2 Single Link in Pure Rotation

While this analysis can in many ways, we stick to a particular

arrangement of coordinate systems for consistency. The vectors which
are acting on the dynamic system in any loading situation are the same at
a particular time regardless of how we may decide to resolve them.
We setup a nonrotating, local coordinate system on each moving
member, located at its CG. All externally applied forces, whether due to
other connected members or to other systems must then have their points
of application located in this local coordinate systems, as shows Figure
11-1b (a FBD of the moving link 2). The pin joint at O2 on link 2 has a
force F12 due to the mating link 1, the x and y components of which are
F12x and F12y (subscripts force of link 1 or link 2 in x or y direction).
There is also an externally applied force FP shown at point P, with
components FPx and FPy. Point of forces exerted are defined by position
vectors R12 and RP, respectively.

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2.2 Single Link in Pure Rotation

These are defined with respect to the local coordinate system at the
CG of the member need to resolve into x and y component. There
will have to be a source torque available on the link to drive it at the
kinematically defined accelerations unknown. The source torque is
the torque delivered from the ground to the driver link 2 and so is
labeled T12. The other 2 unknowns are force components are pin joint
F12x and F12y.
F FP F12 m2a G
T T12 (R12 F12 ) (R P FP ) I G

We have 3 unknown and 3 equation could be solved.

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 2.2 Single Link in Pure Rotation
The force equation can be broken into 2 components. When cross product are expanded:
FPx F12 x m2a Gx
FPy F12 y m2a Gy
T12 (R12 x F12 y - R12 y F12 x ) (R Px FPy - R Py FPx ) I G

This can be put in matrix form with coefficients of the known variables forming the A matrix, the
unknown variables the B vector, and constant terms the C vector and solved for B.
A B C
1 0 0 F12 x m2a Gx FPx
- equation 2.2(a)

0 1 0 F12 y m2a Gy FPy
- R
12 y R12 x 1 T12 I G (R Px FPy - R Py FPx )

Note: matrix A - all geometric information, matrix C - all dynamic information and matrix B all
the unknown forces and torques.

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The 250 mm long link shown weights 2kg. Its CG is on the line of centers
at the 125 mm point. Its mass moment of inertia about its CG is 0.011
kgm2. Its kinematic data are:
2 deg 2 rad/sec 2 rad/sec2 aG2 m/sec2
30 20 15 50@208o

Example 2.2
An external force of 200 N at 0o is applied at point P.
Find the force F12 at pin joint O2 and the driving torque T12 needed to
maintain motion with the given acceleration for this instantaneous position
of the link.

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1. Convert the given weight to proper mass units, in this case:
mass = 2kg
1. Set up a local coordinate system at the CG of the link and draw all
applicable vectors acting on the system as shown in the figure.
Draw a FBD as shown.

Solution 2.2
2. Calculate the x and y components of the position vectors R12 and
Rp in this coordinate system.

R12 = 0.125@210 o R12x = -0.1083 R12y = -0.0625

R P = 0.125@30o R Px = +0.1083 R Py = +0.0625
1. Calculate the x and y components of the acceleration of the CG in
this coordinate system:

a G = 50@208o a Gx = -44.147 a Gy = -23.474

2. Calculate the x and y components of the external force at P in this

coordinate system:
FP = 200@0o FPx = 200 FPy = 0
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6. Substitute these given and calculated values into the matrix
equation 2.2(a).

1 0 0 F12x (2)(-44.147) - 200

0 1 0

F12y = (2)(-23.474) - 0

0.0625 - 0.1083 1 T (0.011)(15) - {(0.1083)(0) - (0.0625)(200)}

Solution 2.2
12

7. Solve this system either by inverting matrix A and

premultiplying that inverse times matrix C using a pocket
calculator with matrix capability, with Mathcad, Matlab, or by
putting the values for matrix A and C into program MATRIX
provided.
Program MATRIX gives the following solution:
F12x = -288.294N F12y = -46.948N T12 = 25.491Nm

Converting the force to polar coordinates:

F12 = 292.09N@-170.75o

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2.3 Analysis of a Threebar Crank Slide
Linkage

When there is more than 1 link in the assembly, the solution simply
requires that the 3 equation 2.1(a) be written for each link and then
solved simultaneously. Figure 11.2 shows a threebar crank slide linkage.
This has been simplified from the fourbar slider crank (see Figure 11.4)
by replacing the kinematically redundant slider block (link 4) with a half
joint as shown. This linkage transformation reduces the number of links
to three with no change in degree of freedom. Only links 2 and 3 are
moving. Link 1 is ground. Thus we should expect to have 6 equations in
6 unknowns (3 per moving link).

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2.3 Analysis of a Threebar

Crank Slide Linkage
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2.3 Analysis of a Threebar

Crank Slide Linkage
2.3 Analysis of a Threebar Crank Slide
Linkage

Figure 11-2b shows the linkage exploded into its 3 separate links, drawn as free
bodies. A kinematic analysis must have been done in advance of this dynamic
force analysis in order to determine, for each moving link, its angular acceleration
and the linear acceleration of its CG. For the kinematic analysis, only the link
lengths from pin to pin were required. CG, IG about CG are needed for dynamic
analysis.
Initially CG of each link is defined by a position vector rooted at one pin joint
whose angle is measured with respect to the line of centers of the link in the local,
rotating coordinate system (LRCS) x, y.
We will need to define the links dynamic parameters and force locations with
respect to a local, nonrotating coordinate system (LNCS) x, y located at its CG
and which is always parallel to the global coordinate system (GCS) XY. The
position vector locations of all attachment points of other links and points of
application of external forces must be defined with respect to the links LNCS.

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2.3 Analysis of a Threebar Crank Slide
Linkage

These kinematic and applied force data must be available for all
positions of the linkage for which a force analysis is desired. In the
following discussion and examples, only 1 linkages position will be
addressed. The process is identical for each succeeding position and only
the calculations must be repeated.
Link 2 in figure 11-2b shows forces acting on it at each pin joint,
designated F12 and F32 F12: force of 1 on 2, F32: force of 3 on 2.
Obvious there is also an equal and opposite force F21 and F23,
respectively.
When we move to link 3, we maintain the same convention of showing
forces acting on the link in its free body diagram. Thus at instant center
I23 we show F23 acting on link 3.

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 The naming convention used for the position vectors (Rap) which
locate the pin joints with respect to the CG in the links
nonrotating local coordinate system is as follows.

Crank Slide Linkage

2.3 Analysis of a Threebar
1st subscript (a): The adjoining link to which the position vector points.
2nd subscript (p): The parent link to which the position vector belongs.

Any external forces acting on the links are located in similar

fashion with position vector.
Equation 2.1 are now written for each moving link. For link 2,
with the cross products expanded:

F12 x F32 x m2a G 2 x

F12 y F32 y m2a G 2 y - equation 2.3(a)
T12 (R12 x F12 y - R12 y F12 x ) (R32 x F32 y - R 32 y F32 x ) I G 2 2

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 2.3 Analysis of a Threebar Crank Slide
Linkage
For link 3, with the cross products expanded, note the substitution of the
reaction force F32 for F23:
That T12 the source torque only appears in equation for link 2 as that is the
driver crank to which the motor is attached.
Link 3 no externally applied torque but does have an external force Fp which
might be due to whatever link 3 is pushing on to do its external work.

F13 x F32x FPx m3a G 3 x

F13 y - F32 y FPy m3a G 3 y - equation 2.3(b)
(R13x F13y - R 13y F13x ) (R 23 x F32 y - R 23 y F32 x ) (R Px FPy - R Py FPx ) I G 3 3

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There are 7 unknowns F12x, F12y, F32x, F32y, F13x, F13y and T12. But,
F13y is due only to friction at the joint between link 3 and link 1. We
can write a relation of the friction force at that surface: f = N. The
friction force opposes motion.
Thus for linkage positions with nonzero velocity,

Crank Slide Linkage

2.3 Analysis of a Threebar
F13y = F13x
where F13y opposite of the sign of the velocity at that point. Thus
we left with 6 unknowns and can solve them simultaneously. We also
rearrange equation 2.3(a) and 2.3(b) to put all known terms on the
right side.
F12 x F32 x m2a G 2 x
F12 y F32 y m2a G 2 y
T12 R12 x F12 y - R12 y F12 x R 32 x F32 y - R 32 y F32 x I G 2 2

F13 x F32 x m3a G 3 x FPx

F13 x F32 y m3a G 3 y FPy
( R13 x - R13 y )F13 x R 23 x F32 y - R 23 y F32 x I G 3 3 R PxFPy R PyFPx

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2.3 Analysis of a Threebar Crank Slide
Linkage

Putting these 6 equations in matrix:

1 0 1 0 0 0 F12 x m2a Gx

0 1 0 1 0 0 F12 y m2a Gy
R12 y R12 x R 32 y R 32 x 0 1 F32 x I G 2 2

0 0 1 0 1 0 F32 y m a
3 G3x FPx

0 0 0 1 0 F13 x m3a G 3 y FPy
0
0 R 23 y R 23 x (R 13 x R13 y ) 0 T12 I G 3 3 R Px FPy R Py FPx

This system can be solved by using Program MATRIX or any other matrix
solving calculator.

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 Example 2.3
Dynamic Force Analysis of a Three Crank-Slide Linkage with Half Joint (see
figure 11-2).
The 127-mm long crank (link 2) shown mass 0.9072 kg. Its CG is at 76.2 mm and
30o from the line of centers. Its mass moment of inertia about its CG is 0.0056 kgm2.
Its acceleration is defined in its LNCS, x, y. Its kinematic data are:
2 deg 2 rad/sec 2 rad/sec2 aG2 m/s2
60 30 -10 68.584@-89.4o

The coupler (link 3) is 381 mm long and masses 1.8144 kg. Its CG is at 228.6 mm
and 45o from the line of centers. Its mass moment of inertia about its CG is 0.0113
kgm2. Its acceleration is defined in its LNCS x, y. Its kinematic data are:
3 deg 3 rad/sec 3 rad/sec2 aG3 m/s2
99.59 -8.78 -136.16 87.715@254.5o

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Example 2.3

The sliding joint on link 3 has a velocity of 2.462 m/s in the +Y

direction.

There is an external force of 222.41 N at -45o, applied at point P which is

located at 68.6 mm and 201o from the CG of link 3, measured in the
links embedded, rotating coordinate system or LRCS x, y (original at
A and x axis from A to B). The coefficient of friction is 0.2.

FIND: The forces F12, F32, F13 at the joints and the driving torque T12
needed to maintain motion with the given acceleration for this
instantaneous position of the link.

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2.4 Force Analysis of a Fourbar
Linkage

Figure 11-3a shows a fourbar linkage. All dimensions of link lengths, link positions,
locations of the links CGs, linear accelerations of those CGs, and link angular
accelerations and velocities have been previously determine from a kinematic
analysis.
We now find forces acting at all pin joints of the linkage and the procedure is exactly
the same as previous 3 examples.
This linkage has three moving links. From Equation 2.1, we should expect to have 9
equation for this problem.
Figure 11-3b shows the FBG for all links, with all forces shown. Note that an external
force Fp is shown acting on link 3 at point P. Also an external torque T4 is shown
acting on link 4. These external loads are due to some other mechanism (device,
person, thing, etc) pushing or twisting against the motion of the linkage. Any link can
have any number of external loads and torques acting on it. Only 1 external torque
and 1 external force are shown here for example.

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2.4 Force Analysis of

a Fourbar Linkage
2.4 Force Analysis of a Fourbar
Linkage

To solve for the pin forces it is necessary that these applied external forces and
torques be defined for all positions of interested. We will solve for 1 member of
the pair of action-reaction forces at each joint, and also for the driving T12 needed
to be supplied at link 2 in order to maintain kinematic state.
The linkage kinematic parameters are defined with respect to global XY system
(GCS) whose origin is at the driver pivot O2 and whose X axis goes thru link 4s
fixed pivot O4. The CG is initially defined within eachlink to LRCS embedded in
the link. The origin of this x, y axis system is at 1 pin joint and the x axis is the
line of centers of the link. The instantaneous location of the CG can easily be
determined for each dynamic link position by additing the angle of the internal
CG position vector to the current GCS angle of the link.
We need to define each links dynamic parameters and force locations with
respect to a local, moving, but nonrotating axis system (LNCS) x,y located at its
CG shown FBG at figure 11-3b. The position vector locations of all attachment
points of other links and points of application of external forces defined to LNCS.

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 2.4 Force Analysis of a Fourbar
Linkage
Equation 2.1 are now written for each moving link. For link 2, the result is
same as equation 2.3(a).
F12 x F32 x m2a G 2 x
F12 y F32 y m2a G 2 y
T12 (R12 x F12 y - R12 y F12 x ) (R32 x F32 y - R 32 y F32 x ) I G 2 2

F43 x F32 x FPx m3a G 3 x

F43 y F32 y FPy m3a G 3 y
(R 43 x F43 y - R 43 y F43 x ) (R 23 x F32 y - R 23 y F32 x ) (R Px FPy - R Py FPx ) I G 3 3

For link 3, with substation of the reaction force F32 for F23, the result is
similar to eqn. 2.3(b) with some subscript changes for reflect the presence of
link 4.
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 2.4 Force Analysis of a Fourbar
Linkage
For link 4 substituting the reaction force F43 for F34, a similar set of equation 2.1 can be
written:
F14 x F43 x m4a G 4 x
F14 y F43 y m4a G 4 y
(R14x F14 y - R 14 y F14x ) (R 34 x F43 y - R 34 y F43 x ) T4 I G 4 4

Note:
T12, the source torque, only appears in the eqn for link 2 as that is the driver crank to which
the motor is attached.
Link 3 has no externally applied torque but have Fp.
Link 4 no external force but have T4.
There are 9 unknown and 9 equations.
F12x, F12y, F32x, F32y, F43x, F43y, F14x, F14y and T12.

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 2.4 Force Analysis of a Fourbar
Linkage

1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 F12x m2 a G 2 x

0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 F12 y m2 a G 2 y
- R 12 y R 12x - R 32 y R 32x 0 0 0 0 1 F32 x I G 2

0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 F32 y m3a G 3 x FPx
0
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 F43 x m3a G 3 y FPy

0 0 R 23 y R 23 x - R 43 y R 43 x 0 0 0 F43 y I G 3 3 R Px FPy R Py FPx

0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 F14 x m4 a G 4 x
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
0 F14 y m4 a G 4 y

0 0 0 0 R 34 y R 34x - R 14 y R 14x
0 T12 I T
G4 4 4

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Example 2.4

Dynamic Force Analysis of a Fourbar Linkage (see figure 11-3).

The 127 mm long crank (link 2) shown mass of 0.68 kg. Its CG is at 76.2 mm @+30o
from the line of centers (LRCS). Its mass moment of inertia about its CG is 0.006
kgm2. Its kinematic data are:

2 deg 2 rad/sec 2 rad/sec2 aG2 m/s2

60 25 -40 47.722 @-86.34o

The coupler (link 3) is 381 mm long and mass 3.493 kg. Its CG is at 228.6 mm @45o
off the line of center (LRCS). Its IGG is 0.011 kgm2. Kinematic data are:

3 deg 3 rad/sec 3 rad/sec2 aG3 m/s2

20.92 -5.877 120.609 92.602@226.51o

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Example 2.4

The ground link is 482.6 mm long. The rocker (link 4) is 254 mm long and mass
2.631 kg. Its CG is at 127 mm @0o on the line of center (LRCS). Its mass moment of
inertia about its CG is 0.090 kgm2. There is an external torque on link 4 of 13.558
Nm (GCS). An external force of 355.84 N @330o acts on link 3 in GCS, applied at
point P at 76.2 mm @100o from the CG of link 3 (LRCS). The kinematic data:

4 deg 4 rad/sec 4 rad/sec2 aG4 m/s2

104.41 7.933 276.29 35.987@207.24o

Find:
Forces F12, F32, F43, F14 at the joints and the driving torque T12 needed to maintain
motion with the given acceleration for this instantaneous position of the link.

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 2.5 Analysis of a Fourbar Slider-Crank
Linkage
Approach taken for the pin-jointed fourbar is equally valid for a fourbar slider-crank linkage.
The principal difference will be that the slider block will have no angular acceleration. Figure
11-4 shows a fourbar slider-crank with an external force on the slider block, link 4.
This is representative of the mechanism used extensively in piston pumps and internal
combustion engines. We wish to determine the forces at the joints and the driving torque
needed on the crank to provide the specified accelerations. A kinematic analysis must have
previously been done in order to determine all position, velocity and acceleration information
for the positions being analyzed. Equation 2.1are written for each link.
For link 2:

F12 x F32 x m2a G 2 x

F12 y F32 y m2a G 2 y
T12 (R12 x F12 y - R12 y F12 x ) (R32 x F32 y - R 32 y F32 x ) I G 2 2

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For Link 3:
F43 x F32 x m3a G 3 x
F43 y F32 y m3a G 3 y
(R 43 x F43 y - R 43 y F43 x ) (R 23 x F32 y - R 23 y F32 x ) I G 3 3

Slider-Crank Linkage
2.5 Analysis of a Fourbar
For link 4:
F14 x F43 x FPx m4 a G 4 x
F14 y F43 y FPy m4 a G 4 y
(R14 x F14 y - R 14 y F14 x ) (R 34 x F43 y - R 34 y F43 x ) (R Px FPy - R Py FPx ) I G 4 4

4 0 a G4 y 0

These contain the external force Fp shown acting on link 4.

For the inversion of the slider-crank shown, the slider block, or piston, is in pure
translation against the stationary ground plane; thus it can have no angular
acceleration or angular velocity. Also, the position vectors in the torque equation
for link 4 are all zero as the force Fp acts at the CG. Thus the torque equation for
link 4 is zero for this inversion of the slider-crank linkage. Its linear acceleration
also has no y component.

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2.5 Analysis of a Fourbar

Slider-Crank Linkage
 2.5 Analysis of a Fourbar Slider-Crank
Linkage
The only x directed force that can existed at the interface between links 4 and 1 is friction. Assume
coulomb friction, the x component can be expressed in terms of the y component of force at this
interface. We can write a relation for the friction force f at that interface such as f=N.

Where +and on the coefficient of friction are to recognize the fact that the friction force always
opposes motion.

F14 x F14 y
Subsituting,

F14 y F43 x FPx m4 a G 4 x

F14 y F43 y FPy 0
This last substitution has reduced the unknowns to 8
And we needed only 8 equations. We can now use the 8 equation to assemble the matrices for
solution.

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 2.5 Analysis of a Fourbar Slider-Crank
Linkage

1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 F12x m2 a G 2 x
0
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 F12 y m2 a G 2 y
- R 12 y R 12x - R 32 y R 32x 0 0 0 1 F32 x I G 2

0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 32 y 3 G 3 x
F m a

0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 F43 x m3a G 3 y

0 0 R 23 y R 23 x - R 43 y R 43 x 0 0 F43 y I G 3 3

0 0 0 0 1 0 0 F14 y m4 a G 4 x FPx
0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 T12 FPy

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2.6 Shaking Forces and Shaking
Torque

Net effect of the dynamic forces as felt on the ground plane as this can
setup vibrations in the structure that supports the machine.

Previous eg. 3 & 4 bar linkages, only 2 points at which the dynamic
forces can be delivered to link 1, the ground plane.

More complicated mechanisms will have more joints with the ground
plane.

The forces delivered by the moving links to the ground at the fixed
pivots O2 and O4 are designated F21 and F41 by our subscript convention.

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At Chapter 1, method of virtual work was presented.
We will use here as a check for the Newtonian method.
Velocity data were not needed for the Newtonian solution but are
for the virtual work approach and are detailed below.

by Energy Method
2.7 Linkage Force Analysis
n n n n
Fk v k Tk k mk a k v k I k k k
k 2 k 2 k 2 k 2

Expanding the summations, still in vector form:

(FP3 v P3 FP 4 v P 4 ) (T12 2 T3 3 T4 4 )
(m2 a G 2 v G 2 m3a G 3 v G 3 m4 a G 4 v G 4 )
( I G 2 2 2 I G 3 3 3 I G 4 4 4 )

Expanding the dot products to create a scalar equation:

(FP3 x v P3 x FP3 y v P3 y ) (FP 4 x v P 4 x FP 4 y v P 4 y ) (T12 2 T33 T4 4 )
m2 (a G 2 x v G 2 x a G 2 y v G 2 y ) m3 (a G 3 x v G 3 x a G 3 y v G 3 y )
m4 (a G 4 x v G 4 x a G 4 y v G 4 y ) ( I G 2 2 2 I G 3 33 I G 4 4 4 )

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 Example 2.7
Analysis of a Fourbar Linkage by the Method of Virtual Work.
The 127 mm long crank (link 2) shown mass 0.680 kg. Its CG is a 76.2 mm at +30o
from the line of centers. Its mass moment of inertia about its CG is 0.006 kgm2. its
kinematic data are:

2 deg 2 rad/sec 2 rad/sec2 VG2 m/s

60 25 -40 1.905@180o

The coupler (link 3) is 381 mm long and mass 3.493 kg. Its CG is at 228.6 mm at
45o off the line of centers. Its mass moment of inertia about its CG is 0.011 kgm2.
Its kinematic data are:

3 deg 3 rad/sec 3 rad/sec2 VG3 m/s

20.92 -5.877 120.9 1.846@145.7o

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 Example 2.7
There is an external force on link 3 of 355.84 N at 330o, applied at point P which is located
76.2 mm @ 100o from the CG of link 3. The linear velocity of that point is 1.648 m/s at
132.71o
The rocker (link 4) is 254 mm long and mass 2.631 kg. Its CG is at 127 mm at 0o off the line
of centers. Its mass moment of inertia about is CG is 0.090 kgm2. Its kinematic data are:

4 deg 4 rad/sec 4 rad/sec2 VG4 m/s

104.41 7.933 276.29 1.007@194.41o

There is an external torque on link 4 of 13.558 Nm. The ground link is 482.6 mmlong.
Find:
The driving torque T12 needed to maintain motion with the given acceleration for this
instantaneous position of the link.

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 Solution 2.7
1. The torque, angular velocity, and angular acceleration vectors in this 2-dimensional
problem are all directed along the Z axis, so their dot products each have only 1
term. Note that in this particular example there is no force FP4 and no torque T3.
2. The Cartesian coordinates of the acceleration data were calculated in Example 2.4.
a G2 = 47.722@ -86.34 o a G 2x = 3.048 a G 2y = -47.625
a G3 = 92.602@226.55o a G3x = -63.680 a G3y = -67.231
a G4 = 36.004@207.24 o a G 4x = -31.988 a G 4y = -16.524
3. There x and y components of the external force at P in the global coordinate system
were also calculated in Example 2.4.
FP3 = 355.86@330o FP3x = 308.184 FP3y = -177.930

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4. Converting the velocity data for this example to Cartesian
coordinates.
VG2 = 1.905@ 180 o VG 2x = -1.905 VG 2y = 0
VG3 = 1.844@145.70 o VG3x = -1.523 VG3y = 1.039
VG4 = 1.007@194.50 o VG 4x = -0.975 VG 4y = -0.252

Solution 2.7
VP3 = 1.648@132.71o VP3x = -1.118 VP3y = 1.211
5. Substituting the example data into equation:
[(308.184)(-1.118) + (-177.930)(1.211)]+[0]+[25T12 + (0) + (13.558)(7.933)] =
0.068[(3.048)(-1.905) + (-47.625)(0)]+ 3.493[(-63.680)(-1.523) + (-67.231)(1.039)]
+ 2.631[(-31.988)(-0.975) + (-16.524)(-0.252)]
+[(0.006)(-40)(25) + (0.011)(120.9)(-5.877) + (0.09)(276.29)(7.933)]

6. The only unknown in this equation is the input torque T12 which
calculates to:
T12 = 33 k

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2.8 Control Input Torque Flywheels

The typical large variation in accelerations within a mechanism can

cause significant oscillations in the torque required to drive it at a
constant or near constant speed. The peak torques needed may be so
high as to require an overly large motor to deliver them.

Average torque over the cycle, due mainly to losses and external work
done, may often be much smaller than the peak torque.
How to smooth out these oscillations in torque during the cycle.
Convenient and relatively inexpensive FLYWHEEL

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 2.8 Control Input Torque Flywheels
TORQUE VARIATION
Figure 11-8 shows the variation in the input torque for a crank-rocker fourbar linkage over one
full revolution of the drive crank. It is running at a constant angular velocity of 50 rad/s. The
torque varies a great deal within on cycle of the mechanism, going from a positive peak of 38.9
Nm to a negative peak of -18.9 Nm. The average value of this torque over the cycle is only
8.0 Nm, being due to the external work done plus losses. This linkage has only a 54 N external
force applied to link 3 at the CG and a 2.8 Nm external torque applied to link 4. These small
external loads cannot account for the large variation in input torque required to maintain
constant crank speed.

What is the explanation?

The large variations in torque are evidence of the kinetic energy that is stored in the links as
they move. We can think of the positive pulses of torque as representing energy delivered by
the driver (motor) and stored temporarily in the moving links, and the negative pulses of torque
as energy attempting to return from the links to the driver.

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43

2.8 Control Input

Torque Flywheels
Figure 11-9 shows the speed torque characteristic of a permanent
magnet (PM) DC electric motor. Other types of motors will have
differently shaped functions that relate motor speed to torque as
shown in Figure 2-41 and 2-42, but all drivers (sources) will have
some such characteristic curve. As the torque demands on the motor

Torque Flywheels
2.8 Control Input
change, the motors speed must also change according to its
inherent characteristic. This means that the torque curve being
demanded in Figure 11-8 will be very difficult for a standard motor
to deliver without drastic changes in its speed.

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The computation of the torque curve in Figure 11-8 was made on the
assumption that the crank (thus the motor) speed was a constant value. All
the kinematic data used in the force and torque calculation was generated
on that basis. With the torque variation shown we would have to use a
large-hp motor to provide the power required to reach that peak torque at

Torque Flywheels
2.8 Control Input
the design speed:

Power = torque x angular velocity

Peak Power = 38.9 Nm x 50 rad/sec = 1.93 kW

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2.8 Control Input Torque Flywheels

The power needed to supply the average torque is much smaller.

Average power = 7.98 N x 50 rad/sec = 0.397 kw

It would be extremely inefficient to specify a motor based on the peak

demand of the system, as most of the time it will be underutilized.

Something capable of storing kinetic energy flywheel

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2.8 Control Input Torque Flywheels

FLYWHEEL ENERGY
Figure 11-10 shows a flywheel, designed as a flat circular disk, attached
to a motor shaft which might also be the driveshaft for the crank of our
linkage.

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2.8 Control Input Torque Flywheels

The motor supplies a torque magnitude TM which we would like to be as

constant as possible, i.e. to be equal to the average torque Tavg. The load (our
linkage), on the other side of the flywheel, demands a torque TL which is
time varying as shown in Figure 11-8.

The kinetic energy in a rotating system is:

E = I2

Where I is the moment of inertia of all rotating mass on the shaft. This
includes the I of the motor rotor and of the linkage crank plus that of the
flywheel.

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 Need to determine how much I we need to add to reduce the speed
variation.
From Newtons equation:

Torque Flywheels
2.8 Control Input
T = Ia
TL - TM = Ia - equation 2.8(a)
but we want: TM = Tavg
so: TL - Tavg = Ia
dw dw dq dw
substituting: a= = =w
dt dt dq dq
dw
gives: TL - Tavg = Iw
dq
(TL - Tavg )dq = Iw dw - equation 2.8(b)
@wmin (TL - Tavg )dq = wmin Iw dw
qq @w wmax
and integrating: max

1
@wmin (TL - Tavg )dq =
qq @w I(w max - w min
2 2
max
) - equation 2.8(c)
2

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2.8 Control Input Torque Flywheels

Left side of eqn change in energy E between the maximum and minimum
shaft ws and is equal to the area under the torque-time diagram (Figure 11-8
and Figure 11-11) between those extreme values of .
Right side of equation the change in energy stored in the flywheel
The only way to extract energy to slow flywheel down in equation 11.17.
Adding energy will speed flywheel up.
Thus it is impossible to obtain exactly constant shaft velocity in the face of
changing energy demands by the load. The best is minimize the speed
variation (max min) by providing a flywheel with large I.

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 Determine the energy variation in a Torque-Time Function.
Given: An input torque-time function which varies over its
cycle. Figure 11-11 shows the input torque curve from Figure
11-8. The torque is varying during the 360o cycle about its
average value.

Example 2.8
Find : The total energy variation over 1 cycle.

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Solution 2.8

1. Calculate the average value of the torque-time function over 1 cycle, which in
this case is 8 Nm.
2. Note that the integration on the left side of eqn 2.8(c)is done with respect to the
average line of the torque function, not with respect to the axis. (from the
definition of the average, the sum of positive area above an average line is equal
to the sum of negative area below that line). The integration limits in equation
2.8 are from the shaft angle at which the shaft w is a minimum to the shaft
angle at which is a maximum.
3. The minimum will occur after the maximum positive energy has been
delivered from the motor to the load i.e. at point () where the summation of
positive energy (area) in the torque pulses is at its largest positive value.
4. The maximum will occur after the maximum negative energy has been
returned to the load. i.e. at point () where the summation of energy (area) in the
torque pulses is at its largest negative value.

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Solution 2.8

5. To find these locations in corresponding to the maximum and minimum s

and thus find the amount of energy needed to be stored in the flywheel, we need
to numerically integrate each pulse of this function from crossover to crossover
with the average line. The crossover points in Figure 11-11 have been labeled A,
B, C and D.
6. As shown in Figure 11-11, the positive and negative pulses are separately
integrated as described above. Reference to the plot of the torque function will
indicate whether a positive or negative pulse is the first encountered in a
particular case.
7. Accumulate these pulse areas. Table 11-1 shows this process.
8. Note in Table 11-1 that the minimum shaft speed occurs after the largest
accumulated positive energy pulse (+22.84 Nm) has been delivered from the
driveshaft to the system. This delivery of energy slows the motor down. The
maximum shaft speed occurs after the largest accumulated negative energy
pulse (-6.87 Nm) has been received back from the system by the driveshaft.

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This return of stored energy will speed up the motor. The total
energy variation is the algebraic difference between these 2 extreme
values, which is -29.71 joules. This negative energy coming out of
the system needs to be absorbed by the flywheel and then returned
to the system during each cycle to smooth the variations in the shaft

Solution 2.8
speed.

Table 11-1 Integrating the torque function

From Area = E Accum. Sum =
E
A to B +22.84 +22.84 min @ B
B to C -29.71 -6.87 max @ C
C to D +17.51 +10.64
D to A -10.47 +0.17
Total Energy =E@max - E@min
=(-6.87)-(+22.84)=-29.71 joules

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SIZING THE FLYWHEEL
To determine how large a flywheel is needed to absorbed this
energy with an acceptable change in speed. The change in shaft
speed during a cycle is called its fluctuation (Fl) and is equal to:

Torque Flywheels
2.8 Control Input
Fl = max - min - equation 2.8(d)

Normalize this to a dimensionless ratio by dividing it by the

average shaft speed. This ratio coefficient of fluctuation (k)

k = (max - min)/avg - equation 2.8(e)

This coefficient of fluctuation (k) design parameter typical

between 0.01 and 0.05 correspond to 1 to 5% fluctuation in shaft
speed.
The smaller this chosen value, the larger the flywheel will have to
be.
A large flywheel will add more cost and weight to the system.

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The required change in energy E by integrating the torque curve:

@wmin (TL -Tavg )dq = E

qq @wmax
- equation 2.8(f)

Torque Flywheels
2.8 Control Input
And can set it equal to right side of Eqn 2.8(c):

1
E = I(wmax + wmin )(w max - w min ) - equation 2.8(g)
2

Factoring this expression:

1
E = I(w max
2
- w min
2
) - equation 2.8(h)
2

If the torque-time function were a pure harmonic, then its average

value:
(w max + w min )
w avg = - equation 2.8(i)
2
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2.8 Control Input Torque Flywheels
1
E = I(2w avg )(kw avg )
Substitute 2.8(e) and 2.8(i) into eqn 2.8(h): 2
E
Is = 2
kw avg

Equation above can be used to design the physical flywheel by choosing a

desired coefficient of fluctuation k.
Using value of E from the numerical integration of the torque curve (Table
11-1) and the average shaft w to compute the needed system Is. The physical
flywheel mass moment of inertia If = Is.
The most efficient flywheel design in terms of maximizing If for minimum
material used mass is concentrated in its rim and its hub supported on
spokes.

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2.8 Control Input Torque Flywheels

Figure 11-12 shows the change in input torque T12 for the linkage in
Figure 11-8, after the addition of a flywheel sized to provide a Fl = 0.05,
oscillation in torque about unchanged average is 5% - a smaller
horsepower motor could be used.

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