Advanced Fluid Dynamics

MAK 503E
Dr. Hasan Gunes
guneshasa@itu.edu.tr
http://atlas.cc.itu.edu.tr/~guneshasa
INTRODUCTION
DEFINITION OF A FLUID
A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously under the application of a shear
(tangential) stress no matter how small the shear stress may be.

F/A
t0 t2
t1

t2 > t1 > t0

No-slip condition

Mechanics of fluids
1. Inviscid flow: viscosity assumed to be zero
simplify analyses but meaningful result needed
2. Viscous flow: viscosity important
Solid deforms when a shear stress is applied, but it does not deform
continuously.

True fluids: all gases, common liquids, water, oil, gasoline, alcohol, ...
Non-true fluids: high-polimer solutions, emulsions, toothpaste, egg white etc.
Rheology: general study of flow and deformation of materials.

Continuum Fluid Mechanics:

Composed molecules in constant motion
Actual molecular structure molecules & gaps among them

Calculate/measure Replace the actual molecular

macroscopic fluid properties, structure by a hypothetical
e.g. viscosity continuous medium
Continuous medium means
a. There are no gaps (in the fluid) or empty spaces
b. Each fluid property is assumed to have a definite value at each point in space
= ( x, y, z , t ) ; T ( x, y, z , t ) ; V ( x, y, z , t ) ; p( x, y, z , t )
c. All the mathematical functions entering the theory are continuous functions except
possibly at a finite number of interior surfaces seperating regions of continuity.

1 , 1

2 , 2

1 , 1

d. Derivatives of the functions are also continuous too if they enter the theory

Knudsen number, Kd = / L << 1

: mean free path of molecules
L : characteristics length
Ex. What is the density of fluid at point C ?.

y
Volume, V
of mass, m
y0

C
Volume, V
of mass, m
m
mean density = =

x
x0
In general mean density, is not
equal to density at point C.
z0
z

m
lim

 Volume so small, molecules
cross into and out of CV
m

Still have large
enough molecules
for consistent result

= ( x, y , z , t )
scalar field
e.g. 1m3 air 2.5x1025 molecules
Similarly, velocity at point C defined as the instataneous velocity of the fluid particle
which, at a given instant, is passing through point C.
Fluid particle: a small mass of fluid of fixed identity of volume

V : velocity field ; V ( x, y, z , t ) : vector field

V =ui + v j + wk , u, v, w: components of velocity vector-scalar
u = u ( x, y , z , t )
v = v ( x, y , z , t )
w = w( x, y, z , t )

Steady/unsteady flow:
Properties at every point in a flow field do not change with time.
Time-independent flow, stationary flow.

=0 , = 0 , or = ( x, y , z )
t t
Incompressible flow: = const.
Compressible flow: = variable
V
= M 0.3 gases also incomp. V 100 m/s air at standart conditions
a
a = speed of sound

Vref Lref
Re =

Small Re laminar: no macroscobic mixing, fluid flow in layers on

laminae (smooth flow pattern)
Large Re turbulent: time-dependent, 3-D , chaotic motion
(random) macroscopic mixing

Basic Equations:
1. Conservation of mass (continuity eq.)
2. Conservation of momentum (Newtons second law)
3. Conservation of energy (First law of thermodynamics)
4. 2nd law of thermodynamics
5. Equation of state = (p,T)
Unknowns ,u,v,w,p,T,s total number of equations ?
VISCOSITY ability of a fluid to flow freely
Density : measure of the heaviness of a fluid.
Viscosity () : measure of the fluidity of a fluid.

l
Force, Fx
A A D D Velocity, u

No slip
y
y

x
B C No slip

e.g. water & oil approx. have same density but behave differently when flowing

Fluid element at time, t : ABCD

Fluid element at time, t + t : ABCD
 Fx dFx
y x
yx = lim =
plane direction Ay 0 A dAy
acts that stress y
on acts

Ay : area of fluid element in contact with the plate

d
Deformation rate = lim =
t 0 t dt
l = u t
l
For small , tan = l = y = u t
y
u d du
= =
t y dt dy
Subject to shear stress, yx
fluid experiences a time rate of deformation (shear rate) as du/dy
 du
yx Newtonian fluid, linear relationship
dy
du
yx = : [Pa.sec]=[kg/m-sec] (absolute viscosity)
dy
du
: velocity gradient
dy
du
No relative motion : = 0 yx = 0 ( 0)
dy
Example: Couette Flow
U0

h y

x
 y =
du
= y x =
U0
i>0
u = U0 i Shear stress
h dy surface direction
h
Stress sign convention
Stress comp. Plane Direction
+ + +
+ - -
- - +
- + -

Which direction does the stress act?

Depends on the surface we are looking at.

Positive outward normal on

(+)
U0 y-surface (+)

(-) (-)
y Fluid
(+)
x
(-) (-)
(+)
 Bingham plastic,
toothpaste, mayonnaise

Crude oil Shear thining, polimer

solutions, latex paint, blood

Water (60 F)
Water (100 F)
Shear tickening,
water-sand
Air (60 F) mixture

0 du/dy 0 du/dy
Time rate of
deformation

Bingham plastic: can withstand a finite shear stress without motion not fluid
But once the yield stress is exceeded it flows like a fluid not a solid
Non- true fluids
 du
: finite
dy

yx finite ; u must vary continusly across the flow,

no abrupt change between adjoining elements of fluids.
Consider solid boundary : No-slip B.C.

With respect to size of fluid molecules, solid surfaces, no matter how well polished, have
irregularities, i.e cavities filled by fluid.
Fluid immediately in contact with the boundary, has the same speed with it.
Viscous fluid No-slip B.C.
Perfect Fluid: =0
No internal resistance to a change in shape (=0)
Fails to predict drag of body

Seperation occurs due to APG > 0 increasing pressure gradient in flow direction
dp

dx
 Flow past a circular cylinder: Inviscid theory
2-D, =constant (incompressible flow), irrotational flow
Superposition of doublet & uniform flow
V
Vr
U
r
R

Stagnation points
1
Vr = , V =
r r r
R2 R2
Vr = U 1 2 cos , V = U 1 + 2 sin
radial r azimuthal r
velocity velocity

V = Vr er + V e = 0
(r , ) = ( R, 0), ( R, ) stagnation points

= V = 2U = V ,max
2
At the cylinder surface, r=R , Vr = 0 , V = -2Usin0
Violates the no-slip condition between solid & fluid
Pressure distribution at the cylinder surface, apply Bernoully eq. (neglect elevation dif.)
Limititations:
1. Steady
2. =constant
3. frictionless flow: inviscid
4. flow along a streamline
5. gravity force
P U 2 P V2
+ + gz = + + gz
2 2
1 1
( ) (
P P = U 2 V 2 = U 2 1 4sin 2
2 2
)
P P
cp = = 1 4sin 2 pressure distribution on cylinder, valid for inviscid flow
1
U 2 Cp: pressure coef. [-]
2
 One side of cylinder
1 FD : drag (force): force component parallel to
0 the freestream flow direction :
-1 FD = dFx
-2
FD : P dA cos
Ax dAx

0 /2 (
d A = Rd ir = Rd i cos + j sin )
dAx = R cos d (projection in x-direction)
ir dAy = R sin d
d A = Rd ir

y
x
R

1 3 dynamic
p p = U 2
2 pressure units
3 lower than p
p p = U 2
2 (atm. press.)
 2

dA = (b) R d = (b)2 R
A 0
2
1
(
FD = p + u2 1 4sin 2
2
)R cos d
0
2 2
1 sin 3
= p + u2 R sin + 2 u2 R =0
2 0
3 0

FD = 0!
(Noviscosity) dAlembert paradox: inviscid flow past immersed bodies, drag=0 ,
y separation
symmetric pressure distribution
Pressure

FL = pdAy = 0 Lift is zero! !
A
drops

In reality, large drag force! R

No symmetry
Wrt y-axis
wake
Wake structure: Karman
depends on Re (gets Vortex
complicated as Re ) street
cp = 0 p = p
cp = 1 p = p + * U2

+1 Supercritical Re
90 180 (turb.)
0
-1
Subcritical Re
-2 (laminar) /typical
experimental
-3 trends)

60 (theory
is valid up to)

DRAG COEFFICIENT; CD :
1
FD = CD V 2 A
totat
2 projected
drag frontal
force area
Power Drag * Vel.
Power, that we pay to move aircraft.
Racing cars unload tires, reduce drag & lift

FL Drag: due to
1. Pressure forces
2. Friction forces (shear stress) flow over a flat
plate parallel to the flow
W
Inlet ducts to produce
down force

FD = w dA
From dimensional analysis,
FD = f1 ( D, V , , ) CD = CD (geometry,ReL) valid
for =const. over any body
FD VD
= f 2 = f 2 (Re)
V D
2 2

A2 = f3 (Re) A:cross-sectional area
 U Charact. length
,

Transition to turb. On
Theory Friction cylinder causes drag
stokes sol. drag %5 of crises at Rec3*105
Laminar total Rec = f (roughness)
Smooth
~1.2 surface

~0.3

100 103 104 105 106 Re

Rough
surface
Drag coef. Of a circular cylinder
Rough surface: early turbulance due to roughness, drag crisses occurs earlier, dimpling
on goal balls
Freestream turbulance: drag crisses occurs earlier, similar behaviour with sphere
dimples to trip the B.L. to cause TBL.
S.P Rec 2*105 (smooth surface)
Re< Rec
Turbulent wake low
pressure

L.BL

Upsream of the cyl.

midsection

S.P
Re>Rec
Smaller wake

L.BL Net pressure force on cylinder is

reduced CD
Boundary-Layer Control: spin
w:angular velocity (rd/sec)
moving surface to reduce skin friction effects on BL

FL (lift force)
CD
0.6
p CL
V wake 0.4

p 0.2

1 2 4
Spiln ratio,

Weak function of Re
Low spin ratio , wD/2V 0.5 neg. lift!
Flow pattern, lift and drag coef. for a smooth spinning sphere in uniform flow.
The wake is not symmetric wrt incoming vel.
AIRFOIL:

thickness, t
angle of attack
s, span

U Thickness ratio, t/c

Chord, L Aspect ratio , AR = s/L

U , p
Thin B.L with no
separation

=0 Thin wake
<5
Leading edge
Stream lines Trailing
LIFT edge
2-D infinite span
 Re sep. point

wake
sep. point reattachement

As long as flow reattaches its symmetric & no lift

Pstag

dP dP
<0 > 0 possible seperation
dx dx
FPG APG
 1
lift=CL U 2 A
2
CL : lift coefficient

CL

 B.L with seperation
U , p (stall)
faster
Broad wake

slower

>0
10-15
Seperation , loss of lift increase drag

FORCE
CD Optimum cruise Pstag (LIFT)
CL
Lower surface

Upper
surface
CL Pressure distribution 0
PROPERTIES OF A FLUID & FLOW FIELD:
1. Kinematic properties: linear velocity, angular velocity, vorticity, acceleration, and
strain rate Flow field properties
2. Transport properties: , k
3. Thermodynamic properties: p, , T, h, s, cp, Pr,
4. Other properties: surface tension, vapor pressure, etc

DESCRIPTION OF FLUID MOTION:

A. Lagrangian description: useful in solid mech.
B. Eulerian description: proper choice in fluid mechanics

A) specifies how an individual particle moves through space.

formulation is always time-dependent
B) specifies the velocity distribution in space and time. i.e. specifies how a particle at a
point would be.

V = V ( x, y, z , t ) defines the motion at time t at all points of space occupied by the fluid
Advantages of Euler description of fluid motion:
no need to follow the path of particles
in some cases, unsteady flow can be considered as steady by appropriately
selecting coordinates
 Ex:

Kinematics, Substantial derivative

1) Acceleration of a Fluid Particle in a Velocity Field: a p

Problem: how to relate the local motion of a particle to the velocity field

Study velocity field as a function of position & time, not trying to follow any specific
particle paths. But conservation laws are formulated for particles (systems) of fixed
identity; i.e., they are Lagrangian in nature.
 y
Particle path
Particle at time, t
Particle at time, t+dt

V ( x, y , z , t ) = ui + v j + wk , r = r ( x, y , z )
z

For a particle moving in velocity field at time t.

V p = V ( x, y , z , t )
t

at time t+dt V p = V ( x + dx, y + dy, z + dz, t + dt )

t + dt
The change in particle velocity can be shown by differential calculus to be,

V V V V
dV p = dx + dy + dz + dt
x y z t
Or for total acceleration of particle,

dV p V dx V dy V dz V
ap = = + + +
dt x dt y dt z dt t
u v w

DV V V V V
ap = =u +v +w +
Dt x y z t
total accel. local
of particle convective accel. accel.

D (..) Substantial derivative

Material derivative
Dt Particle derivative

Du u u u u
3 comp. Eq. ax , p = =u +v +w + etc.
Dt x y z t
 Generalization: let A represent any property of fluid, (either scalar or vector)

A = A ( x , y , z, t )
DA A A A A
=u +v +w +
Dt x y z t
local time dependent
change in property due to change in the property
motion through flow field

Substantial derivative: generalizes the rate of change of a local property of a material

particle to the movement of the particle through the flow field.
In vector form;
DA A
=
Dt t
( )
+ V . A

=i + j +k gradient operator
x y z

( )
V . = u + v + w
x y z
Ex1:
Vorticity change, (vector)

D
=u +v +w +
Dt x y z t
Density change, (scalar)

D
=u +v +w +
Dt x y z t
Ex2: y
V = U0 i
h
U0
= (1 + ax bt ) = ( x, t )

h D y y
y = U 0 0 a 0b = 0 U 0 a b
Dt h h
motion unsteady
x
Motion & Deformation of a Fluid:
In order to develop differential equations of motion for a fluid we need to understand the
general type of motion
Examine for 2-D
Four different types of motion or deformation
1. Translation
2. Rotation
3. Distortion (i.e. deformation)
Angular deformation - shear strain
Linear deformation (extensional strain) dilatation
Consider each from of motion individually for time interval t
1)Translation: defined by displacements u t & v t,
that is, rate of translation is (u,v)
y
ut

vt
v
(displacement)
y u

x
x
2) Rotation:

Motion about centroid

y due to motion normal
to x-dir. with pozitif
rotation

v
y a = ( x ) t
x
Derivation of
x rotation: vorticity

Rotation: average angular rotation of 2 perpendicular line elements (x&y)

1 d d
Z =
2 dt dt
 : rotation
a / x
of line x= lim = lim
t 0 t t 0 t
v
d ( x ) t / x v
= lim x =
dt t 0 t x
d u
Likewise, of line y: =
dt y
1 v u
Z =
2 x y
Z rotation about axis parallel to z-direction. i.e. angular velocity rate of rotation
Rate of translation : velocity , u, v
Rate of rotation : angular velocity,
Similarly, rotation about x & y axes,
1 w v 1 u w 1
x = , y = = i x + j y + k z = V
2 y z 2 z x 2
For conventions sake, we define vorticity of a fluid particle as,
= 2 , = V , = curlV
3) Angular deformation: (shear strain)
average decrease of the angle between two lines which are initially perpendicular

1
( d + d ) : shear strain increment
2
1 d d 1 v u
xy = + = + y
u y
2 dt dt 2 x y t
y 2

Shear strain rate

y/2 v x
1 w v 1 u w t
yz = + , zx = + x 2
2 y z 2 z x

xx xy xz x/2

ij = yx yy yz Strain rate tensor

zx zy zz
x
4. Linear deformation: (extensional strain)
Which motion(s) will result in stresses? Angular & linear deformation,
relative change in dimensions of line element x, y : STRAIN
Result: Angular def. ~ shear stress
Linear def. ~ normal stress
u x
x + 2 t x
u x x 2
t t =
y x 2
xx
x
u
xx =
x
xx t: extensional strain in x-direction

v y
t
y 2
x

x
(extentional strain) dilatation or increase in volume is due to velocity derivatives

u v w
, ,
x y z
 u v w
xx = , yy = , zz =
x y z
.V = xx + yy + zz
DV V V V 2
Dt
=
t
( )
+ V . V =
t
+ V V
2
( )
If = V = 0 in the flow field irrotational flow

For irrotational flow, let be a continuous scalar function such that

= ( x, y , z , t )
V = = i+ j+ k
x y z
= ( ) = 0 identically zero.
For irrotational flow there exist a scalar velocity potential function such that
V =
Vorticity generators : boundaries (velocity gradients)
Real flows are always rotational
But Boundary Layer Theory vorticity effects are confined in a thin layer adjacent to
the boundary
Outside the boundary layer flow can be treated as irrotational.
2 2 2
If = 0 V = .V = . ( ) = 2 + 2 + 2 = 0 & =const.
x y z
2 = 0 Laplace eq. (linear PDE)
.V = divV change of (velocity) field at a point; indicates linear expansion of a field
(i.e. changes parallel direction of interest)
u v w
.V = + + = xx + yy + zz
x y z
Ex: V = axi
y
.V = i al = a
x
a:expansion at a point
u
xx = extensional strain (linear deformation)
x x
 If =const. conservation of mass .V = 0 (no expansion)
A
v
v dydt
v+ dy A D y
y

dy dy

v
dx C dx C
B B
u u u
t u + dx t+dt dxdt
x x
Rectengular element under the influence of normal stresses
u v u v
dxdtdy + dydtdx + dxdt dydt
x y x y u v
Rate of increase in unit area : = + = .V
dxdydt x y
Fluid behavior is a combination of these fluid motions, so we need to be able to express
cumulative behavior mathematically.
Cauchy-Store Decomposition
Consider 2-D velocity field, V = ui + v j & fluid element moving from point P through a

distance d r = dxi + dy j

y
Vp V p + dV

dr
P
x
V = V p + dV = V p + d r. V ( )
V V u u v v
=V p + dx + dy = i u p + dx + dy + j v p + dx + dy
x y x y x y

Consider,
u 1 u 1 u 1 v 1 v
dy = dy + dy + dy dy
y 2 y 2 y 2 x 2 x
split in half add&subst.
 Rearrange,
u 1 u v 1 u v
dy = + dy + dy
y 2 y x 2 y x
Similarly,
v 1 v u 1 v u
dx = dx + + dx
x 2 x y 2 x y
linear def. rotation angular def.

u 1 u v 1 u v trans.
v 1 v u 1 v u
V =i u p + dx + dy + + dy + j vp + dy + dx + + dx
trans. x 2 y x 2 y x y 2 x y 2 x y
linear def.
rotation angular def.

or in terms of tensors,
u 1 v u 1 v u
+ 0
x 2 x y 2 x y
V =V p + d r + dr
1 u v v 1 u v
+ 0
2 y x y 2 y x
= V p + d r. Eij + d r.
vorticity
rate of tensor
strain
tensor
 Normally, write tensors (2-D)
xx xy xx xy
Eij = , ij =

yx yy yx yy
accounts for distorsion accounts for rotation

y
Ex: Given a shear flow, V = U i , determine components of deformations & rotation
h
U

h y u
xx = =0
x
x

1 v u 1 U U xx = 0 always
xy = + = 0 + =
2 x y 2 h 2h 1 v u 1 U U
xy = = 0 =
v 2 x y 2 h 2h
yy = =0
y yy = 0

1 u v U 1 u v U
yx = + = yx = =
2 y x 2h 2 y x 2h
 rate of
y
yx (+ ) y strain
yx

xy ()
xy rotation

x x

Relation Between Stresses & Rate of Strains ij ij

Strain rates : symmetric second-order tensor

xx xy xz u v w
xx = , yy = , zz =
x y z
ij = yx yy yz
1 v u 1 w v
xy =yx = + yz =zy = +
zx zy zz
2 x y 2 y z
ij = ji 1 u w
zx =xz = +
2 z x
Remember:
Transport properties of fluid; , k ,
Viscosity: a property of fluid: ability of a fluid to flow freely, relates applied stress to the
resulting strain rate U

h y

x
no-slip condition
y
u( y) = U linear profile
h
yx = f (yx ) general relations will be considered later!
For simple fluids such as water, oil, or gases relationship is linear
U du
Or Newtonian yx = = 2 yx =
h dy
: (coef. of) viscosity [N s /m2 = Pa.s] , = (T,p) different for liquids & gases

yx = f (yx ) is not linear, the fluid is non-newtonian

 ideal bingham plastic
Pseudoplastic shear thinning as
shear Polimer solutions , toothpaste
stress
dilatant shear tickening,
yield suspensions, starch,
sand
stress
Newtonian ,
=constant

0 du/dy
time rate of deformation,
Rigid body inviscid flow (ideal
fluid)

yx 2 K nyx Power-law approx. Power-Law:

n=1 Newtonian K= TT0 n 1 n

yx = ke yx yx
n<1 pseudoplastic
n>1 dilatant (kaboran)

K, n : material parameters (rheological models of blood)
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF MOTION

Review of control volume (CV) versus differential eqs. approach

a) CV eqs. (mass, momentum, energy)
1. Global characteristics
2. Must know or assume inflow & outflow profile
3. Easy & somewhat approximate

b) Differential eqs. (mass, momentum, etc.)

1. Detailed profile charact.
2. Only boundary & initial conditions
3. Easy to very difficult
exact behaviour (for laminar flow)

Objectivies:
1. Derive mass D.E. (continuity)
2. Derive momentum D.E.
General
Navier-stokes (stress ~ strain)
3. Solutions


Conservation of Mass: CONTINUITY EQUATION

y d = dxdydz
Diff. Element
dm = d

x


t cv
( )
d + V .n dA = 0
z cs

( u ) ( v) ( w)
CV formulation ( )
div V =
x
+
y
+
z

time rate of change NET mass
of the fluid mass inside + flow rate

=0 t
+ div V
( ) d = 0 , d 0
change of field at a point
the CV through the CS

t
( )
+ div V = 0
a scalar equation

t
+ . V = 0 ( ) valid for any coordinate system

u v w
divV = + + = .V
scalar x y z
V = ui + v j + wk

II. method: particle derivative. Conservation laws are Lagrangian in nature, i.e. apply
fixed systems (particles). If m is the mass and is volume of fixed particle,
Conservation of mass m = = const
D ( .) ( .)
Dt
=
t
( )
+ V . (.)

Dm D ( )
=0 =0
Dt Dt
D D D 1 D
+ =0 + =0
Dt Dt Dt Dt
 D
Can relate to the fluid velocity by noticing total dilatation or normal strain-rate is
Dt
equal to the rate of volume increase of the particle.
u v w 1 D
+ + = xx + yy + zz = .V = = divV
x y z Dt
D
Dt
+ divV = 0 or
t
( )
+ . V = 0

( u ) ( v ) ( w )
+ + + =0
t x y z
Notes pg.58 : cylindrical & spherical coordinates

Simplifications:
=const. : flow is said to be incompressible
u v w
divV = .V = 0 rectangular coor. + + = 0 particles of constant volume,
x y z
but shape of volume can change.
STREAM FUNCTION
2-D , steady flow : continuity

( u ) ( v)
+ =0 steady compressible or unsteady incompressible
x y
Define stream function such that:

u = , v =
y x
2 2
= 0 continuity identically satisfied.
xy yx
: first & second order der. exist & continuous

Advantage
Continuity eq. discarded
# of unknowns (dependent variables) reduces by one.

Disadvantage
Remaining velocity derivatives are increased by one order???
Physical significance of

= ( x, y ) d = dx + dy = vdx + udy = V .d s = dm
x y
Lines of constant (d=0) are lines across which mass flow ( dm = 0 ) is zero

They are stream lines of flow

d s = dxi + dy j
Along AB x=const.

d s = dyi
=const.
V = ui + v j = 0


yB yB yB B

m = V .d s = udy = dy = d = B A
yA yA yA
y A

dq = udy vdx = dy + dx = d
+d y x
dq = d
2
dq C q= d = 2 1 > 0
1
udy
A q: volume flow rate between streamlines
y 1 & 2
- vdx
x

m=q
1 Difference between the constant values of
defining two stream lines is the mass flow
rate (per unit depth) between the two
q
streamlines.
2
Note: 2-D , = const., in cylindrical coor. (r
plane) continuity eq.
If 1 > 2 : q= 1 - 2 (flow is to the left)
 ( rVr ) V
+ =0
r
1
(r , , t ) Vr = ,V =
r r
show that continuity eq. is satisfied!

Uses of Continuity Eq.

1. to simplify D.E. of momentum
2. To relate changes in velocity in one direction to changes in another
u v v u
Ex: 2-D Flow, =const. + =0 =
x y y x
y
u v
<0 > 0 v is away from center
x y
x
Ex:

U0 A(x) Converging channel

y
u(x) U 0 A0 = UA( x)
A0 x U 0 A0
U=
A( x)

U 1 dA U 0 A0 dA / dx
= U 0 A0 2 =
x A ( x ) dx A( x ) A( x)
U ( x)

U U ( x) dA
=
x A( x) dx

dA u v
A( x) <0 >0 <0 flow toward center
dx x y

dA u v
A( x) >0 <0 >0 flow away from center
dx x y
DERIVATION of MOMENTUM D.E
Newtons Second Law applied to fluid element

d F = dm a
applied resulting acceleration
force of particle of mass, dm

relates stresses acceleration

fluid deformation substantial derivative
velocity field terms
+
pressure & body forces
 CLASSIFICATION OF FORCES ON A FLUID
1.Body Forces: All external forces developed without physical contact.
e.g. gravity, magnetic force
y
d
dy g dFB = gd = gdxdydz
x dz
dx
z
body forces are distributed throughout

2.Surface Forces: All forces exerted on a boundary by surroundings through direct

contact.

a) Normal forces e.g. pressure forces

b) Tangential forces e.g. shear forces

stress = force / unit area

Fn
1.Normal stresses nn = lim A0 pressure
A
2.Shear stresses Fs
ss = lim A0 shear
A
Surface stresses have
a) direction & b) surface that acts on

two shear forces on any surface

yx = shear stress

z Fsy
y

Fn F
Fsx
x

Example: forces on a plane

 y x
direction that stress acts (x in this case)
plane acts on (y in this case)

y
yy
yz positive outward normal on y-surface
yx
xy Stress tensor
negative outward
xx xy xz

x
ij = yx yy yz
xz xz
zy zx zx zy zz
z
stress acting on z-plane
symmetric tensor
ij = ji
 Derivation of Momentum Differential Equation

Begin by applying differential analysis to differential fluid element, (dx, dy, dz)

y yx
yx + dy
x
zx y
xx
z
xx + dx
xx x
zx
zx + dz
yx z
DV
d Fb + d Fs = dm
Dt
Consider x-direction forces & changes across element using truncated Taylor series
 Du ax
x-dir. dFbx + dFsx = dxdydz
Dt
xx
Bx dxdydz + xx + dx dydz xx dydz
x
yx zx
+ yx + dy dxdz yx dxdz + zx + dz dxdy
y z
zx dxdy
xx yx zx
Bx + + + dxdydz
x y z
u u u u
= dxdydz + u +v +w
t x y z
Du
Dt
 Similarly y-direction and z-direction

xy yy zy
Dv
By + + + =
x y z Dt
xz yz zz Dw
Bz + + + =
x y z Dt
In vector form

DV ij DVi
B + . ij = or Bi + =
Dt x j Dt
Note: Above eqs. are general eqs. apply for any fluid.

General simplification Newtonien fluid

linear relationship between stress & rate of strain ij ij
From solid mechanics, the relation of stress tensor to strain-rate tensor yields
a linear relationship of form,

yx = c1 xx + c2 xy + c3 xz + c4 yy + c5 yz + c6 zz
where each stress component depends on all of the six rate of
strain components,
We make assumption of an ISOTROPIC medium
(i.e. material property independent of direction)

This reduces the number constants to two, since many of the coeefficients
are identically zero or related to each other.

Theory of elasticity Hookean Solid E - mod. of elasticity

h - Poisson s ratio

Newtonien Fluid : coef. of viscosity

: 2nd coef. of viscosity
or bulk viscosity
(associated only with
volume expansion)
General deformation law for Newtonian fluid

xx = p + 2 xx + ( xx + yy + zz )
linear stress volume exp ansion
v
yy = p + 2 yy + ( xx + yy + zz ) = p + 2
y
+ (.V )
pressure
stresses due to
linear compressibility
rate of
strain
zz = p + 2 zz + ( xx + yy + zz )
v u
xy = yx = 2 xy = +
x y
u w
xz = zx = 2 xz = +
z x
w v
yz = zy = 2 yz = +
y z
 ui u j
ij = p ij +
x
+
x

( )
+ ij .V = p ij + ij
j i
thermodynamic viscous
pressure stresses

Note the inclusion of pressure because if velocity vanishes

normal stress = - pressure (hydrostatic)

0 , i j
Fluid at rest , ij = B p = 0
p , i = j

Stoke s hypothesis For air & most gas mixtures

2
= (1845) For liquids .V = 0
3
 u v w u v w
xx + yy + zz = 3 p + 2 + + + 3 + +
x y z x y z
.V .V

= 3 p + (2 + 3 ).V
=0

Define: mean (mechanical) pressure, p

1
p = ( xx + yy + zz )
3
Mean pressure in a deforming viscous fluid is not equal to the thermodynamic
pressure but distinction is rarely important

2
p = p + .V usually small in typical flow problems
controversial subject
3
normal viscous stresses
 2
Stokes hypothesis + =0 (1845)
3

For liquids ; = const. .V = 0

xx + yy + zz
p=
3
Now, back to D.E. substitute for stresses from above relationship,

Consider x dir.

u 2 v u u w
Bx + p + 2 .V + + + + = ax
x x 3 y x y z z x

Let = const.

p u 2 v u u w
Bx + 2 .V + + + + = ax
x x x 3 y x y z z x
 p 2u 2 2v 2u 2u 2w
Bx + 2 2
x x 3 x
( )
.V +
yx
+ 2 + 2 +
y z zx
= ax
1 2 3 4 5

p u u u
2 2 2
u v w 2
Bx + 2 + 2 + 2 +
x x y z x x
+ +
y z 3 x
( )
.V = ax
half
of 1 3 4 half of 1 2 5

2u .V

p 1
Bx + u +
x
2

3 x
( )
.V = ax

Likewise
p 1
By + v +
y
2

3 y
( )
.V = a y

p 1
Bz + w +
z
2

3 z
( )
.V = az
 NAVIER STOKES EQUATION
1 V
B p + V + (.V ) =
2
+ (V .)V
body pressure deformation
3 t convective
force force stresses due to local acceleration
compressibility acceleration
for = const. .V = 0
DV General equation
B p + V =
2

Dt coordinate independent

Cartesian coord. x dir.

p 2u 2u 2u u u u u
Bx + 2 + 2 + 2 = + u + v + w
x x y z t x y z

g x if B = g ( gravitional acceleration )
1 Force acting on the fluid element as a result of viscous stress distribution
on the surface of element
Note: Cylindrical coord. pg. 60

viscosity is constant isothermal flow. For non-isothermal flows, esp. for liquids,
= const. .V = 0 viscosity is often highly temp. dependent. CAUTION

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY: THE ENERGY EQ.

1st law of Thermodinamics for a system

( J / m3 )
dEt = dQ + dW
work done on system
heat added
z
increase of energy of the system

r
1 2 g
Et = e + V g .r ( J / m3 )
2 y
+ gz x
Et : total energy of the system (per unit volume)
e : internal enregy per unit mass

r : displacement of particle
moving system such as flowing fluid particle
need Material derivative : time rate of change, following the particle

DEt DQ DW
= + (J/m3.s) Energy eq. for a flowing fluid
Dt Dt Dt

DEt De DV
= +V gV
Dt Dt Dt

Q & W in terms of fluid properties

assume heat transfer Q to the
y element is given by Fourier s
law
T
qx qx = k
qx qx + dx x
x
heat flows from positive to the
wx
x neg. temp. (decreasing temperature
wx gradient)
dx wx + dx
z x (HEAT FLOW) q = k T
 W/m2
Heat flow (rate) into the element in x - dir. : qx dydz
Heat flow (rate) out of the element in x - dir. : q +
qx
x dx dydz
x
qx
The net heat transfer to the element in x - dir. : dxdydz
x
qx qx qx
Hence, the net heat transfer to the element = + + d = .q.d
x y z
DQ
= .q = . ( k T ) [W/m3] neglect internal heat generation
Dt
Rate of work done to the element per unit area on the left face
negatif because work is done on the system
Wx = ( u xx + v xy + w xz )
surface direction

derivation: force on the left face: ( xx )

i + xy j + xz k dydz
Rate of work done on the element by this force

( )( )
= xx i + xy j + xz k . ui + v j + wk dydz

= ( u xx + v xy + w xz ) dydz
Similarly, rate of work done by the right face stresses is
Wx
= Wx + dx
x
Net rate of work done on the element

= divW = .W = ( u xx + v xy + w xz )
DW
Dt x

+
y
( u yx + v yy + w yz )

+ ( u zx + v zy + w zz )
DW
Dt
(
= . V . ij ) z

indicial notation
Using the indicial notation,
DW
Dt
= . V . ij ( )
expression can be decomposed into
ui
( )
. V . ij = V . ( . ij ) + ij
x j
Exercise: Show this!

Remember Newton s 2nd law

DV DV
= g + . ij
. ij = g
Dt Dt
hence,
DV
V . ( . ij ) = V g .V
Dt
kinetic & potential energy
terms in energy eq .

DW DV u
= V g .V + ij i
Dt Dt x j
Energy eq. becomes;

De ui First law of thermodynamics

= . ( k T ) + ij for fluid motion
Dt x j

split the stress tensor into pressure and viscous terms using

ui u j
ij = p ij + + + ij divV deformation law given
x x
j i by Stokes (1845)

ij

ui ' ui
ij = ij pdivV : dissipation function
x j x j

From continuity eq. D

+ divV = 0
Dt
p D D p Dp
pdivV = =
Dt Dt Dt
 p
introducing enthalpy h = e+

Energy eq. Dh Dp dissipation function
= + div ( k T ) + (viscous dissipation)
Dt Dt
For Newtonian fluid
u 2 v
2
w
2
v u
2
w v
2
u w
2

= 2 + 2 + 2 + + + + + +

x
y z x y y z z x
2
u v w
+ + +
x y z

0 , 0 ; 3 + 2 0 Hookes hypothesis = 2 / 3

Incompressible flow, = const.

DT Dp
cp = T + ( k T ) +
Dt Dt
Constant Properties, k=const.
 dp
perfect gas relation dh = c p dT dh = c p dT (1 T )

de = cv dT
1
= 1/ T ( perfect gas) =
T P
cp, cv : specific heats
DT Dp
cp = + k 2T + ideal gas
Dt Dt
DT
if = const. .V = 0 c p = k 2T +
Dt neglected

VALID for either gas (low velocity) or liquid.

Low velocity or incompressible flow 0

DT
= 2T = k / c p : thermal diffusivity m 2 / s
Dt
T T T T
+u +v +w = 2T
t x y z
(V . )T :convective terms
Example: Fully developed laminar flow down and inclined plane surface

y
Given: ,
width b=1 m
x
liquid h=1mm
h=1mm =15
g

Find: velocity profile

shear stress distribution
volume flow rate (per unit depth)
average flow velocity
film thickness in terms of volume flow rate
Basic eq.s for =const.
u v w
+ + =0
x y z
4 3

2
u u u u p u u u
2 2
+ u + v + w = g x + 2 + 2 + 2
t x 5 y 3 z x x y z
1 4 4 4 3

v v v v p v v v
2 2 2
+ u + v + w = gy + 2 + 2 + 2
t x 5 y z y x y z
1 4 3 4 5 3

w w w w p 2w 2w 2w
+u +v + w = gz + 2 + 2 + 2
t x y z z x y z
1. steady flow (given)
2. =const. (incomp. flow)
3. No flow or variation of properties in the z-dir. w = 0, =0
z
4. Fully developed flow, so no properties vary in the x-dir. , = 0
x
 v
Cont. = 0 v = const. = c
y v = 0 at y = 0 v = 0 everywhere
5.
u
2
0 = gx + 2
y
p
0 = gy
y
Continuity u=u(y) only.

2u d 2u
2
y 2
dy d 2u gx sin
= = g
dy 2
du sin
= g y + C1
dy
sin y 2
u( y) = g + C1 y + C2
2
B.C.s No slip

u = 0 at y = 0 C2 = 0
du
= 0 at y=h (zero shear stress on the liquid free surface)
dy

sin sin
0 = g h + C1 C1 = g h

sin y 2 sin
u( y) = g + g hy or
2
sin y2
u( y) = g hy
2
du
yx = = g sin ( h y )
dy
Volume flow rate
h
Q = udA = ubdy
A 0
h
g sin y2 g sin bh3
= hy bdy =
0
2 3

Q
The average velocity V =Q/ A=
bh

g sin h 2
V=
3
Solving film thickness

1/ 3
3 Q
h= h Q1/ 3 non-linear relation
g sin .b

h=1 mm, b=1 m, =15 Q = 0.846 lt/sec

Summary of Basic Equations:
Newtonien fluid
Stokes hypothesis
gravity is the only body force
Fourier s law, no internal heat sources

= const. = var iable

.V = 0
t
( )
+ . V = 0
DV 1
= g p + 2 V
Dt DV
Dt
1 1
= g p + 2 V + .V
3
( )
DT 1
= T +
2
Dh Dp
Dt cp = + div ( k T ) +
Dt Dt
perfect gas dh = c p dT
unknowns u,v,p,(T) in general h = h( p, T )
# of eq.s 4,(5) = ( p, T )
= ( p, T )
exact solution is possible for simple problems
MATHEMATICAL CHARACTER OF THE BASIC EQS.
difficulties
equations are coupled V , p & T (temp. dep. property )
non-linear

QUASI-LINEAR 2nd order PDE

2 2 2
A 2 +B +C 2 = D
x xy y

where coef. A,B,C,D may be non-linear functions of x, y , , ,
x y
but not of the second derivatives of .

< 0 the eq. is elliptic B.V.P

if B2 -4AC = 0 the eq. is parabolic diffusion type (mixed BVP & IVP)
discriminant
> 0 the eq. is hyperbolic IVP
Laplace eq.: 2 = 0 Elliptic
T 2 T 2 T
Heat conduction = 2 + 2 parabolic
t x y
2 2
Wave equation 2 =0 hyperbolic
x 2
y
Navier-Stokes eqs. are too complicated to fit into this model. can be any or mixtures
of all three depending upon specific flow and geometry.

Incompressible flow with zero convective derivatives

Let us assume a Newtonian fluid with constant , , k.
further assume convective derivatives vanish.

(V . )V = 0 ; (V . ) T = 0
realistic assumption for flows with gradients of flow properties are normal to the flow
direction, duct flows.

= 0 (viscous dissipation is negligible when the flow velocity is much smaller

than the speed of sound of the fluid)
.V=0 (1)
V 1
= g p + 2 V (2) = (kinematic viscosity)
t
T
= 2T (3)
t
Temperature effects are confined to the energy eq.
continuity eq. & momentum eqs. are uncoupled from T.
energy eq. is heat conduction eq. (parabolic)
temp. mixed behaviour.i.e BVP in space (x, y, z). IVP in time

Taking divergence of (2) and making use of (1),

.(2) 2 p = 0 (2' ) Laplace eq. (Elliptic)

pure B.V.P
Finally, by taking the curl (x) of eq. (2), can eliminate p
V
= g
1

(
( p ) + 2 V ) ; = V
t fluid vorticity

0 0 = curlV

= 2 (2'')
t
eq. (2) also heat-conduction eq.
vorticity, like temp. has parabolic behaviour
Both vorticity & temp. have diffusion coef. or diffusivities

= :viscous diffusivity (m 2 /s)

k
= :thermal diffusivity (m 2 /s)
cp

They are entirely fluid properties, not geometric or flow parameters

viscous diffusion rate

Pr = =
thermal diffusion rate
 Liquid metals low Pr (Pr<<1) ,e.g. PrHg = 0.024
air Pr = 0.72 (gases of the order of the unity)
water Pr = 7.0
oils high Pr. (Pr>>1) ,e.g. Prglycerin = 12 000

Low speed viscous flow (laminar flow) past a hot wall:

viscous diffusion rate >> thermal dif. rate
n thermal effects are confined near the wall

V / V
V / V
T / T T / T
T
0 1.0 0 1
Liquid metals: Pr << 1 Oils : Pr >> 1
: shows the effect of viscosity of a fluid: momentum diffusion

as , the region effected by viscosity is narrower

known as Boundary Layer when is very small.
(B.L. thickness) (for laminar flow)
viscous spreading length
T (thermal B.L. thickness) T (for laminar flow)
thermal spreading length

Pr good approximation for all B.L. flows,
T
even at high speeds

gases: Pr O (1) both effects are equally important

liquids: Pr >> 1, may neglect the effect of heat conduction
U .L. .c p
Pe = Pr .Re =
k
 DIMENSIONLESS PARAMETERS IN VISCOUS FLOW

Basic flow eqs are extremely difficult to analyze

Therefore, we need to get most efficient possible form.

Buckingham Pi theorem:
dependent parameters V , p, T = f ( xi , t ,15 flow parameters)

9 fluid properties: , , , k , c p , cv , l , ,
4 reference quantities: V0 , p0 , T0 , L
1 wall heat flux, qw
1 acceleration of gravity, g

Primary dimensions, M (mass), L (length), t (time), T (temp.)

15 4 = 11 dimensionless numbers which governs the viscous flows
with heat transfer
1. Re 7. Nu
2. Pr 8. Kn
3. Fr 9. Cavitation# impossible to consider all of them
at one time
4. Ec 10. We (Weber number)
5. =cp /c v 11. viscosity ratio /
6. Gr
Few of them are important for a given problem
determined by the non-dimensionalizing the basic eqs & B.C.s

1. From the eqs: Re, Pr, Ec, Gr, (/ neglected)

2. Wall heat transfer conditions: Nu
3. Slip-flow conditions: Kn,
4. Free-surface conditions: Fr, We, Cavitation #.
Non-dimensionalizing the Basic Equations:
Reference properties appropriate to the flow
, p , T x2
U
L

x1
w x3

xi * V
x =
*
i ; V =
L U
p p T T
p = *
; T =
*

U 2
Tw T
tU * g
t =
*
; =
*
; g =
L g
Star denotes dimensionless variables.
 Continuity Equation

t
( )
+ . V = 0

U
* 1 *
L t *
L
*
( *
+ U V = 0 )
*
t * ( * *
+ . V = 0
*
)
no dimensionless parameters: dimensional & dimensionless cont. eq. are the same

Note : 1. U 0 = 0 / 0 L if there is no free stream (as in free convection)

2. Residence time L/V0 (steady flows have no characteristic time of their own)

Momentum Equation
= = const.
1
( )
g p + 2 V + .V =
3
DV
Dt
DV
=
(
D U V
*
) =U 2
DV
*

Dt D ( t * L / U ) L Dt *
*
g = g g *

p ( g U 2 p* ) U 2 p*
p =
x ( x L)*
L x*
U 2
p= * p*
L
u 2
U 2u * 2 (U u * )
V 2
2
= 2
x
2
x L
* 2 L x *2
( )
U *2 *
V= 2 V
2

L
*
U 2
U 2 * U 2
DV
g * g * -
* p* + * V =
*
L L2 L Dt *
 *
Lg * * * * *2 * * DV
g - p + V =
U2
U L Dt *

1 1
Fr 2 Re
DV 1 * * 1 2
= p + 2 g + V
Dt pressure f.
Fr Re
inertia force gravity force viscous force

Froude number (Fr):: determines the importance of buoyancy (important for free
surface flows)
Dynamically similar flows: dimensionless parameters & dimensionless B.C.s
should be identical.
kinematic similarity
U L
y

Re =
g
x
liquid
h
U
Fr =
g L
Ratio of Forces Dimensionless numbers V

dV 3 dV ds
Inertia forces ma = L V 2 L2
dt ds dt

Viscous forces .A
du 2 V 2
L = L = VL
dy L
inertia forces V L 2 2
VL
Re = = =
viscous forces VL
inertia f. V 2 2
L V 2
Fr =
2
=
gravity f. L g3
gL
 pressure forces p. A p
Eu = = =
inertia forces V 2 L2 V 2
p
c p = pressure coef. cp =
1 dynamic pressure
V 2
2
inertia forces V 2 2
L V 2
flows with the free surface
Fr 2 = = = effects
gravity forces g L 3
gL
inertia forces V 2 L2 V 2 L
We = = =
surface tension f. L

V flow speed
M= inertia forces
M=
c local sonic forces due to compressibility
speed

V 2 L2 V 2 p
M2 = = a=
dp
=
E
E =
E L2 E d
compressibility 2
V
modulus [Pa] M2 = 2
a
For truly incompressible flow E = , a= M=0

Compare compressibility modulus of water and air.

What is the pressure rise to reduce the volume of water by 4% ?

inertia force
viscous force
pressure force
gravity force
surface tension force
compressibility force
Example 1: Lid-driven cavity flow with periodic boundary condition

ubc = V sin t ubc

tV
t = streamlines
L
H
Aspect ratio: H/L

V L
Re =
L
non-dimensional boundary condition

ubc L

u =
bc = sin t = sin t
V V
duplication of the b.c. requires that the parameter L/V be the same between
two flows.

L
Strouhal number, St=
V
 Need to begin with the correct equations

Non-dimensional governing diff.eqs. are useful for numerical solution.

- scaling is simplified
- unit conversion problems are reduced
- solutions can be presented in generalized form.

Example 2: Natural (free) convection: flow is due to the variation of density

1
= + (1 T ) =-
T P

gL3 (Tw T )
Low-speed Gr= , & Pr
2
 Tw dT T
qw = h (Tw T ) = k w
Nu = k
dx n w
qw T convective heat transfer coef.
T T
k T =
h L qw L Tw T
Nu = =
k (Tw T )
h
k
n Nu is the driving parameter which effects the solution

Energy Equation
Maxwell's relation
DT Dp
cp = + . ( k T ) + dp
Dt Dt dh=c p dT + (1 T )

Dh
Dt
perfect gas dh=cp dT

substitute the new variables,

cp k T T
c =
*
, k* = , = L, = , = , T* =
p
c p k Tw T
 DT Dp 1
.( k T ) +
Ec
c p
= Ec +

Dt Dt Re Pr Re
V L inertia forces
Re = ;
viscous forces
c p viscous dif. rate
Pr = = =

k thermal dif. rate

V2
Eckert number , Ec=
c p (Tw T ) a = RT
High-speed flows all three are important for heat transfer analyses.
Low-speed flows ( V < 30% of speed of sound )
or incompressible flows pressure term & dissipation term is neglected
RePr Peclet number
DT 1 2
constant properties
= T
Dt Re.Pr
, , k , c p = f ( p , T )
 VORTICITY CONSIDERATIONS IN INCOMPRESSIBLE
VISCOUS FLOW: VORTICITY TRANSPORT EQ.
Vorticity vector, = V = curlV
-is a measure of rotational effects

= 2
local angular velocity of a fluid element

Navier Stokes eqs. constant , Let g = gk z

k
g
DV
= p gk + 2 V (1)
Dt i x
Use the following vector identities; j
V 2
( )
V . V = V V
2
( ) ( 2)
y

( )
2 V = .V V ( ) ( 3)

Note that .V = 0 for an incomp. flow
Substitute (2) &(3) into (1)
V V 2
+ V = p gk + (4)
t 2
V V2
+ p + + gz = V - (5)
t 2

if = 0, irrotational flow V =
Bernoulli eq. is valid even for
( ) V 2
viscous fluids if flow is irrotational
+ p + + gz = 0 difficulty
t 2
- potential flows do not satisfy
V2 no-slip condition at a solid wall.
+ p+ + gz = 0
t 2
V2
+ p+ + gz = cons tan t
t 2
Bernoulli eq. for unsteady incompressible flow
 VORTICITY TRANSPORT EQUATION
When dealing with a real fluid, we need an equation or eqs. to determine the
behaviour of vorticity.
vorticity rotational behaviour of fluid ~ angular momentum
= 2 angular velocity = V local rotation of fluid
vorticity creation, transport, destruction, stretching etc.

To obtain an eqn. for vorticity transport, we take the curl of the N-S eqn.

DV 1
= p + B + V
2

Dt g h
since =0 where scalar
p & h = 0
Thus,
DV
= 2 V
Dt 2 = 2 ( V )
 DV V
= + V .V
Dt t
V 1
= + V V V
2
( )
t 2
(
V ) + 1 V
=
t 2 0
2
(
V V )

=
t
(
V =
t
)
+ V. . V ( ) ( )
Thus, vorticity transport equations becomes

D
Dt
=
t
( )
+ V . = . V + 2
viscous
( )
time rate local convection of vorticity diffusion of
of change change vorticity by production vorticity
of vorticity velocity field term
-by stretching
and tilting of
existing
vorticity

2 D case .V 0 V flow in xy plane

V V
z k . i+ j = 0
x y
In all viscous flows vorticity is generally present and is generated by relative
motion near solid walls.
If Re is large, vorticity is swept downstream and remains close to the wall:

=0
B.L.
 If flow is between two walls, e.g. duct flow

potential-flow model is generally not

core 0 valid in duct flow.
TWO DIMENSIONAL CONSIDERATIONS :
THE STREAM FUNCTION ,

2 D, = const. =const. V=u(x,y,t)i +v(x,y,t) j

u v
+ =0
x y
u u u 1 p 2u 2u
+u +v = gx + 2 + 2
t x y x x y
v v v 1 p 2v 2v
+ u + v = gy + 2 + 2
t x y y x y
3 eqs. u, v, p u=u(x,y,t) , v=v(x,y,t) , p=p(x,y,t)

DT
Let k=const. cp = k 2T
Dt
momentum equation is uncoupled from the energy eq.
Eliminate pressure & gravity by cross-differentiation, i.e.
taking the curl of the 2-D vector momentum equation

V
+ V ( )
. = g
1

( p ) + 2 V ( )
t 0 0

t
( )
+ V . = 2 VORTICITY
TRANSPORT EQ.
D 2-D
= 2
Dt

z z z 2 z 2 z
+u +v = 2 + 2
t x y x y
v u
z = = z k , x = y = 0
x y
D z
= 2 z DT
Dt rate of dissipation of = 2T
vorticity through friction Dt
substantive variation of vorticity
 2 D, incomp. flow, =const. z =
D
= 2 2 eqs.
Dt 2 unknowns
u v u, v
+ =0
x y

GOAL: Reduce the governing eq. (for incomp., 2-D, =const.)

to just one!

Introduce the stream function (x,y,t)

u= ; v= (Note that satisfies the continuity eq.)
y x
D
v u 2 2 = 2
= = 2 2 = 2 Dt , formulation
x y x y
2 =

2
t
( ) + .
y x
( 2
) . ( 2 ) = 4
x y
(A)
viscous term
local accel. convective term
1-eq. 1 unknown ()
4th order PDE (non-linear) very complex
valid for 2-D, incompressible flow, =const.
B.C.s would be in terms of the first derivatives of

Example:

At infinity u=U , v=0 =0, = U
x y

At the solid surface, = =0
x y

- only few simple analytic solutions are known.

- numerical solutions are required
 Non-dimensionalization

= / V0 L Re

( ) ( ) ( )

2 2 2 1 4 *

+ . . =


t y x x y Re
 Study of Viscous Flows :

1) Exact solutions of N-S.

a) Analytical solutions (limited success
because of the non-linearity of the eqs.)
b) Numerical solutions

2) Very slow motions of viscous flow CREEPING FLOW : Re<<1

Re 0
2
dV V
F = ma L3 L3 V 2 L2
dt L
dV
V
dS

inertia forces V 2
Re = Inertia forces<<viscous forces
viscous forces V
du V 2
.A A L VL
dy L
 4
= 0 Fourth order linear eq.
biharmonic eq. in two dimensions
- governing relation in the theory of 2-D elasticity
- large number of practical solutions exists from solid mechanics.
See Timoshenko & Goodier (1970)
- can be applied to creeping viscous flows
2-D, =const. , =const.

3) Limit as Re
Boundary layer theory

inertia forces>>viscous forces

but cannot neglect viscous terms
completely but order of eqs. reduces
cannot satisfy all B.C.s simultaneously.
 Boundary-Layer Flow: Re>>1

V
t
( )
+ V . V = p +
1 2
Re
V

1 2
The term V is never negligible near a solid boundary because
Re
the no-slip condition forces 2 V to be very large, of order Re, near
the wall B-L.

Singular-perturbation problem Van Dyke (1964)

Perturbation Methods in F.M.
1/Re contains the highest-order derivative in the system,
i.e. solution changes mathematical character as 1/Re
Example: Flow of a uniform stream parallel to an infinite flat plate with uniform suction:

u = 1 evw Re y ; v = vw ; vw < 0
Exact solution for arbitrary Re.
Behaviour of solution as Re
i) Re finite (no matter how large) u 0 as y 0
ii) Re u=1 everywhere
frictionless solution
i.e. frictionless flow with very small viscosity is not a potential flow since
a layer of finite thickness always exists where viscous effects are important.
1
small Re

y medium Re
u
x Large Re
Re

y=0
vw
Low Reynolds Number : Creeping flow
Limiting case of very large viscosity: Re<<1

Exact solutions N-S. valid for arbitrary Re, at least until instability sets in and
turbulence ensues.
Lack generality & limited

e.g. Viscous flow past an immersed body at arbitrary Re

- Direct experiment
- Numerical solution
- B-L approach
- Creeping flow approx.
Basic Assumption : Re<<1, i.e inertia forces<<viscous f.
pressure cannot scale with the dynamic or inertia term U2 but rather must depend
upon a viscous scale U/L
Non-dimensionalize the N-S eqs. with variables

x V tU p p
x = , V = , t = , p =
L U L U / L

DV 2
Re
= p + V
Dt

Neglect inertia if Re<<1

i.e. Creeping Flow (or Stokes flow) assumption

( )
Note: inertia V. V is also negligible if there is no convective acceleration
e.g., fully developed duct flow (no restriction on Re).
Full N-S. for =const. , =const. (steady flow)

V
( )
+ V . V = p + 2 V
t
0

(V . )V 0 (inertial force)
Momentum eq. inertia forces
p= 2 V Re = << 1
viscous forces
.V = 0
in extended form,
p 2u 2u 2u
= 2 + 2 + 2
x x y z
p 2v 2v 2v
= 2 + 2 + 2 GOVERNING EQS for
y x y z CREEPING FLOW
p 2w 2w 2w B.C.s are the same as N-S eqs.
= 2 + 2 + 2
z x y z
u v w
+ + =0
x y z
 Characteristics of CREEPING flows
a) Solutions are independent of density
b) Take div (.) of the momentum eq.

div grad p = 2 p = div 2 V =const.

= div 2 V

= 2 divV
.V = 0

: Laplace operator

2

= 2 + 2 + 2
2 2
p=0
2

x y z
Pressure satisfies the Laplace (potential) eq. & p(x,y,z) is a potential (harmonic)
function.

c) Take the curl of the momentum

(3) 2 = 0 , = V (vorticity)
ABOVE valid for any 3-D problem
FOR 2-D CREEPING FLOW
choice #1
work with primitive variables u, v, p

choice #2
work in terms of (stream function)

has only one non-zero component

v u
(4) = =
2
Note: u= ; v=
x y y x
(3) & (4) 4 = 0
2

2 2
4 = 2 + 2
x y
In cylindrical coord. (r, )
2

2
1 1 2

=
4
+ + 2
r
2
r r r 2 See plane elasticity problems
Laplace 's operator in cylindrical coord.
Examples: low-velocity, small-scale, highly viscous flows.
a) Flow past immersed bodies: no exact solutions
b) Lubrication theory: -numerical sol.
c) Biofluid dynamics: -B.L. viscous/inviscid patching schemes
d) Hele-Shaw flows: -creeping flow approx.
e) Fully dev. duct flow:
f) Small particle dynamics
Linear P.D.Es many solutions in closed form.
Happel & Brenner, Low Reynolds number hydrodynamics (1965)

Example: Stokes solution for an immersed sphere:

u ur motion of colloidal particles under

influence of an electric field theory
r of sedimentation
study of movement of aerosol particles.

a
U

creeping motion of a stream of speed U about a solid sphere of radius a

(r , ) Stokes stream function relation
1 1
ur = , u = (1)
r sin
2
r sin r
note: continuity eq. identically satisfied.
2
2
1 2
cot
Mom. eq. 2 + =0 (2)
r r
2 2
r
2

BC 's

At r=a = = 0 (u = ur = 0) (3)
r
1 ur U cos
As r Ur 2 sin 2 + const. :
2 u U sin
(r, )=f(r)g( ) (4)

Substitute (4) into (2) and satisfy (3). Find the solution of Stokes (1851) for
for a creeping motion past a sphere

1 2 2 a 3r 2r 2
= Ua sin + 2
4 r a a
 a 3 3a
ur = U cos 1 + 3
2r 2r
a 3 3a
u = U sin 1 + 3
4r 4r

Properties
1) Streamlines & velocities are entirely independent of fluid viscosity. True for all
all creeping flows.
2) The streamlines posses perfect fore-and-aft. symmetry.
No wake predicted.
convective accel. terms (neglected here) are responsible for strong flow
asymmetry typical of higher Re number flows.
3) The local velocity is everywhere retarded from its freestream value. There is
no faster region such as occurs in potential flow. (u = 1,5U at sphere shoulder)
4) The effect of the sphere extends to enermous distances:
At r=10a, the velocities are still about 10% below their free stream values.

With ur & u known, pressure can be found

p = 2 V
 3 aU
Result p=p 2
cos p : uniform freestream pressure
2r
Pressure deviation is proportional to & antisymmetric

a 3U
ps p = cos
Dp 2a

Dp : pressure drag

pressure (form)
Drag force
surface shear stress (friction drag)

Shear stress distribution in fluid

1 ur u u U sin 3a 3
r = + = 3
r r r r 2r
Total drag is found by integrating pressure & shear around the surface

F = r r =a
sin dA p r = a cos dA
0 0

dA = 2 a 2 sin d
F = 4Ua + 2Ua = 6Ua
Sphere drag formula, Stokes (1851)
2/3 viscous force + 1/3 pressure force
F=6 Ua
Strictly valid only for Re<<1 but agrees with experiment up to about Re=1.
(predicts 10% low at Re=1)

Drag Coef. F/ Ua=6 =const.

But customary definition
2F
CD = A: cross-sectional area = a 2
U 2 A
 2 x6Ua 12 24
CD = = =
U a
2 2
Ua Re
2a U
Re = 2a=D

Notes:
Formula introduces a Re effect where none exists
underpredicts the actual drag when Re>1 due to a symmetrical wake forms

For Re>20
- Flow seperates from the rear surface, causing markedly increased pressure
drag

Comparison with inviscid solution

1 2 2 a3
= Ur sin 1 3
2 r

See handout
 Streamlines are close to
the body!

Recirculation is absent
sphere drags the entire surrounding fluid with it circulation streamlines
sphere pushes fluid out of the way
 Other three-dimensional body shapes
Happel & Brenner, Low Reynolds number hydrodynamics (1965)

Disk normal to the freestream: F=16 Ua

Disk parallel to the freestream: F=(32/3) Ua

See White (1991) Viscous Fluid Flow

 EXACT SOLUTIONS OF NAVIER-STOKES EQS

A) Parallel Flows: i.e. velocity is unidirectional u 0 , v=w=0

B) Similarity solutions

C) Generalized Beltrami Flows- V = 0 3D Flow
difficulties =0
- non-linear PDEs V
- no general solution is known

Reference C.Y. Wang (1991) Exact solutions of the steady-state N-S eqs.
Ann. Rev. of Fluid Mech. Vol.23, pp. 159-177.
R.Berker (1963)

Almost all of the particular solutions are for the case of incompressible Newtonien
flow with constant transport properties,

.V = 0
DV
= p + 2 V
Dt
DT
cp = k 2T +
Dt
P: total hydrostatic pressure. i.e. it includes the gravity term for convenience.
P = p g or P=p+ gz z

( )
1) Convective accel. V. vanishes.
g = gk
g

( )
2) Non-linear solutions V. does not vanish. y

x
GROUP A: PARALLEL FLOWS
u 0 , v=w=0
parallel flow: only one velocity component is different from zero.
i.e. all fluid particles moving in one direction.
u v w u
+ + =0 =0
x y z x
0 0

u=u(y,z,t) ; v 0 , w 0
y-comp. of momentum eq.

v v v v p 2v 2v 2v p
+u +v + w = + 2 + 2 + 2 =0
t x y z y x y z y
 p
z- comp. of mom. eq. =0 p=p ( x,t )
z
x- comp. of mom. eq.
u u u u p 2u 2u 2u
+u +v +w = + 2 + 2 + 2
t x y z x x y z
u p 2u 2u
= + 2 + 2 (A)
t x y z

Linear dif. eq. for u(y,z,t)

u ( .)
steady =0 = 0 (In general)
t t

1) Parallel flow through a straight channel

Couette Flows
a) both plates stationary

x
dp d 2u BC's y=0 u=0
= 2
dx dy y=a u=0

p dp
=0 = const.
y dx
u dp 1 dp 2 c1
= + c1 u = y + y + c2
y dx 2 dx
1 dp 2 c1 1 dp
c2 = 0, 0= a + a c = a
2 dx 1
2 dx
a 2 dp y y
2

u= velocity profile
2 dx a a

Shear stress distribution

dp 1 dp dp y 1
yx = y a = a
dx 2 dx dx a 2
 l dp 3
a

Volume flow rate Q = V .d A = u (ldy ) = a

A 0
12 dx
1 dp 2
average vel. V =Q/ A= a
12 dx

du
Point of maximum vel. = 0 & solve for y
dy
y=a/2 du/dy=0
1 dp 2 3
y=a/2 u=u max = a = V
8 dx 2
b) upper plate moving with constant speed, U:

dp 2u 1 dp 2 c1
= 2 u= y + y + c2
dx y 2 dx dp
= f ( a, , U )
dx
u = 0 @ y=0 c 2 = 0
U 1 dp du
u = U @ y=a c1 = a = 0 at y=0
a 2 dx dy
After rearrangement,
vel. distribution depends on
Uy a dp y y

2 2

u( y) = + dp
a 2 dx a a both &U
dx
 dp y
zero pressure gradient = 0 u=U
dx a
simple shear (Couette) flow

dp 2 U
p = 1 = 2 > 0
dx a
y/a 1.0
dp
=0 dp
<0
dx U dx
dp y
<0
dx a
dp x
>0
dx u/U
0 1 2 3

a2 dp
P= dp
>0
2 U dx dx
dimensionless pressure gradient
-Results are valid for laminar flow only
dp Ua
-Experiments show for = 0 ReC = 1500
dx
-Theory of lubrication

journal bearing

Temperature considerations
= const. flow eqs are uncoupled from the temp.

Energy eq.

DT
cp = k 2T +
Dt
T T T 2T 2T
cp +u +v = k 2 + 2 +
t x y x y
 T=T1
U
dP
=0
y' dx
x
2h
y y
u =U
x 2h
T=T0

Coordinate transformation y=y'+h

U U y'
u = [ y '+ h ] = 1 +
2h 2 h
u ( y) T ( y)
2
d T 2
du
0=k 2 +
dy dy
 T=T1
U y
u ( y ) = 1 +
2h
y 2 h
x
du
= U / 2h
dy
T=T0

U 2 y 2
T = 2
+ c3 y + c4
4kh 2
T ( h ) = T0 & T ( h ) = T1
T +
1 0 T T T y U 2
y 2

T = + 1 0
+ 1 2
2 2 h 8k h
linear temp. dist. temp. rise due to
pure conduction viscous dissipation in
the fluid
Non-dimensionalizing T, by (T1-T0)
dimensionless dissipation parameter, Brinkman number, Br

U 2 cp U2
Br = = = Pr .Ec
k (T1 T0 ) k c p (T1 T0 )
Br represents the ratio dissipation effects to fluid
conduction effects.
T1
+1
Br=16
0
Br=8
-1
T0 Br=0

Temperature profile
For low-speed flows, only the most viscous fluids (oils) have significant Br.

Example: U=10 m/s T1-T0=10 C

Fluid (kg/m-s) k (W/m-C) Br

Air 1.8x10-5 0.26 0.0007

Water 1.0x10-3 0.6 0.017

Mercury 1.54x10-3 8.7 0.0018

SAE 30 oil 0.29 0.145 20.0

Except for heavy oils, we neglect dissipation effects in low-speed temperature

analyses.
Rate of heat transfer at the wall
lower surface

T k U 2 W
qw = k = (T1 T0 ) k : 0
y h
2h 4h m C
upper surface

Convective heat transfer coef. W/m2C

qw = (T1 T0 )

L L: characteristic length of the

NuL = = Ch Re L Pr flow geometry, L=2h
k
2h Br
Nu2 h = = 1
k 2
convection heat transfer
Nu = 1 pure conduction Nu
conduction heat transfer
 FLOW BETWEEN ROTATING CONCENTRIC CYLINDERS

steady rotational speed (angular vel.)

2 1 parallel flow: vr = vz = 0, v 0
v , T & p must be functions only of r.
r1

r2

Equations of motion of incompressible Newtonian Fluids in cylindrical

and spherical coordinates: See appendix B, Viscous Fluid Flow, F.
White
Continuity equation:

1 1 V
( rvr ) + ( v ) + ( vz ) = 0 =0 ( 6)
r r r z

steady flow, =0
t

axisymmetric flow =0


cylinder infinitely long =0
z
unidirectional motion v = v ( r )

Momentum eq. in r - direction balance between centrifugal force & force

which is produced by the induced pressure
dp v2
= (1) field.
p
dr r dp
>0 p as r
dr
streamline
 d 2 v d v
direction 2
+ =0 ( 2)
dr dr r
2
k d dT dv v
Energy equation 0= r + ( 3)
r dr dr dr r
viscous dissipation term

BCs
At r=r1 v = 1r1 & T=T1 p=p1
At r=r2 v = 2 r2 & T=T2

Integrate eq. (2)

d dv v dv v
+ =0 + = c1
dr dr r dr r
1 d d r2
= ( rv ) = c1 ( rv ) = c1r rv = c1 + c2
r dr dr 2
v = cr + c2 / r
Momentum eq. in direction

V V V V VrV V
+ vr + + + vz
t r r r z
1 1 V V 2 Vr 1 p
2 2
= ( rV ) + 2 2 + 2 + 2 + g
r r r r z r r

1. steady
2. = const.
3. Fully developed in z-dir.
4. axisymmetric in -dir.
5. vr = vz = 0

1
( ) = 0
rV
r r r
1
( rV ) = c1 ( rV ) = c1r
r r r
 r2
rV = c1 + c2 V = cr + c2 / r
2

Energy eq.
2
k d dT dV V
0= r + (3)
r dr dr dr r

BCs

At r=r1 v = 1r1 & T=T1 p=p1

At r=r2 v = 2 r2 & T=T2

using the B.Cs

r222 r121 r22 r12 (2 1 )

c= , c1 =
r2 r1
2 2
r22 r12
 1 2 2

( 22 1 1 )
r2 r1
V (r ) = 2 2 r r 2
r 2
( 2 1 )
( 4)
r2 r1 r

Eq. (1) determines the radial pressure distribution resulting from the motion.
p=p(r) obtain this distribution!

Having found v(r) , it is substituted into eq. (3) to find temperature distribution

r2 (1 2 / 1 ) r12 ln ( r / r1 ) ln ( r / r1 )
4 2
T T1
= Pr Ec 1 2 1 +
T2 T1 r2 r1 r ln ( r2 / r1 ) ln ( r2 / r1 )
4 4

where r1212 Brinkman number

Pr Ec =
k (T2 T1 ) expressing the temp. rise due to dissipation

T T1 ln ( r / r1 )
if PrEc=0 = heat conduction solution
T2 T1 ln ( r2 / r1 )
SPECIAL CASES :
i) case when r1 0 i.e. in the limit as the inner cylinder vanishes
(=0)=r1/r2

Eq.(4) V (r1 0) = 2 r rigid-body rotation

i.e. fluid rotates inside the outer cylinder as a rigid body

2 r2 = V = 2

forced vortex 0

ii) single cylinder rotating in an infinite fluid (r2 , 2 = 0)

circular flow
r 1 2
V (r2 ) = 1 v .r = const.
r r v 0
1r1
free vortex = 0
Torque transmitted by the fluid to the cylinder of length L

M 1 = Fr1 = r 2 r1 Lr1
1 1 Vr V V
r = 2 r = 2 + M 1 = 4 Lr 1 1
2
r = r1
2 r r r
=-21
iii) very small clearance between the cylinders,

r2 r1
<< 1, Let 2 = 0
r1
Eq. (4) becomes, in the limit,

V r r1 represents linear Couette flow between parallel plates

1 0
r11 r2 r1
r2

r1
1r1
Viscometry: to determine the viscosity of a fluid calculate the moment (or torque)
exerted by the cylinders upon each other.

Moment = Stress x Area x Moment arm

moments on inner and outer walls are equal since the system is in equilibrium, i.e
steady flow with no heat loss.

The moment on the outer wall with the cylinder of height L.

lateral area

M 2 = r r = r2
2 r2 L r2 0

1 1 Vr V V
r = 2 r = 2 +
r = r2
2 r r r
2 1 r2 (1 2 )
2 2
r
= 2
can be measured r r2 r1
2 2

r12 r22
M 2 = 4 L 2 2 (2 1 )
r2 r1
 if inner cylinder is at rest, 1 = 0
torque transmitted by the outer cylinder to the fluid, M2

r12 r22
M 2 = 4 L 2 2 2
r2 r1
Work out

CASE I : inner cylinder rotates with the outer one at rest.

2 = 0

CASE II : 1 = 0

Both case I & II called Couette Flows

r2
Let the ratio of radii by =r1 / r2 ,
r1
width of the annulus by s=r2 r1
current relative radius by x=r/r2
x=r/r2
 V 1 x2
Case I = (inner rotating, outer at rest)
VI 1 2 x

V x
Casse II = 2
(outer rotating, inner at rest)
VII 1 x
VI = r11 (peripheral velocity of the inner cylinder)
VII = r22 ( " " outer " )

1.0 = 0.1
0.2
Let x ' r r1 0.4
= 0.6
s s 0.8
V 1.0
V I
comment on plots

x ' r r1
0 1 s = s
Example :
Axially annular Couette flow between concentric moving cylinders

a) inner cylinder moving

b) Outer cylinder moving

See White (1991) pg. 109

 Stability of Couette Flows
All solutions up to now are exact steady flow solutions of N-S. equations.

Laminar flows smooth streamline character

ALL Laminar flows become unstable at a finite value of some critical parameter,
usually the Re.

unstable a different type of flow sets in

- sometimes still laminar (different steady solution, symmetry-asymmetry
steady time-periodic
- more often, turbulent flow: fluctuating flow regime, random

U
h
laminar flow velocity
Uh
Re h = = 1500
profile
0
turbulent flow (approx.)
-h
Time-averaged S-shaped profile
-varies slightly with Re
-w (and heat transfer rate) increases by two orders of magnitude.

Taylor (1923) rotating inner-cylinder

laminar profile is valid until a critical rotation rate.
For small clearence (r2-r1)<<r1, critical value of instability is given by
Taylor number,

2
Ta = r1 (r2 r1 )3 12 1700

If Ta>1700 3-D laminar flow consisting of counter rotating pairs of vortices
Taylor vortices
 POISEUILLE FLOW:
Coutte flows flow is driven by moving walls
Poiseuille flows pressure gradients.

application to duct flows.

Consider steady flow of a viscous fluid in a

straight duct of arbitrary but constant shape
Flow in the entry region of a tube

entrance length, Le fully developed flow

U0
viscous
layers
potential
core
U0

core vanishes,
T.B.L. layer coalesce
L.B.L. transition
depending on Re # both developing
and developed regions remain laminar
wall friction causes viscous layer

Fully developed flow: slightly further downstream of the coalescence, the flow
profile ceases to change with axial position
 constant shape cross-section

p : total hydrostatic pressure

h
dp
= const. (v=0) p = p + gz
dx y
u=u(y,z)
z
x
(w=0)

Fully developed duct flow:

Entrance effect : i.e. thin initial shear layer and core acceleration

Shah & London (1978) regardless of duct shape for laminar flow
Le
c1 + c2 Re Dh c1 0.5 , c 2 0.05
Dh
Dh : suitable diameter scale for the duct

Re c 2000 L e 100 D (pipes of circular cross-section)

 x > Le velocity becomes purely axial, v = w = 0
u varies only with the lateral coord. u = u(y,z)

Governing eqs. for incompressible flow

u v w u
Continuity + + =0 =0
x y z x

Momentum eq.

u u u p 2u 2u 2u
x direction u + v + w = + 2 + 2 + 2 (3)
x y z x x y z
p 2u 2u
0= + 2 + 2
x y z
p p
y - and z -direction 0 = = p = p ( x) only
y z
 p 2u 2u
= 2 + 2
x y z

dp
= const.(negative)
dx
2u 2u 1 p Basic eq. for fully-dev. duct flow.
+ 2 = = const.
y 2
z x (A)

B.C. no-slip condition on duct surface uw = 0

Poisson equation 2u = c if c = 0
Laplace eq.

no general solution for arbitrary cross-section

but many known solutions for different duct shapes.

See R. Berker (1963), and Viscous Fluid Flow F. M. White (1991)

To non-dimensionalize eq. (A) no characteristic vel. & axial length scale
h: characteristic duct width

y z u
y = , z =
*
, u* =
h h dp
h
2
dx

eq. (A) becomes

2
( u ) = 1

u * = 0 on duct boundary

The circular pipe: Hagen-Poiseuille Flow

r0 r

(y,z) plane (r,) circle

Cylindrical coord. system is preferred
1 d d
2 = r vr = v = 0, v z = u
r dr dr
1 d du 1 d p
r = = const.
r dr dr dx
du 1 dp 2
r = r + c1
dr 2 dx
1 dp 2
u(r)= r + c1 ln r + c2
4 dx

u (r = r0 ) = 0
u (r = 0) = finite c1 = 0 (ln0)
or u(r) is even function u(-r)=u(r) c1 = 0
1 dp 2
u (r0 ) = 0 c 2 = r0
4 dx
 1 dp 2 2
u (r ) =
4 dx
( r0 r ) note:
dp
dx
<0 u>0

paraboloid about centerline

Volume flow rate, Q

r04 d p
r0

Q = udA = u 2 rdr =
A r =0
8 dx
mean velocity
Q r02 d p 1
u =Q/ A= 2 = = umax
r0 8 dx 2
The wall shear stress,
u vr r0 d p 4 u
w = + = =

r x r = r0 2 dx r0
 Introduce the pipe-friction factor

2
dp u
= Darcy-Weisbach eq.
dx 2r0 2
u 2r0 64 VALID FOR Laminar flow
Re D =
Re ReC 2300

2 w
16
Cf = 2
= Cf =
u Re D 4

fanning friction factor

(skin friction factor)
Non-circular ducts:
*2
( u ) = 1
*
; u* = 0 Dirichlet problem
Berker (1963) , White, Viscous Fluid Flow

rectangle, ellipse, concentric annulus, circular sector, equilateral triangle, etc.

Example: equilateral triangle y

a a
z

a
d p / dx 1
u ( y, z ) =
2 3a
z
2
a 3

( 3 y 2
z 2
)
4A 4 area a
Dh = = Dh =
P wetted perimeter 3
uDh
Re =

 Temperature distribution in fully developed duct flow:
u(y,z) is known
energy eq. can be solved for T
T(x,y,z) if B.C. change with x.

Ex: Tw=const.
Pipe Flow

1 dp 2 2
r0 u (r ) =
4 dx
( r0 r )

T(r) only

Energy equation: Appendix B, White (1991)

2 2 2
k d dT du 16 u r
r = = 4
r dr dr
d r r0

T (r ) = Ar 4 + c1 ln r + c2 A is known
at r=0 T=finite c1 = 0
2 2
at r=r0 T=Tw u r 4
u
T = Tw + 1 4 ; Tmax = Tw +
k r0 k
max. temp. rise due to dissipation
2
u r4
Br = T = 1 + Br 1 4
*

kTw r0
2
u
Air u = 100 ft/sec
k
max. temp. rise 1 F (air)
" " 3 F (water)

oils is large dissipation important

or gas dynamics where velocities are high.
 The wall heat transfer, qw

dT
qw = k or q w = h(Tw T0 )
dr r = r0

4k (Tw T0 ) h(2r0 ) qw (2r0 )

or qw = , Nu= = =8
r0 k k (Tw T0 )
for viscous dissipation

Homework Find u(y,z)

z
(-a,b) (a,b) Contours of u(y,z)
can use method of eigen function
y expansion

Let a=1/2
b=1
(a,-b)
(-a,-b)
 VISCOUS FLOW NEAR A STAGNATION POINT

0 rigid boundary
B-L thickness
(region of non-zero vorticity, ) stagnation point (u=v=0)

At large distances from stagnation point, the flow essentially the same as that of the
corresponding potential flow problem.

can use potential flow to solve the viscous flow problem.

 2-D Flow: Plane Stagnation Flow:
u v
Continuity + =0 (1)
x y
Introduce stream function ( x,y )

u= , v= (2) satisfies cont. eq. identically
y x
it must also satisfy the 2-D eq. of motions

u u 1 p 2u 2u
u +v = + 2 + 2
x y x x y
(3)
v v 1 p 2v 2v
u +v = + 2 + 2
x y y x y

Invscid Flow near a stagnation point of a body

= Bxy , u=Bx , v= By V = Bxi By j

B positive constant proportional to U 0 / L
 V12 P0 V02 B2 2
P1
+
2
= +
2
P1 = P0
2
x + y2 ( )
P0 : stagnation pressure
Inviscid flow is described above slips at the wall, i.e. u 0 at y=0
It must be modified to account viscous effects.

viscous = xf ( y ) u=xf '(y) , v= f(y) (4a)

and
B2 2
p = p0 x + F ( y ) (4b)
2
stream vel.
Note: Continuity eq. is automatically satisfied U0
B is
Substituting eqs. (4a-b) into (3)
L charact.
body length

1
xf '. f '+ ( f ) xf " = (B 2 x) + ( 0 + xf "')

ODE
( f ')
2
ff " = B 2 + f "' (5a)
dimensional
 1 B2
0+ ( f )( f ') = F '( y ) + ( 0 f ")
2
1 2
ff ' = B F ' f " ( 5b )
2
BCs for the unknown functions f & F

u=v=0 on the wall f = f ' = 0 at y=0

p = p0 ( x=0 ) F ( 0 ) = 0 at y=0
y=0
y u=Bx ( inviscid flow ) Bx=xf ' ( )
f '() = B

Can first solve eq. (5a) for f then substitute the result into eq. (5b) to get F.
Note :
- instead of solving u,v & p(x,y) or (x,y) via PDE
we solve ODE only.
eliminated x, leaving only y a single similarity variable.
To eliminate dimensional constants B& , eq. (5a) needs to be non-dimensionalized
as follows.
since no body-length scale "L" for this flow
m2
use the proper length scale as =m
B s.1/s
m2 1
" " velocity " B = = m/s
s s

Appropriate dimensionless variables then

f ( y)
=y
B

, ( ) =
B
(
or =x ( ) B ) 6a-b)

substituting eqs. 6a-b) into ( 5a )

d
"'+ " '2 + 1 = 0 (7) '= , etc
d
BCs for
= 0 =0, '=0 No analytic solution exists
Numerical integration.
= '=1
Solution of eq. (7) is given first by Hiemenz (1911).
Can consider thickness of B.L. y= where u=0.99 U
corresponding value of the
potential flow

2.4
B
B
= y

B
F ' ( 2.4 ) = 0.99 2.44

d
u = xf ' ( y ) = x B ' ( ) = xB ' ( ) = u
dy
Ui inviscid vel. profile
B f ( y)
= y ; ( ) =
B
v = f ( y ) = B ( ) u, v satisfy the no-slip condition

u
= ' ( )
Ui

u
' u
Ui

"
B
=y
0 2.4
1 2 3
Fig. 1
 Numerical Solution
"'+ "+ 1 '2 = 0
Runge-Kutta numerical integration
3rd order ODE 3 1st order ODE s

Let Y (1) = " dY (1)

= Y ( 2 ) Y ( 2 ) 1 Y ( 3) Y (1)
d
Y ( 2) = '
dY ( 2 )
Y ( 3) = = Y (1)
d
dY ( 3)
= Y ( 2)
d
Solve for Y (1) , Y ( 2 ) & Y ( 3)
Initial conditions:
( 0 ) = ' ( 0 ) = 0 Y0 ( 2 ) = Y0 ( 3) = 0 i.e. Y ( 2 ) = Y ( 3) = 0 at =0
' ( ) = 1 Y (2) 1 as
how large is infinity
answer when " becomes very small, say <10-5

asymptotic analysis
u
as becomes large = ' ( ) 1 ( ) + const.
Ui
"'+ "+ 1 '2 = 0
vanishes

"' - 2 / 2
or " e
"
'' < 105 if > 4.8 = "infinity"
4th order R-K method
" 1 to 1.5 guess Y (1) = 1 1.5 at =0
'=u/U i
" ( 0 ) = 1.23259 = w|
y =0
Numerical Solution

'
0.1 0.11826
0.2 0.22661
.
.
2.4 0.99055
2.8 0.99705
3.0 0.99843
 y

u
= 0.99
U
x
B-L behaviour : no-slip condition creates a low-vel. region which merges smoothly
with the outer inviscid flow

outer flow called "free stream" velocity , U ( x )

Stagnation flow: U=u ( x, ) = Bx
accelerating freestream pressure
u
= 0.99 = ' ( = 2.4 ) decreases in the flow direction
favorable pressure gradient
Ui
B
=2.4= ( y= )


2.4 = const.
B
because thinning due to stream acceleration, U=Bx,
exactly balances the thickening due to viscous diffusion.

e.g. if U=cxm

the B-L will grow with x if m<1

will become thinner with x if m>1

Pressure distribution: exhibits B.L. behaviour

B2 2
p = p0 x + F ( y ) p=p ( x,y )
2
p dU U=Bx
= B x = U
2
Bernoulli eq. gradient parallel to the
x dx wall satisfies Bern. eq.
p B2 ff '+ f " 2
= F ' ( y ) , F' ( y ) =
y 2 1 B2
= ( f f '+f ") small if is small
typical to laminar boundary layers
Wall shear stress
u = xf ' ( y )
f ( y) B
v = f ( y ) = B ( ) ( ) = , =y
B
u v v
w = + , v = v( y ) = 0
y x y =0 x
u u B
= =U i ( )
y y

w = Ui "
0

=U i 0" B
w U i wall shear stress is proportional to freestream vel.)
2 w 2(0) Ux
Cf = = Re x = Friction factor varies inversly with the
U 2
Re x square root of the local Reynolds number
Common in L.B. Layers.
Stagnation-point problem: Temperature distribution
velocities are known

B
u = xf ' ( y ) =y

f ( y)
v = f ( y ) ( ) =
B

A similarity solution exists if the wall & stream temperatures Tw and T

are constant.
* A realistic approximation in typical heat transfer problems
Goldstein (1938)

T T 2T 2T
cp u +v = k 2 + 2
x y x y
 T Tw B
( ) = , =y
T Tw
with Tw & T being constant, the fluid temp T=T ( y ) only.
T T B
v = f ( y) = B ( ) . (T Tw ) = B (T Tw ) ( )
y y

y

2T 2 B
= (T Tw ) 2
y 2

B 2 k
c p B (T Tw ) = k (T Tw ) =
2 cp
d 2 d c p
+ Pr ( ) =0 Pr= = = const.
d 2
d k

BC ' s ( 0) = 0 & ( ) = 1
 ( ) stream function is known from flow problem Fig.1
Tabulated values are known

IVP RK4 subroutine

But has an exact solution. (Linear eq.)

0 d exp -Pr 0 ds
( ) = = = Pr
( )


0 d exp -Pr 0 ds

thermal boundary layer, T , is the point where 0.99

 1.0
10 1 0.3 0.1

T Tw
=
T Tw 0.01

Pr=0.001

0 B
=y
1 2 8

u
Pr 0.4 (Power law curve fit)
T velocity B.L. is thicker than thermal B.L. because viscous
diff. exceeds conduction effects.
Pr=

Pr > 1 > T
> thermal diff.
viscous diff.
 Heat transfer at the wall is computed from Fouriers Law

T d
= k (T Tw ) = k (T Tw )
B B
qw = k G ( Pr )
y y =0
d =0


where G ( Pr )
1
= d exp -Pr ds
0 0

RK 4 Formulation: Y ( 3) =
dY ( 4 )
= Y ( 3) Y ( 4 ) = d
d
dY ( 5 )
= exp ( Pr Y ( 4 ) )
d
Y ( 5 ) G ( Pr )
 10
Pr G (plane flow)
G(Pr) 0.01 0.076
1 0.1 0.22
1 0.57
0.1 10 1.339
100 2.986
0.01 1 10 100 1000 Pr
1000 6.529

G 0.57 Pr 0.4
BC ' s ( 0 ) = 0 Y0 ( 4 ) = 0
d
2
d
OR + Pr ( ) =0 ( II ) () = 1 Y0 ( 5 ) = 1
d2
d
Let Y ( 4 ) = ( )
d dY ( 5 )
Y ( 5) = = Pr Y ( 3) .Y ( 5 ) ( 4)
d d
dY ( 4 )
= Y (5) ( 5)
d
Y (1) = "
Y ( 2 ) = ' solve for Yi ( ) i=1,...5 RK4 Routine depends on Pr
Y ( 3) =

1 p x 2
B2 x = p=-B2 + K ( y )
x 2
1 p 1 y 2
+ B2 y = B2 y = K ' ( y ) K' ( y ) = -B2 + K1
y 2

p = B2 ( x2 + y2 ) + C x=0 , y=0 p=p0 stagnation pressure
2

p = p0 B 2 ( x 2 + y 2 ) c=p0
2

p = p0 ( u 2 + v 2 ) Bernoulli Eq.
2
 1 y
u =Bx v=-By =Bxy m 2
m/s 1/s m s
x
y=0 u 0 slips on the wall
B2 2
=xf ( y ) u=xf ' ( y ) v=-f ( y ) p = p0 ( x + F ( y ) )
2
u v
C.E + =0 f '( y) f '( y) = 0
x y
1
xf ' + ( f ) xf " = ( B 2 x ) + ( 0 + xf "' )
2

f '2 ff " = B 2 + f "' ODE

xf '2 + ( f ) xf " = + ( 0 + xf "')

f '2 ff " = B 2 + f "'
1 B2
xf ' ( y ) .0 + ( f )( f ') = F ' + ( 0 f ")
2
1 2
ff '= B F ' f "
2
u = Bx y f '() = B
y=0 u=0, f ' ( 0 ) = 0
v=0, f ( 0 ) = 0
x = 0
p=p0 F ( 0) = 0
y = 0
y
proper length scale : [ m] =
B
B

velocity scale B : [ m / s ] = ( )
B x

f = B ( ) df
=
( )
B ( )
= B ' B /
dy y
2 f d B
= ( B ' ) = B "
2
B 2
B 2 '2 B" =B + "' y 2
dy

3 f d B B B
= B " = B "'
'2 -"=1+"' y 3 dy
=0 u=0=xB' ' ( 0 ) = 0
v=0=- B ( 0) = 0

u=xB' ( ) = xB ' ( ) = 1
Fig s.11 ( Schlichting )

u=xf ' ( y ) = xB ' ( )

Ui inviscid profile
v=-f ( y ) = B ( )
Unsteady Motions of a Plate :
y

u=u(y,t) v=0

0 x

Parallel flow, v=w=0

initially both the plate & fluid are at rest u(y,0)=0 for y>0
the plate is jerked into motion in its own plane
no-slip at the plate : u(y=0,t)=U(t) for t>0

Two-cases
1- U=constant (Stokes First Problem)
2- U(t)=U0cost (Stokes Second Problem)
 Steady oscillation of the plane at Ucost.
dp
zero pressure gradient =0 p=const.
dx
governing P.D.E. reduces

u 2u
= 2 (1-D heat conduction )
t y

CASE I: U=const.
0 for t = 0
u ( y = 0, t ) =
U for t > 0
u ( y, t ) = finite
u 2u 2u
Unsteady heat conduction equation = 2 + 2
t x y
Carslaw and Jaeger (1959) Conduction of heat in solids

Solution methods u y y
-Laplace transforms = 1 erf = erfc
-Similarity methods U 2 t 2 t

2
erf ( ) = e
x2
dx
0

Similarity Solutions :
applicable for non-linear problems

similarity solutions exist for:

parabolic P.D.E with two independent variables when there is no geometric length
scale in the problem.
give ODE

1
y erfx
increasing time

erfcx
u x
t1 t2 U 2
t=0 1
Eg: At t=t1 u=0.5U at y=y1
At t=t 2 u=0.5U at y=y 2

Expect solution exists in the form

u ( y, t ) y
= f ( ) where =
U tn
( y, t ) : similarity variable
: constant of proportionality:
will be found later to make dimensionless.
u ( y, t ) = Uf ( )
when =const. u=const. (y t )
n

IF similarity solution exists, it will result in an ODE with f as the dependent variable
and as the independent variable.
 u 2u
PDE = 2 (1) , Let u=Uf ( )
t y
y
= n
t
u u df y
= =U ( ) n+1
n = Un f'
t t d t t
u u
= = Uf ' n = U n f '
y y t t
2u u u 2
= = = U n f '' n = U 2n f ''
y 2
y y y y t t t
Substituting above expressions to (1)

2
U n f ' = U 2n f ''
t t
To eliminate t (hence obtain an ODE for f) Let n=1/2
 for n=1/2 a similarity solution is obtained

1
f "+ f ' = 0
2
f "+ f '=0 constant [-]
2 2 2

to make dimensionless; u=Uf ( ) use & U ( if necessary )

y
= 1/2
: constant of proportionality
t
y m m2 1 y y
, = = or = []
t s s t 2 t
1 1
2 2 = = f "+2f '=0 f ( )
2 2
y
( )
A f "+2 f '=0 ODE =
2 t
BCs
u ( 0,t ) = U ( t>0 ) f ( =0 ) = 1
u ( y,t=0 ) = 0 ( y 0 ) f ( ) 0
f" d f'
= 2 ( ln f ') = 2 ln = 2
f' d A

f ( ) = A e
2
2
f ' = Ae
d + B
0

f ( 0 ) = 1 B=1


f ( ) = 0 0=A e 2
d + 1 = A +1
0
2
2
A=

u ( y, t ) 2

y
= f ( ) = 1 d
2

e =
U 0 2 t
y
=Erfc ( ) = Erfc
2 t

2
Complementary error function Erfc ( ) = 1 e
2
d
0

2
Error function Erf ( ) = e
2
d
0

Numerical values of the Erfc ( ) is given in Tables. (pg. 103)

Erfc ( 0 ) = 1.0
Erfc ( 0.1) = 0.88754
Erfc ( 4.0 ) = 0.00000001
Erfc ( ) = 0

u y
=f ( ) =Erfc ( ) =Erfc
U 2 t
 y
=
2 t
1.8

1.0 Erfc ( ) At 1.82 u/U=0.01

u/U
0.5 1.0

Viscous effects are confined to a region next to the plate where 1.82. Outside
u
the region, the vel. gradient is too small to cause a significant shear stress.
y
In other words, vorticity dissipatesup to the point 1.82.
Beyond this point vorticity is negligible.
This region called Boundary Layer.
It is customary to define the shear layer (thickness) (B-L thickness) as the point
where the wall effect on fluid drops to 1%.

u
= 0.01 = f ( 1.82 )
U
y= =2 t 1.82 3.64 t

Ex : Air at 20 C = 1.510-5 m 2 / s 11 cm after 1 minute

Water at 20 C = 10-6 m 2 / s 3.64 10-6 60 2.8 cm
 STOKES SECOND PROBLEM:
u(0,t)
y

x 2 t

u ( 0, t ) = U cos t
u ( y, 0 ) = 0 ( at rest ) 2
T=
u ( , t ) = 0

differs from Stokes first problem by only in B.C. at y=0 oscillatory vel.
T = T0 cos t
Ex:cyclic ( daily or seasonal ) variations in surface temp.
T 2T
determine temp. variations in ground = 2 T ( y,t )
t y
Fluid is also to oscillate with the same frequency, so let,

u ( y, t ) = f ( y ) eit ( 2) i= -1 eit = cos t + i sin t

substitute ( 2 ) into the gov. eq.
u 2u
= 2 i f ( y ) eit = f " ( y ) eit
t y
i
f" ( y ) f ( y) = 0 ODE

Characteristic eq.
i
2 i = 0 Roots: 1,2 =

General sol.
i i

f ( y ) = Ae
y y

+ Be

u ( , t ) 0 B=0
 1+ i
i=
2

(1+ i ) y y i
f ( y ) = Ae
y
2
= Ae 2
e 2

=k
2
u ( y, t ) = f ( y ) eit = Ae ky e iky e it
=Ae ky ei( t ky )
=Ae ky cos ( t ky ) + i sin ( t ky )

u ( y, t ) is real need to take real part of f ( y ) eit

To evaluate A use B.C.
u ( 0,t ) = U cos t A=U Thus, vel. distribution

u ( y,t ) = Ue ky cos ( t ky ) where k=
amplitude 2
phase shift
 velocity of fluid decreases exponentially as the distance from the plate ( y ) increases.

rate of decrease k= , will be faster for higher frequency and smaller viscosity.
2
fluid oscillates in time with the same frequency as the input freq. in boundary.
amplitude of oscillation Ue-ky = g ( y )
max. amp. at y=0 U
phase shift cos ( t-ky )

specific time
instantaneous time

U
Can define thickness of oscillating shear layer, as again where velocity amplitude
drops to 1% of U. u/U=0.01.

u k 4.6
= 0.01 = e ky =e =e 4.6
=
U y = k

k= 6.5
2
remember characteristic of laminar flows
Ex : For air at 20 C , with a plate frequency of 1 Hz ( =2 rd/sec )
10 mm
The wall shear stress at the oscillating plate
u
w = y =0 = = U sin t
y y =0 4

shear stress lags the max. vel. by 135 +
2 4
Since governing eq. is linear, the method of superposition is applicable. Hence,
superposing several oscill. of diff. freq. & ampl. the sol. for arbitrary periodic motion
of plate can be obtained.
 UNIFORM FLOW OVER A POROUS WALL
non-linear inertia terms are not zero ( V. )V 0
but linearized to permit a closed form solution
Example: steady, fully-dev. flow over a plate with suction

fully dev.

y p=const.
u=u(y)

suction on surface is sometimes used to prevent boundary layers from separating.

I. solution with primitive variables, u, v, p

u v
+ =0 v=const.
x y
u u 2u 2u 1 p
x: u +v = 2 + 2
x y x y x

0

v= V ( uniform )
p
y: =0 B.C.s u ( y=0 ) = 0
y
u ( y ) = U
du d 2u
V = 2
dy dy
d 2u V du V V
+ =0 + = 0 =0 & =
2

dy 2
dy
V
y
u ( y ) = A + Be
 V
note if blowing instead of suction v=V u ( y ) = A + Be
y

yu
not physically possible
u would be unbounded
u ( 0 ) = 0 A+B=0 at large y

u ( y ) = U = A B.L. thickness
V
y
V
u ( y ) = U 1 e

II. solution using Vorticity transport eq.

Vorticity Transport in 2-D

t
( )
+ V . = 2

z z z 2 z 2 z
+u +v = 2 + 2
t x y x y
 z
steady =0 & 0 fully-dev. flow
t x
z 2 z
v = z = z ( y )
y y 2

d
& v= V=const. ( from continuity )
y dy
dz d 2 z
V =
dy dy 2
convection of viscous diffusion
vorticity toward away from plate
plate

V d z d 2 z
=
dy dy 2
V d
Integrate once, z = z + c1
dy
z = 0 at y

B.C. dz c1 = 0
=0 at y
dy
 V dz
V
y
dy = yields, z = c2 e
z
but z = 0 at y , 0=c 2 e c 2 ??
Now, let
v u du
z = =
x y dy
V
du y
z = = c2 e
dy
V y
u = c2 e + c3
V
u ( y ) = U U=c 2 .0 + c3 c3 = U
y
V
u ( y = 0 ) = 0 0=c 2 + U c 2 = U
V
y
V
u=U 1 e &

V V y UV z
z = U e z is max at y=0

terms in eq.
z V 3 V y
V = U 2 e convection
y
2 z V 3 V y
2 = U 2 e diffusion
y

Note length if V vorticity moves toward wall
V
if V vorticity moves away from wall
dif. term ( temdency of shear layer to grow due to viscous diffusion )
V convective term ( toward the wall )
As usual, define the B.L. thickness to be the point where

u=0.99U =4.6 =
V V
Eg . Air at 20 C , if V=1 cm/s, 7 mm
For a plate with a leading edge (x=0), a Laminar shear layer would grow and
approach this constant value.
4 U
it is estimated by Iglisch (1944) x 2 U=10 m/s, V=1 cm/s x 6m
V
Ex2: Flow through & between porous plates

dp
h Flow = const. y
dx
x

B.C. u=0, v= V at y=0, h

2-D , N-S eqs. -V
u u u 1 p 2u 2u
+u +v = + 2 + 2
t x y x x y

v v v 1 p 2v 2v
+u +v = + 2 + 2
t x y y x y

Assume
1) Steady p
2) Fully-dev. flow 0 = 0 P=f ( x )
x y
u v
Cont. + =0 v=const.= V
x y
2

du 1 dp d 2u d 2u V du 1 dp
V = + 2 + = = const.
dy dx dy dy 2
dy dx
du d V 1 dp
Let = + =
dy dy dx
DE solution = part + hom
1 dp
part = , part = A
V dx
V
y
hom = c1 e
,
du V
y 1 dp
= = c1 e +


dy V dx
 V y 1 dp
u ( y ) = c1 e + y + c2
V V dx
B.C.s u=0 at y=0 & y=h
y
V
h dp y 1 e
u=
V dx h h
V

1 e
if no suction V=0, then
1 dp 2
u V 0 =
2 dx
( y hy ) parabolic vel. profile

1 dp
V =0 = ( 2 y h)
2 dx
V V y
e
du h dp 1
= = +
dy V dx V
h h
1 e

 V
du h dp 1
w = = +
y =0
dy V dx V
h h
y =0
1 e

V V h
e
h dp 1
w = +
y =h
V dx V
h h
1 e

 dp
If we have fully-dev. flow, shear stress & is related
dx
L
w y =h
F =0 for fully-dev. flow
=P1 h P2 h + w .L w .L = 0
y =h y =0

( )
h
( P1 P2 ) h = L w w
P1 P2
y =0 y =h

w ( P1 P2 ) = L dx
dp
y =0
dp
=
( P1 P2 )
dx L

P1

P2