MAJOR PRO Doc2

1.
INTRODUCTION
Transport in the Republic of India is an important part of the nation's economy. Roads
are the vital lifelines of the economy making possible trade and commerce. They are
the most preferred modes of transportation and considered as one of the cost effective
modes. An efficient and well-established network of roads is desired for promoting
trade and commerce in any country and also fulfills the needs of a sound
transportation system for sustained economic development.
To provide mobility and accessibility, all weather roads should connect every nook
and corner of the country. To sustain both static and dynamic load, the pavement
should be designed and constructed with utmost care. The performance of the
pavement depends on the quality of materials used in road construction. Sub grade is
the in situ material upon which the pavement structure is placed. Although there is a
tendency to look at pavement performance in terms of pavement structures and mix
design alone, the sub grade soils can often be the overriding factor in pavement
performance.
The construction cost of the pavements will be considerably decreased if locally

available low cost materials are used for construction of lower layer of pavements
such as sub grade, sub base etc. If the stability of local soils is not adequate for
supporting the loads, suitable methods to enhance the properties of soil need to be
adopted. Soil stabilization is one such method. Stabilizing the sub grade with an
appropriate chemical stabilizer (such as Quicklime, Portland cement, Fly Ash or
Composites) increases sub grade stiffness and reduces expansion tendencies, it
performs as a foundation (able to support and distribute loads under saturated
conditions).
The development of any country depends on the transportation facilities and the
construction projects. For the projects to be successful, the soil used for the
foundation beds must be strong which requires better soil properties. Expansive soils
have the tendency to swell when they come in contact with moisture and to shrink if
moisture is removed from them. These volume changes in swelling soils are the cause
of many problems in structures that come into their contact or constructed out of
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them. The expansive soils in India have liquid limit values ranging from 50 to 100 %,
plasticity index ranging from 20 to 65 % and shrinkage limit from 9 to 14 %.
1.1. NATURE OF EXPANSIVE SOIL:

Expansive soils are soils that expand when water is added, and shrink when they dry
out. This continuous change in soil volume can cause homes built on this soil to move
unevenly and crack. Expansive soils are so widespread that it becomes impossible to
avoid them for highway construction. Many highway agencies, private organizations
and researches are doing extensive studies on waste materials and research projects
concerning their feasibility and environmental stability. Swelling of expansive soils
because serious problems and produces harm to many structures. Many research
organizations are doing extensive work on waste materials concerning the viability
and environmental suitability. Expansive clays are most problematic soils due to their
unique alternate swell shrink behavior with fluctuations is moisture content. World
over, many case studies [1-2] of failed structures built on expansive soils have been
reported. The situation in India is also no different with extensive coverage of
expansive soils that occupy almost one-fifth of the geographical kind area.
1.2. EXPANSIVE SOILS FORMATION:

As igneous rock (primarily volcanic ash) breaks down through chemical weathering,
itcreates the clays.
Weathering breaks the parent rock apart and allows the atoms to recrystalize.
These form Silicon Tetrahedron Sheet
Figure.01: Silicon Structure
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And Aluminum Octahedral Sheets.
Figure.02: Aluminum Octahedral Structure

Kaolinites are formed in well drained soils, with an abundance of Oxygen, Silicon
and Aluminum. Since the constituents are "pure", these form very regular shapes
which bind together in regular structures. These are held together in large stacks
by strong Hydrogen Bonds.
Figure.03: Montmorillonite & Kaolinite Structures

Montmorillonites are formed in poorly draining soils so that a wide variety of
atomic species are available for recrystalization. When the aluminum octahedtrals
are trying to form, sometimes "isomorphic substitution" occurs in which a
magnesium atom substitutes for an aluminum atom. This creates irregular shapes
and unbalanced charges with weak "Vander Waals" forces between them
Figure.04: Montmorillorites
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To be electrically balanced, Montmorillonites develop micelles with water and cat
ions.
Depending on the environment in which the clays form, they may be dispersed or
flocculated.
This is the condition most "soils" (like the black soils) are in.
Figure.05: Flocculated & Dispersed Structures
Over geologic time, these may be compressed and form clay to claystone to shale
to schist.
Hence, the mineral has the potential, the environment has the cause. (Edgar) Some
Wyoming clays have the potential to shrink and swell when they become wetted
or dried. These clays are primarily Montmorillonites. There is one type of
montmorillonite, sodium montmorillonite (commonly known as bentonite), that is
especially prone to shrinking and swelling. Another montmorillonite, calcium
montmorillonite, also shows some shrink-swell capabilities. Areas where these
clays are known to be present are shown in Figure 7.1. All of the areas shown on
the map are geological formations that contain bentonite, except for the Casper
Mountain area in Natrona County where calcium montmorillonite is present.
There are other areas in Wyoming with soils that have a shrink-swell component
due to Montmorillonites that are included in the soils. Those soils have not been
completely mapped.
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1.3. NEED OF PRESENT STUDY:
The main objective of this experimental study is to improve the properties of the
gravely soil by adding bitumen emulsion as stabilizing agent and little bit cement as
filler. An attempt has been made to use emulsion for improving the strength and
geotechnical properties of gravel soil. Very mostly, use of use of bitumen emulsion is
environmentally accepted. To achieve the whole project some experimental
investigation is needed in laboratory. The experiments which to be conducted are
Specific Gravity of the soil sample, Grain size Distribution of soil sample and liquid
limit plastic limit test to identify the material and Standard Proctor test to obtain
maximum dry density and optimum moisture content of soil sample, CBR test of soil
sample mixing with emulsion and cement. So the main objective is to maximize the
CBR value by checking some conditions to increase the CBR value of soil sub grade.
1.4. OBJECTIVES:
The objectives of the present experimental study are
i. To determine the properties of the Expansive soil.
ii. To evaluate the performance of Expansive soil when stabilized with Bitumen
Emulsion as an admixtures and its suitability for the pavement sub grade.
iii. To evaluate the performance of stabilized Expansive soil with an optimum of
Bitumen Emulsion and their suitability for the pavements.
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2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Bitumen emulsion is used as chemical stabilizer. Cement is used here as a binder only
to improve strength of road. Previously lots of work was done on sand bitumen
stabilization and gravel soil bitumen stabilization in different places. This study is
being inspired from those researches. Here gravel red colored soil is used, as it is
available in many states of India. Some similar works, done before, is discussed
below.
Chinkulkijniwatand Man-Koksung(2010) directed a test research on compaction
aspects of non-gravel and gravelly Soils using a little compaction device. The
standard delegate test has been broadly utilized and acknowledged for characterizing
soil similarity for field compaction control. Here additionally indicates about the
influence of gravel size and gravel content on standard delegate test results. In this
study a relationship developed between the summed up optimum water substance of
the fine division in the gravelly soil and the gravel content in standard molds using
compaction results from the proposed little device.
Razouki et al.(2002) propose an experimental study on Granular Stabilized Roads.
Bitumen was used as a stabilizing agent may act as a binder or as a water-proofing
material. Soil-bitumen systems had found the greatest used in road bases and
surfaces.
Michael (1993) had proposed about Bench-Scale Evaluation of Asphalt Emulsion
Stabilization of Contaminated Soils. In this study, it was discussed about the
application of ambient temperature asphalt emulsion stabilization technology and
discussed to the environmental fixation of soils contaminated by organic
contaminants.
Paul et al. (2011) suggested an introduction to soil stabilization in pavement taking a
mixture of bitumen and well-graded gravel or crushed aggregate. After compaction it
gave an exceedingly steady waterproof mass of subbase or base course quality. The
fundamental system involved in asphalt stabilization of fine-grained soils is a
waterproofing wonder. Soil particles or soil agglomerates were covered with asphalt
that forestalls or abates the entrance of water which could regularly bring about
abatement in soil quality. What's more, asphalt stabilization can enhance durability
qualities by making the soil impervious to the unfavorable impacts of water, for
example, volume. In non-iron materials, for example, sands and gravel, pounded
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gravel, and smashed stone, two fundamental systems are dynamic: waterproofing and
adhesion. The asphalt coating on the union less materials gives a film which
anticipates or hinders the entrance of water; subsequently reducing the inclination of
the material to lose quality in the vicinity of water. The second instrument had been
distinguished as adhesion and characteristics of gravelly soils.
Marandi and Safapour(2012) worked on Base Course Modification through
Stabilization using cement and bitumen. The main objective of this research was to
analyze the use of bitumen emulsion in base course stabilization. So that it was
examined as replacement with conventional pavement in regions with low quality
materials. Stabilization of soils and aggregates with bitumen shows it differs greatly
from cement stabilization. The basic mechanism involved in bitumen stabilization
was a waterproofing phenomenon.
Joneset al. (2012) conducted an experimental study on bitumen soil stabilization.
Here asphalt emulsion is a mix of asphalt binder, water, and emulsifying agent. In this
case, a series of Indirect Tensile Strength (ITS), Unconfined Compressive Strength
(UCS) and Marshal Tests were carried out. It is liquid at ambient temperature to
facilitate handling at lower applitemperatures. It accelerates breaking of the emulsion
and for additional early strength to accommodate traffic during curing of the layer.
Cokca et al.(2003) concentrated on the impacts of compaction dampness content on
the shear quality of an unsaturated mud. In this study, the impacts of compaction
dampness substance and soaking on the unsaturated shear quality parameters of mud
were investigated. Experiments were carried out on specimens compacted at optimum
dampness content, on the dry side of optimum and on the wet side. It was found that
edge of erosion reductions quickly with increasing dampness substance, the union
segment of shear quality attained its top worth at around optimum Moisture substance
and afterward diminishes.
Hussain (2008) did an excellent work to establish the correlation between CBR value
and un-drained shear strength value from Vane Shear Test. It was shown that un-
drained shear strength value and CBR value increased with increasing plasticity
index. Finally it was achieved that shear strength and CBR value is inversely
proportional to the water content of that material.
L. Lauren (2011) performed an experimental take a shot at soil stabilization products
like the polymer emulsion for having all the earmarks of being the stabilization
executors for what's to come. Every one of the three polymer-emulsions was utilized
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as a part of this testing project performed eminently making solid examples that all
gave suitable CBR qualities to ways. The CBR test was utilized for this venture on
the grounds that it has been effectively related with quality capability of the subgrade,
subbase, and base course material for utilization in street and runway development.
2.1 SOIL STABILIZATION:

Soil stabilization is the process of improving the engineering properties of the soil and
thus making it more stable. Principle of soil stabilization is the process with
admixtures is covered by Metcalf (1972) and KEZDI (1979). It is required when soil
available for construction is not suitable for the intended purpose. In the broad sense,
stabilization includes compaction, pre-consolidation, drainage and many other such
processes.
Stabilization is the process of blending and mixing materials with a soil to improve
certain properties of the soil. The process may include the blending of soils to achieve
a desired gradation or the mixing of commercially available additives that may alter
the gradation texture or plasticity, or act as a binder for cementation of the soil.
Soil stabilization is used to reduce the permeability and compressibility of the soil
mass in earth structures, to reduce the swell in case of expansive soils and to increase
its shear strength. Soil stabilization is required to increase the bearing capacity of
foundation soils. However the main use of stabilization is to improve the natural soils
for the construction of highways and airfields.
2.2 METHODS OF SOIL STABILIZATION:

The most commonly used methods of soil stabilization are the following ones:
1. Mechanical stabilization
2. Lime stabilization
3. Chemical stabilization
4. Thermal stabilization
5. Salt stabilization
6. Electric stabilization
7. Stabilization by grouting
8. Stabilization by geotextiles and fibres
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9. Cement Stabilization
10. Bituminous Stabilization
11. Fly ash Stabilization
12. Stabilization with wastes
2.2.1. STABILIZATION OF SOILS:

In this chapter deals with modifying soils by the mechanical addition of granular
materials or chemical compounds such as cement, lime, Flyash. The purpose of
mixing these additives with the ground is to
Increase strength
Reduce deformability
Provide volume stability
Reduce permeability
Reduce Erode ability
Increase durability
Control variability
2.2.1.1. TYPES OF ADMIXTURES AND THEIR EFFECT ON SOIL

PROPERTIES:
One way to improve a given soil so that it meets certain engineering standards is to
blend it with other natural materials. This is referred to as granular stabilization.
Manufactured admixtures, however, may do the job more efficiently. The most
common artificial additives are:
Portland cement
Lime
Lime-fly ash
Rice husk
Stone dust
Bitumen Emulsion
The reason for their popularity is that they are applicable to a considerable range o
soil types, they are widely available, their cost are relatively low, and they are
environmentally acceptable.
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2.2.2. STABILIZATION OF SOIL WITH PORTLAND CEMENT:
The most commonly used additives for soil stabilization is ordinary Portland cement.
Problems may be encountered with soils which contains excessive amounts of organic
matter, SULPHATES, or salts.
Soil with cement admixtures are generally termed cement-stabilized or simply
cement-treated. Mitchell (1976) reserves the name soil-cement for hardened mixtures
of Portland cement, soil, and water that contain sufficient cement to pass the ASTM
PCA durability tests.
Typical cement contents in soil stabilization range from 2 to 10%. The lower limit is
indicated by the difficulties in evenly small quantities of cement with soil. The upper
limit is related to the problem of shrinkage cracking.
2.2.2.1. SOIL-CEMENT-WATER REACTIONS:

The reaction of cement and water forms cementations calcium silicates and
aluminates hydrates, which bind soil particles together. The hydration releases
Ca(OH)2, slacked lime, which in turn way react with components of the soil, such as
clay minerals. While hydration occurs immediately upon contact of cement and water,
reactions are slower and may go on for many months, similar to soil-lime interactions.
Engineering benefits of cement stabilization

The major gains in the cement treatment of soils are
Increase strength and stiffness
Better volume stability
Increased durability
2.2.3. STABILIZATION OF SOIL WITH LIME:

Lime in the form of quicklime (calcium oxide Cao), hydrated lime (calcium
hydroxide Ca[OH]2, or lime slurrycan be used to treat soils. Quicklime is
manufactured by chemically transforming calcium carbonate (limestone CACO3)
into calcium oxide. Hydrated lime is created when quicklime chemically reacts with
water. It is hydrated lime that reacts with clay particles and permanently transforms
them into a strong cementations matrix.
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Lime is also sometimes used to describe by products of the lime manufacturing
process (such as lime kiln dust), which, although they contain some reactive lime,
generally have only a fraction of the oxide or hydroxide content of the manufactured
product. In this manual, lime means quicklime, hydrated lime, or hydrated lime
slurry.
2.2.3.1. SOILLIME REACTIONS:

Lime is used extensively to change the engineering properties of fine-grained soils
and the fine-grained fractions of more granular soils. It is most effective in treating
plastic clays capable of holding large amounts of water.
The addition of lime to a fine-grained soil in the presence of water initiates several
reactions. The two primary reactions, cat ion exchange and flocculation
agglomeration, take place rapidly and produce immediate improvements in soil
plasticity, workability, uncured strength, and load-deformation properties.
Short term reactions include hydration (for quick lime) and flocculation (ion
exchange). Longer-time reactions are cementation and carbonation. Practical lime
admixtures range from 2 to 8%. Optimal and most economical mixes should be
determined using the appropriate performance-related laboratory procedures, such as
the CBR or Tri axial tests.
2.2.3.2. HYDRATION:
Quick lime will immediately react with water in the soil. This drying action is
particularly beneficial in the treatment of moist clays. In the placement of lime
columns and layers, the heat generation and expansion of the lime further enhance the
consolidation effect.
2.2.3.3. FLOCCULATION:
When lime is mixed with clay, sodium and other cat ions adsorbed to the clay mineral
surfaces are exchanged with calcium. This change in the cat ion exchange complex
effects the way the structural components of the clay minerals are connected together.
Lime causes clay to coagulate, aggregate, or flocculate. The clays plasticity
(measured in terms of ATTERBERGS limits) is reduced.
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2.2.3.4. CEMENTATION:
Cementation is the main contributor to the strength of the stabilized soil. The higher
the surface area of the soil, the more effective is the process; note that lime is not
suitable for improving clean sands or gravels. Cementation on the surface of clay
lumps causes a rapid initial strength gain, but further diffusion of the lime in the soil
will bring about continued improvement in the longer term.
2.2.3.5. CARBONATION:
Reaction of lime with carbon dioxide in the open air or in voids of the ground forms a
relatively weak cementing agent. This may be beneficial where lime is plentiful:
formed will not react any further with the soil.
Engineering benefits of lime stabilization:
Improved workability
Lime increases the optimum water content
Lime increase the strength of clayey soil
Improved volume stability means reduced shrinkage
Increase in permeability
2.2.4. STABILIZATION OF SOIL WITH FLY ASH:

Flyash is a solid waste product created by the combustion of coal it is carried out of
the boiler by flue gases and extracted by electrostatic precipitators or cyclone
separators and filter bags. Its appearance is generally that of a light to dark gray
powder of predominantly silt size. The electric power research institute has produced
a comprehensive design manual for the use of fly ash in structural fills and highway
embankments and for sub grade stabilization and reclamation (EPRI (1986).
Besides using flay ash alone as a structural fill material, scope exits for
employing techniques of ground modification to find more medium- to high- volume
applications in the following ways:
Add cement or lime to stabilize the flyash
Stabilize soils with cement-lime-fly ash mixes
Use fly ash in the containment of toxic wastes. Stabilization with cement kiln
dust.
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2.2.4.1. SOIL MODIFIED WITH FLY ASH AND CEMENT OR LIME:
For cohesion less soils with very low plasticity (plasticity index<10), cement will be
more effective than lime, either alone or when combined with fly ash. For more
plastic soils, either cement or lime may be added with fly ash. Only a soils testing
program can indicate optimal mixes and relative economies.
The range of flay ash with lime stabilization of black cotton soils 1:4 means (1%
lime 4% fly ash) is to be used in the field application. Stabilization is the process of
blending and mixing materials with a soil to improve certain properties of the soil.
The process may include the blending of soils to achieve a desired gradation or the
mixing of commercially available additives that may alter the gradation, texture or
plasticity, or act as a binder for cementation of the soil. The process of reducing
plasticity and improving the texture of a soil is called soil modification.
Mono-Valet cat ions such as sodium and potassium are commonly found in expansive
clay soil and these cat ions can be exchanged with cat ions of higher valet such as
calcium which are found in lime and fly ash. This ion exchange process takes place
almost rapidly, within a few hours. The calcium cat ions replace the sodium cat ions
around the clay particles, decreasing the size of bound water layer, and enable the
clay particle to flocculate.
The flocculation creates a reduction in plasticity, an increase in shear strength of

clayey soil and improvement in texture from a cohesive material to a more granular,
sand-like soil. The change in the structure causes a decrease in the moisture
sensitivity and increase the workability and constructability of soil. Soil stabilization
includes the effects from modification with a significant additional strength.
2.2.5. STABILIZATION WITH BITUMEN:
Stabilization of soils and aggregates with asphalt differs greatly from cement and lime
stabilization. The basic mechanism involved in asphalt stabilization of fine grained
soils is a water proofing phenomenon. Soil particles soil agglomerates are coated with
asphalt that prevents or slows the penetration of water, which could normally result in
a decrease in soil strength.
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In addition, asphalt stabilization can improve durability characteristics by making the
soil resistant to the detrimental effects of water such as volume. In non-cohesive
material such as sand and gravel, crushed gravel, and crushed stone, two basic
mechanisms are active: water proofing and adhesion. The asphalt coating on the
cohesion less materials provides a membrane, which prevents or hinders the
penetration of water and thereby reduces the tendency of the material to lose strength
in the presence of water. The second mechanism has been identified as adhesion. The
aggregate particle adheres to the asphalt and the asphalt acts as a binder or cement.
The cementing effect thus increases the shear strength by increasing adhesion.
Criteria for design of bituminous stabilized soils and aggregates are based almost
entirely on stability and grading requirements. Freeze-thaw and wet durability test are
not applicable for asphalt-stabilized mixtures.
2.2.6. STABILIZATION BY GEO-TEXTILES AND FABRICS:

Introducing geo-textiles and fabrics that are made of synthetic materials, such as
polyethylene, polyester, and nylon, can stabilize the soil. The geo-textile sheets are
manufactured in different thickness ranging from 10 to 300 miles
(1mil=0.254mm).The width of sheet can be up to 10m. These are available in rolls of
length up to an out 600m. Geotextiles are permeable. Their permeability is compared
to that of fine sand to course sand and they are strong and durable.
2.2.7. MECHANICAL STABILIZATION:

In the process of stabilization the properties of a soil are changed by its gradation.
Two or more type of soils are mixed to obtain a composite material is superior to any
of its components, for this purpose these soils are subdivided into categories.
Aggregate: These soils which have a granular bearing selection and these particles if
size larger than 75mm.
Binder: These are soils which have particle size smaller than 75 microns size.
2.2.8. CHEMICAL STABILIZATION:

If the soil is stabilized by adding chemicals, the main advantage of this will be the
setting time and curing time can be controlled. The following chemicals have been
successfully used.
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2.2.8.1. STONE DUST:
2 to 8% of limes can reduce the plasticity. The texture of the soil also gets altered as
also the workability. Hydration and cementation increase the strength of soil over a
period of time. This in-situ soil is excavated and broken into colds, 10-15 cm size
lime is dried, powder is sprinkled, water is added and the soil is thoroughly mixed.
The effectiveness of the treatment depends on the thoroughness of the mixing
procedure.
Alternatively lime can be injected into ground by pressure gravity. This
approach would be successful in fissured/fractured ground. Otherwise migration of
lime into the soil is very slow process.
2.2.8.2. CALCIUM CHLORIDE:

This is added to soil causes colloidal reaction and attains the characteristics of the
soil. It is very effective as dust palliative. It increases maximum dry density. The
quantity of cacl2 required is about % of the weight of the soil.
2.2.8.3. SODIUM CHLORIDE:

The tendency for attrition of moisture is somewhat less than that of calcium chloride.
When it is added to the soil crystallization occurs in the purse of the soil and it forms
as a dense hard material with stabilized surface. The quantity of NACL required is
1%.
2.2.8.4. POLYMERS:
There are long chained molecules formed by polymerizing of certain organic
chemicals called monomer. A crystal is commonly used synthetic polymer.
2.2.8.5. CHROME LIGNIN:

It is obtained as a byproduct during the manufacture of paper from wood. When the
chemical added to the soil it slowly reacts and develops bonding between the
particles. The quantity of lignin required varies from 5-20%.
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2.2.9. THERMAL STABILIZATION:
These changes cause a marked improvement in the properties of soil. It is done either
by heating or cooling soil.
2.2.9.1. HEATING:
As the soil is heated its water content decreases, electronic repulsion between clay
particles is decreased and the strength of soil is increased. When the soil is heated to a
temperature of 400-600 centigrade some irreversible changes occur which makes the
soil non plastic and expensive, with increase in temperature there is some fusion
nitrification and a brick like material is obtained, which can be used as an artificial
aggregate in mechanical stabilization.
2.2.9.2. FREEZING:
Cooling causes a small loss of strength in clayey soil. This is due to an increase in
intra particle repulsion. However this is reduced to freezing point, the pour water
freezes and soils stabilized. Freezing may cause serious trouble to adjacent structure if
the freezing front penetrates these areas. This causes excess heaving.
2.2.10. ELECTRICAL STABILIZATION:

Electrical stabilization of clayey soils is done by electro osmosis. As direct current is
passed through a clayey soil pore water migrates to the vary electrode, the strength of
soil is considerably increased due to removal of water. It is mainly suitable for
drained cohesive soils.
2.2.11. STABILIZATION BY GROUTING:

This stabilization is by injection grout material into the soil. This method is always
not suitable for stabilizing clay because of their low permeability. It is used to
improve the soil that cant be disturbed.
2.2.11.1. CEMENT GROUTING:

It consists of cement and water. It is very effective in stabilizing rocks with fissures.
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2.2.11.2. CLAY GROUTING:
The grout is composed of very fine grain soil and water. It is suitable for stabilizing
sandy soils.
2.2.11.3. CHEMICAL GROUTING:

This consists of solution of sodium silicate in water, known as water glass. This
contains both free sodium hydroxide and colloidal silica acid.
2.2.11.4. CHROME-LIGNIN GROUTING:

This is made of lingo SULPHATE and hex-valets chromium compound.
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3. MATERIALS & MATERIALS TESTING
MATERIALS:
In this project to conduct laboratory tests different types of materials are used they are
following
1. Expansive soil (Mud soil).
2. Bitumen Emulsions.
3. Binder (Cement).
3.1. EXPANSIVE SOIL (MUD SOIL)

Expansive soil, also called shrink-swell soil, is a very common cause of foundation
problems. Depending upon the supply of moisture in the ground, shrink-swell soils
will experience changes in volume of up to thirty percent or more. Foundation soils
which are expansive will heave and can cause lifting of a building or other structure
during periods of high moisture. Conversely during periods of falling soil moisture,
expansive soil will collapse and can result in building settlement. Either way,
damage can be extensive.
Expansive soil will also exert pressure on the vertical face of a foundation, basement
or retaining wall resulting in lateral movement. Shrink-swell soils which have
expanded due to high ground moisture experience a loss of soil strength or capacity
and the resulting instability can result in various forms of foundation problems and
slope failure. Expansive soil should always be a suspect when there is evidence of
active foundation movement.
In order for expansive soil to cause foundation problems, there must be fluctuations in
the amount of moisture contained in the foundation soils. If the moisture content of
the foundation soils can be stabilized, foundation problems can often be avoided. I
will be following up on this concept a bit later.
CLAY STRUCTURE- THE MOLECULAR SANDWICH The expansion potential

of any particular expansive soil is determined by the percentage of clay and the type
of clay in the soil. Clay particles which cause a soil to be expansive are extremely
small. Their shape is determined by the arrangement of their constituent atoms which
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form thin clay crystals. Clays belong to a family of minerals called silicates. The
principal elements in clay are silicone, aluminum and oxygen.
EXPANSION POTENTIAL Potentially expansive soils which can cause foundation

problems are identified by soils engineers by measuring the percentage of fine
particles in a particular sample. If over 50% of the particles in a sample are able to
pass through a number 200 screen or sieve- that is two hundred divisions to the inch-
then the sample is classified as either silt or clay or some combination of both.
Regardless of the percentage of fines in a particular sample, a significant presence
of clay minerals in a sample can indicate a possible expansive soil problem. In order
to determine the potential expansion of soils on a particular property, a soils engineer
will take representative samples at the jobsite and return them to the lab for testing.
Clay soils are often tested to determine their plasticity index. The plasticity index is
a measure of the range over which the clay sample will retain its plastic
characteristics. As water is added to a sample of solid dry clay, it will cease to behave
like a solid or semi-solid and start to behave like a plastic. The percentage of moisture
at that point is the plastic limit.
DISADVANTAGES OF EXPANSIVE SOILS

1. Lateral movement and slope creep
2. Patterns of wetting and dryings
3. Confining pressure and soil movement
4. Differential heave
VARIOUS SOLUTIONS
1. Structural slab
2. Calcium treatments
3. Alternative soil stabilizers
4. Moisture control ( sub grade irrigation)
5. Soil protection (a perimeter apron)
6. French drains and cutoff walls
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MATRIALS TESTING:
In this chapter, a brief review of various experiments conducted using soil and the soil
properties are derived.
The various tests conducted on the sample are the following:
1. Grain sieve analysis
2. ATTERBERGS limits
3. Specific gravity
4. Proctor compaction test
5. Permeability
6. CBR test
Firstly the above tests were conducted on plain soil sample to determine its
properties.
SOIL PREPARATION:
The soil is collected from the nearby college site and collected in bags and sends to
laboratory for examination. First Index property of soil is determined after then lime
and bitumen emulsion in different proportions in soil. Total three combinations are
formed and ATTERBERGS limit evaluated in laboratory.
3.1.1. GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION OBSERVATIONS:

Table and observations obtained for sieve analysis for the soil
In this analysis a stack of sieves are arranged in the increasing order of their
sizes.
Taking known weight of soil sample and place it in a stack of sieves i.e., top
most sieve.
By mechanically operating this stack of sieves are sieved up to a time limit of
10 minutes.
After that the weight retained on each sieve are noted down.
Required calculations to be done and the values are tabulated.
Then the graph is represented between finer% and sieve size.
20
Sieve size(mm) Weight % on each Cumulative % finer
retained sieve % retained
on each on each
sieve(g) sieve
4.75 576 57.6 57.6 42.4
2.36 137.7 13.77 71.37 28.63
1.18 80.48 8.048 79.418 20.582

0.6 44.36 4.436 83.854 16.146
0.425 27.54 2.754 86.608 13.392
0.3 26.63 2.663 89.271 10.729
0.15 41.50 4.150 93.421 6.579
0.075 28.57 2.857 96.278 3.722
pan 21.63 2.163 98.441 1.559
Table: 1. Observations for Sieve Analysis of Soil
A semi-log graph is plotted between sieve size and percentage finer. Sieve size on X-
axis and percentage finer on Y-axis.
GRAIN SEIVE ANALYSIS

60
55
50
45
40
35
% finer
30
25 seive
20 size v/s
15 %finer
10
5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Seive size
Figure.06: Graph of Grain Size Distribution
21
As per IS classification the soil type is CI and the observations mentioned above.
Tabulated the values & the grain size distribution graph is represented above. The soil
is smooth and lighted weighted. It was been slity clay soil.
3.1.2. CONSISTENCY LIMITS:

3.1.2.1. LIQUID LIMIT:
The consistency of fine grained soil is the physical state in which it exists. It is used
to denote the degree of firmness of soil. The water content at which soil changes from
one state to another is known as consistency limits. A soil containing high water is in
the liquid state. It has no shear resistance and can flow like liquid.
Therefore the shear strength is equal to zero. As the water content is reduced, the soil
becomes stiffer and starts developing resistance to shear deformation. The water
content at which soil changes from liquid state to plastic state is known as liquid
limit.
The liquid limit is found out by CASAGRANDES liquid limit device. The number
of blows of this device is found out at different water content. Flow curve is plot with
number of blows on x axis and water content on y axis. The water content
corresponding to 25 blows is the liquid limit.
Figure.7: Casagrandes Liquid Limit Apparatus
22
3.1.2.2. PLASTIC LIMIT:
Plastic limit is the water content below which the soil stops behaving as a plastic
material. It begins to crumble when rolled into a thread of soil of 3mm diameter. At
this water content, the soil loses its plasticity and passes to the semi-solid state.
The shear strength at the plastic limit is about 100 times that at the liquid limit.
Figure.8: Plastic Limit Apparatus
3.1.3.3. SHRINKAGE LIMIT:

OBJECTIVE:
1. To determine the shrinkage limit of a soil.
2. To calculate shrinkage factors.
THEORY:
Shrinkage limit is the maximum water content at which a reduction in water content
does not cause an appreciable decrease in volume ofthe soil mass. At shrinkage limit,
on further reduction in water, air starts to enter into the voids of the soil and keeps the
volume of the void constant.
23
Figure.9: Stages for Derivation of SL
APPARATUS
The test requires mainly a evaporating porcelain dish, shrinkage dish, one glass plate
with three prongs, one glass cup, mercury, spatula and a glass cylinder. In general test
requires an extra porcelain dish (small size), extra porcelain dish, straight edge, oven,
desiccators, 425 micron sieve, plain glass plate and a weighing balance.
Figure.10: Shrinkage Limit Apparatus
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
Step1:
Mix about 30 gm of soil passing through 425 micron sieve with distilled water. The
water added should be sufficient to make the soil pasty enough to be readily worked
into the shrinkage dish without inclusion of air bubbles.
24
Step2:
Coat the inside of the shrinkage dish with a thin layer of Vaseline. Place the soil
sample in the dish, by giving gentle taps. Strike off the tops. Strike off the top surface
with a straight edge.
Step3:
Weigh the shrinkage dish immediately full of wet soil. Dry the dish first in air and
then in an oven.
Step4:
Weight the shrinkage dish with dry soil paste.
Step5:
Clean and dry the shrinkage dish and determine its empty mass.
Step6:
Also weigh an extra empty porcelain dish (small size), which will be used for
weighing mercury. This dish will be known as mercury weighing dish.
Step7:
Keep the shrinkage dish in a large porcelain dish, fill it to overflowing with mercury
and remove the excess by pressing the plain glass plate firmly over the top of the dish.
Transfer the contents of the shrinkage dish to the mercury weighing dish and weight.
Step8:
Place the glass cup in large dish, fill it to overflowing with mercury, and remove the
excess by pressing the glass plate with three prongs firmly over the top of the cup.
Step9:
Wipe the outside of the glass cup to remove any adhering mercury, the place it in
another dish. Place the dry soil paste on the surface of the mercury and submerge it
under the mercury by pressing with glass plate with prongs.
Step10:
Transfer the mercury displaced by the dry soil paste to the mercury weighing dish and
weigh.
Step11:
Repeat the test at least three times for each soil sample.
25
Figure.11: Shrinkage Limit Process
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The water content of the soil taken in shrinkage dish should be above liquid limit
but within 10% from liquid limit.
2. To prevent the cake from adhering to the shrinkage dish and consequent cracking
of the dry soil paste, inside of the shrinkage dish should be greased with Vaseline.
3. During filling the shrinkage dish with soil paste, sufficient tapping should be done
to remove the entrapped air.
4. The dry soil paste should be weighed soon after it has been removed from a
desiccators otherwise it picks up moisture from the air.
5. Test should be repeated at least three times for each sample and the average of the
results thus obtained reported.
6. No air should be entrapped under the dry soil paste when pressing by the glass with
prongs is being carried out.
RESULTS:
The consistency limits are
1. Liquid limit: 34.64
2. Plastic limit: 27.47
3. Shrinkage limit: 18.24
26
3.1.3. SPECIFIC GRAVITY TEST:
The specific gravity of solid particles is defined as the ratio of the mass of a given
volume of solids to the mass of an equal volume of water at 40C. Specific gravity of
normal soils is between 2.65 to 2.80. Specific gravity of soil mass indicates the
average value of all the solid particles present in the soil mass. Also it is an important
parameter used for the determination of void ratio and particle size.
OBJECTIVE:
For determination of specific gravity of the soil by psycho-meter methods.
Equipments:
Psycho-meter
Sieve(4.75 mm)
Vacuum pump
Oven
Weighing balance
Glass rod
After receiving the soil sample it is dried in oven at a temperature of 105 to 1150C for
a period of 16 to 24 hours.
Figure.12: Pycnometer Bottles
27
PROCEDURE:
1. Dry the pycnometer and weigh it with its cap(W1)
2. Take about 200 g to 300 g of oven dried soil passing through 4.75mm sieve into the
pycnometer and weigh again(W2)
3. Add water to cover the soil and screw on the cap.
4. Shake the pycnometer well and connect it to the vacuum pump to remove
entrapped air for about 10 to 20 minutes.
5. After the air has been removed, fill the pycnometer with water and weigh it (W3).
6. Clean the pycnometer by washing thoroughly.
7. Fill the cleaned pycnometer completely with water up to its top with cap screw on.
8. Weigh the pycnometer after drying it on the outside thoroughly (W4).
CALCULATION:
The Specific gravity of so il solids (Gs) is calculated using the following equation.
Specific gravity (GS) = ((w2-w1))/((w2-w1)-(w3-w4))
Where,
W1=Empty weight of psycho-meter
W2=Weight of psycho-meter + oven dry soil
W3=Weight of psycho-meter + oven dry soil + water
W4=Weight of psycho-meter + water full
PRECAUTIONS:
Soil grains whose specific gravity is to be determined should be completely dry.
If on drying soil lumps are formed, they should be broken to its original size.
Inaccuracies in weighing and failure to completely eliminate the entrapped air are
the main sources of error. Both should be avoided.
28
OBSERVATIONS:
S.no. W1 W2 W3 W4 Specific
(grams) (grams) (grams) (grams) Gravity
1 619 911 1611 1425 2.75
2 620 910.5 1613.5 1427 2.79
3 619.4 911.64 1615 1428.46 2.76
Table: 2. Specific Gravity Test Values
RESULT:
The result of the specific gravity test is reported to the nearest two digits after
decimal. The Specific Gravity of this particular soil is 2.76.
3.1.4. PROCTOR COMPACTION TEST:

Compaction is the densification of soil by reduction of air voids. The purpose of a
laboratory compaction test is to determine, the quantity of water to be added for field
compaction of soil and resultant density expected. When water is added to dry fine
grained soil, the soil absorbs water. Addition of more water helps in sliding of
particles over each other. This assists the process of compaction. Up to a certain
point, additional water help in reduction of air voids, but after a relatively high degree
of saturation is reached, the water occupies the space, which could be filled with soil
particles, and the amount of entrapped air remains essentially constant. Therefore,
there is an optimum amount of water for a given soil and compaction process, which
gives rise to maximum dry density.
Compaction of soil is carried out using standard proctor test with three layers on each
25 blows. Samples for conducting compaction tests were prepared using moulds of
dimensions 10 cm diameter and 15 cm height. The values of optimum moisture
content and maximum dry density are obtained in a plot of dry density versus
moisture
29
Figure.13: Standard Proctor Test Apparatus
OMC & MDD for ONLY SOIL

1.64
1.62
1.6
1.58
Dry Density
1.56
1.54
Water content v/s Dry
1.52
density
1.5
1.48
1.46
1.44
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Moisture Content
Figure.14: Graph of OMC & MDD of Only Soil.
Number of tests was carried to know the actual OMC & MDD of the soil sample
taken. The graph representing above was the graph showing the soil behavior against
the various water percentages. And OMC & MDD was known through the graph.
RESULT: The OMC & MDD of the soil sample taken are 26 & 1.61 respectively.
30
3.1.5. PERMEABILITY TEST:
Soil permeability is the property of the soil to transmit water and air and is one of the
most important qualities to consider for fish culture. A pond built in impermeable soil
will lose little water through seepage. The high permeable of the soil is the greatest of
the seepage.
Figure.15: Permeability in Different Soils
3.1.5.1. FACTORS AFFECTING PERMEABILITY OF SOIL:

A number of factors affect the permeability of soils, from particle size, impurities in
the water, void ratio, the degree of saturation, and adsorbed water, to entrapped air
and organic material.
PARTICLE SIZE:
It was studied by Allen Hazen that the coefficient of permeability (k) of a soil is
directly proportion to the square of the particle size (D). Thus permeability of coarse
grained soil is very large as compared to that of fine grained soil. The permeability of
coarse sand may be more than one million times as much that of clay.
31
IMPURITIES IN WATER:
Any foreign matter in water has a tendency to plug the flow passage and reduce the
effective voids and hence the permeability of soil.
VOID RATIO (E):

The coefficient of permeability varies with the void ratio as e3/(1+e).For a given soil,
the greater the void ratio, the higher the value of the coefficient of permeability. Here
'e' is the void ratio.
Based on other concepts it has been established that the permeability of a soil varies
as e2 or e2/(1+e). Whatever may be the exact relationships; all soils have e versus log
k plot as a straight line.
DEGREE OF SATURATION:
If the soil is not fully saturated, it contains air pockets. The permeability is reduced
due to the presence of air which causes a blockage to the passage of water.
Consequently, the permeability of a partially saturated soil is considerably
smaller than that of fully saturated soil. In fact, Darcy's Law is not strictly applicable
to such soils.
ABSORBED WATER:
Fine grained soils have a layer of adsorbed water strongly attached to their surface.
This adsorbed layer is not free to move under gravity. It causes an obstruction to the
flow of water in the pores and hence reduces the permeability of soils.
ENTRAPPED AIR AND ORGANIC MATTER:

Air entrapped in the soil and organic matter block the passage of water through soil,
hence permeability considerably decreases. In permeability tests, the sample of soil
used should be fully saturated to avoid errors.
Permeability tests can be conducted in two methods using the same apparatus. They
are:
1. Constant head permeability test and
2. Variable head permeability test.
32
Figure.16: Permeability Testing Apparatus
DEFINITION OF COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY:

The rate of flow under laminar flow conditions through a unit cross sectional are of
porous medium under unit hydraulic gradient is defined as coefficient of permeability
3.1.5.2. A.CONSTANT HEAD:

OBJECTIVE:
To determine the coefficient of permeability of the given soil sample, using falling
head method.
NEED AND SCOPE:

The test results of the permeability experiments are used:
1. To estimate ground water flow.
2. To calculate seepage through dams.
3. To find out the rate of consolidation and settlement of structures.
4. To plan the method of lowering the ground water table.
5. To calculate the uplift pressure and piping.
6. To design the grouting.
7. And also for soil freezing tests.
33
8. To design pits for recharging.
Thus the study of seepage of water through soil is very important, with wide field
applications.
The falling head method of determining permeability is used for soil with low
discharge, whereas the constant head permeability test is used for coarse-grained soils
with a reasonable discharge in a given time. For very fine-grained soil, capillarity
permeability test is recommended.
PRINCIPLE OF THE EXPERIMENT:

The passage of water through porous material is called seepage. A material with
continuous voids is called a permeable material. Hence permeability is a property of a
porous material which permits passage of fluids through inter connecting conditions.
Hence permeability is defined as the rate of flow of water under laminar conditions
through a unit cross-sectional area perpendicular to the direction of flow through a
porous medium under unit hydraulic gradient and under standard temperature
conditions.
The principle behind the test is Darcys law for laminar flow. The rate of discharge is
proportional to (I x A)
q= KIA
Where,
q= Discharge per unit time.
A=Total area of c/s of soil perpendicular to the direction of flow.
I=hydraulic gradient.
k=Darcys coefficient of permeability = the mean velocity of flow that will occur
through the cross-sectional area under unit hydraulic gradient.
PLANNING AND ORGANIZATION:

The tools and accessories needed for the test are:
1. Permit-meter with its accessories.
2. Standard soil specimen.
3. Desired water.
4. Balance to weigh up to 1 gm.
5. I.S sieves 4.75 mm and 2 mm.
6. Mixing pan.
34
7. Stop watch.
8. Measuring jar.
9. Meter scale.
10. Thermometer.
11. Container for water.
12. Trimming knife etc.
KNOWLEDGE OF EQUIPMENT:
1. Permit-meter mould of non-corrodible material having a capacity of 1000 ml, with
an internal diameter of 100 0.1 mm and internal effective height of 127.3 0.1 mm.
2. The mould shall be fitted with a detachable base plate and removable extension
counter.
3. Compacting equipment: 50 mm diameter circular face, weight 2.76 kg and height
of fall 310 mm as specified in I.S 2720 part VII 1965.
4. Drainage bade: A bade with a porous disc, 12 mm thick which has the permeability
10 times the expected permeability of soil.
5. Drainage cap: A porous disc of 12 mm thick having a fitting for connection to
water inlet or outlet.
6. Constant head tank: A suitable water reservoir capable of supplying water to the
permit-meter under constant head.
7. Graduated glass cylinder to receive the discharge.
8. Stop watch to note the time.
9. A meter scale to measure the head differences and length of specimen.
The preparation of the specimen for this test is important. There are two types of
specimen, the undisturbed soil sample and the disturbed or made up soil sample.
PREPARATION OF SPECIMEN FOR TESTING:

A. UNDISTURBED SOIL SAMPLE:
1. Note down the sample number, bore holes number and its depth at which the
sample was taken.
2. Remove the protective cover (paraffin wax) from the sampling tube.
35
3. Place the sampling tube in the sample extraction frame, and push the plunger to get
a cylindrical form sample not longer than 35 mm in diameter and having height equal
to that of mould.
4. This specimen is placed centrally over the drainage disc of base plate.
5. The annular space in between the mould and specimen is filled with an impervious
material like cement slurry to block the side leakage of the specimen.
6. Protect the porous disc when cement slurry is poured.
7. Compact the slurry with a small tamper.
8. The drainage cap is also fixed over the top of the mould.
9. The specimen is now ready for test.
3.1.5.3. B. FALLING HEAD METHOD:

OBJECTIVE:
To determine the coefficient of permeability of the given soil sample, using falling
head method.
NEED AND SCOPE:

The test results of the permeability experiments are used:
1. To estimate ground water flow.
2. To calculate seepage through dams.
3. To find out the rate of consolidation and settlement of structures.
4. To plan the method of lowering the ground water table.
5. To calculate the uplift pressure and piping.
6. To design the grouting.
7. And also for soil freezing tests.
8. To design pits for recharging.
Thus the study of seepage of water through soil is very important, with wide field
applications.
The falling head method of determining permeability is used for soil with low
discharge, where as the constant head permeability test is used for coarse-grained
soils with a reasonable discharge in a given time. For very fine-grained soil,
capillarity permeability test is recommended.
36
PRINCIPLE OF THE EXPERIMENT:
The passage of water through porous material is called seepage. A material with
continuous voids is called a permeable material. Hence permeability is a property of a
porous material which permits passage of fluids through inter connecting conditions.
Hence permeability is defined as the rate of flow of water under laminar conditions
through a unit cross-sectional area perpendicular to the direction of flow through a
porous medium under unit hydraulic gradient and under standard temperature
conditions.
The principle behind the test is Darcys law for laminar flow. The rate of discharge is
proportional to (I x A)
q= KIA
Where,
q= Discharge per unit time.
A=Total area of c/s of soil perpendicular to the direction of flow.
I=hydraulic gradient.
k=Darcys coefficient of permeability = the mean velocity of flow that will occur
through the cross-sectional area under unit hydraulic gradient.
Planning and organization:
The tools and accessories needed for the test are:
1. Permit-meter with its accessories.
2. Standard soil specimen.
3. Desired water.
4. Balance to weigh up to 1 gm.
5. I.S sieves 4.75 mm and 2 mm.
6. Mixing pan.
7. Stop watch.
8. Measuring jar.
9. Meter scale.
10. Thermometer.
11. Container for water.
12. Trimming knife etc.
37
KNOWLEDGE OF EQUIPMENT:
(a) The permit-meter is made of non-corrodible material with a capacity of 1000 ml,
with an internal diameter of 1000.1 mm and effective height of 127.3 0.1 mm.
(b) The mould has a detachable base plate and a removable exterior collar.
(c) The compacting equipment has a circular face with 50 mm diameter and a length
of 310 mm with a weight of 2.6 kg.
(d) The drainage base is a porous disc, 12 mm thick with a permeability 10 times that
of soil.
The drainage cap is also a porous disc of 12 mm thickness with an inlet/outlet fitting.
(f) The container tank has an overflow valve. There is also a graduated jar to collect
discharge.
(g) The stand pipe arrangements are done on a board with 2 or 3 glass pipes of
different diameters.
The preparation of the specimen for this test is important. There are two types of
specimen, the undisturbed soil sample and the disturbed or made up soil sample.
A. UNDISTURBED SOIL SPECIMEN

IT IS PREPARED AS FOLLOWS:
1. Note down-sample no., borehole no., depth at which sample is taken.
2. Remove the protective cover (wax) from the sampling tube.
3.Place the sampling tube in the sample extract or and push the plunger to get a
cylindrical shaped specimen not larger than 85 mm diameter and height equal to that
of the mould.
4. This specimen is placed centrally over the drainage disc of base plate.
5. The annular space in between the mould and specimen is filled with an impervious
material like cement slurry to block the side leakage of the specimen.
6. Protect the porous disc when cement slurry is poured.
7. Compact the slurry with a small tamper.
8. The drainage cap is also fixed over the top of the mould.
9. The specimen is now ready for test.
38
B. DISTURBED SPECIMEN
The disturbed specimen can be prepared by static compaction or by dynamic
compaction.
(A)PREPARATION OF STATISTICALLY COMPACTED (DISTURBED)

SPECIMEN:
1. Take 800 to 1000 Grams of representative soil and mix with water to O.M.C
determined by I.S Light Compaction test. Then leave the mix for 24 hours in an
airtight container.
2. Find weight (W) of soil mix for the given volume of the mould and hence find the
dry
3. Now, assemble the permit-meter for static compaction. Attach the 3 cm collar to
the bottom end of 0.3 litresmould and the 2 cm collar to the top end. Support the
mould assembly over 2.5 cm end plug, with 2.5 cm collar resting on the split collar
kept around the 2.5 cm- end plug. The inside of the 0.3 lit. Mould is lightly greased.
4. Put the weighed soil into the mould. Insert the top 3 cm end plug into the top collar,
tamping the soil with hand.
5. Keep, now the entire assembly on a compressive machine and remove the split
collar. Apply the compressive force till the flanges of both end plugs touch the
corresponding collars. Maintain this load for 1m and then release it.
6. Then remove the top 3 cm plug and collar place a filter paper on fine wire mesh on
the top of the specimen and fix the perforated base plate.
7. Turn the mould assembly upside down and remove the 2.5 cm end plug and collar.
Place the top perforated plate on the top of the soil specimen and fix the top cap on it,
after inserting the seating gasket.
8. Now the specimen is ready for test.
(B) PREPARATION OF DYNAMICALLY COMPACTED DISTURBED

SAMPLE:
1. Take 800 to 1000 Grams of representative soil and mix it with water to get O.M.C,
if necessary. Have the mix in airtight container for 24 hours.
2. Assemble the permit-meter for dynamic compaction. Grease the inside of the
mould and place it upside down on the dynamic compaction base. Weigh the
assembly correct to a gram (w). Put the 3 cm collar to the other end.
39
3. Now, compact the wet soil in 2 layers with 15 blows to each layer with a 2.5 kg
dynamic tool. Remove the collar and then trim off the excess. Weigh the mould
assembly with the soil (W2).
4. Place the filter paper or fine wore mesh on the top of the soil specimen and fix the
perforated base plate on it.
5. Turn the assembly upside down and remove the compaction plate. Insert the
sealing gasket and place the top perforated plate on the top of soil specimen. And fix
the top cap.
6. Now, the specimen is ready for test.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
1. Prepare the soil specimen as specified.
2. Desired water is preferred. It saturated.
3. Assemble the permit-meter in the bottom tank and fill the tank with water.
4. Inlet nozzle of the mould is connected to the stand pipe. Allow some water to flow
until steady flow is obtained.
5. Note down the time interval t for a fall of head in the stand pipe h.
6. Repeat step 5 three times to determine t for the same head.
7. Find a by collecting q for the stand pipe. Weigh it correct to 1 gm and find an from
q/h=a. Therefore the coefficient of permeability
GENERAL REMARKS:
1. During test there should be no volume change in the soil, there should be no
compressible air present in the voids of soil i.e. soil should be completely saturated.
The flow should be laminar and in a steady state condition.
2. Coefficient of permeability is used to assess drainage characteristics of soil, to
predict rate of settlement founded on soil bed.
s.no Mix Total volume Time period(t) Coefficient of

proportions of water(Q) in in seconds permeability(k)
ml
1 Expansive soil 95 120 8.73*10-3
2 Soil + BE 114 120 0.0104
Table.no.3: observations of permeability test
40
3.1.6. CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO TEST:
California state highway department developed the California bearing ratio test,
(CBR) test in 1938 for evaluating soil sub grade and base course materials for flexible
pavements. Just after World War 2, the U.S corps of Engineers adopted the CBR test
for use in designing base courses for airfield pavements.
DEFINITION:
California bearing ratio (CBR) is the ratio of force per unit area required to penetrate
a soil mass with a standard circular piston at the rate of 1.25 mm/min to that required
for corresponding penetration in the standard material. Load that has been obtained
from the test in crushed stone (Standard material) is called standard load. The
standard material is said to have a CBR value of 100%.Smooth curves are plotted
between penetration (mm) Vs load (kg).The curve in most cases is concave upwards
in the initial portions. A correction is applied by drawing a tangent to the curve at the
point of greatest slope from the corrected load penetration graph obtained the loads at
2.5mm and 5mm penetration. The standard loads for these penetrations can be taken
from the table.
Figure.17: CBR Mould and Surcharge Weights
APPARATUS:
Mould
Steel Cutting collar
41
Spacer Disc
Surcharge weight
Dial gauges
IS Sieves
Penetration Plunger
Loading Machine
Miscellaneous Apparatus
CBR TEST PROCEDURE:

Normally 3 specimens each of about 5 kg must be compacted.
Weigh of empty mould
Add water to the first specimen (compact it in five layer by giving 25 blows per
layer)
After compaction, remove the collar and level the surface.
Take sample for determination of moisture content.
Weight of mould + compacted specimen.
Take other samples and repeat the whole process.
Then place the specimen under the penetration piston and place surcharge load of.
Apply the load and note the penetration load values.
Draw the graphs between the penetration (in) and penetration load (in) and find the
value of CBR.
Draw the graph between the %age CBR and Dry Density, and find CBR at required
degree of compaction.
Penetration depth (mm) Standard load (kg)
2.5 1370
5 2055
7.5 2630
10 3180
12.5 3600
Table: 4. Standard Loads for CBR Test
42
Figure.18: CBR Testing Machine
CBR value= (Test load/Standard load) X100

Samples for conducting CBR tests were prepared using moulds of dimensions 15cm
diameter and 17.5cm height. The weight of soil used is 6kg passing through 20mm
sieve. The samples were prepared at OMC.
43
UNSOAKED CBR ANALYSIS FOR ONLY
SOIL
120
100
80
LOAD(kg)
60
Load v/s
Penetration
40
20
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
PENETRATION(mm)
Figure.19: Graph of Unsoaked CBR Analysis for Only Soil
penetrationload
CBR at 2.5mm= 100
standardload
85
=1370 100
=6.2043
87
CBR at 5.0mm=2055 100
=4.233
After number compaction tests carried out, the OMC & MDD of the soil sample was
known. Then for that soil the CBR was known. The above graph represents the CBR
values of soil at the loads. The value of CBR was known through this graph of soil
which to be stabilized in future. The standard value is required to be compared with
the stabilized.
44
SOAKED SOIL SAMPLE:
To determine the soaked CBR value, soil sample needs to be soaked in water for at
least 4 days prior to the test. Thus to complete a soaked CBR test it requires at least 5
days which is time consuming and tedious process.
SOAKED CBR ANALYSIS FOR ONLY SOIL

120
100
80
LOAD(kg)
60
Load v/s
40 Penetration
20
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
PENETRATION(mm)
Figure.20: Graph of Soaked CBR Analysis for Only Soil
penetrationload
CBR at 2.5mm= 100
standardload
25
=1370 100
=1.8248
51
CBR at 5.0mm=2055 100
=2.48175
45
3.2. BITUMEN EMULSION
3.2.1. DEFINITION Bitumen emulsion is a mixture of water & bitumen. Hey wait,
we know that bitumen is a oil product and it cannot be mixed with water. That is why
we add an emulsifier (a surface active agent) with water before adding bitumen.
Addition of emulsifier with water facilitates breaking of bitumen into minute particles
and keeps it dispersed in suspension.
Therefore we can say that a bitumen emulsion is a liquid product consisting of three
things, (i.e. water + Emulsion + Bitumen) where droplets of bitumen are suspended in
water
3.2.2. MANUFACTURE PROCESS The production of bitumen emulsion consists

of two primary steps.
Step1. Water is mixed with appropriate emulsifying agent and other chemicals. The
type of emulsifier to be used depends upon the ionic nature of the mix.
Step2. The addition of bitumen with the water-emulsifier mix. This is done in a
colloidal mill. Depending upon the use, the amount of bitumen to be added with water
may range from 40 to 70%. Water-emulsifier mix and bitumen is pumped to
a colloidal mill. The colloidal mill breaks the bitumen into tiny droplets. The average
diameter of these tiny droplets of bitumen is about 2 micron. Here comes the role of
emulsifier. Emulsifier creates a coating of surface charge around the bitumen droplets
that helps to keep these tiny particles away from each other. It also helps to keep these
particles in a dispersed form. After completion of the 2nd step, the bitumen emulsion
is pumped into storage tank.
3.2.3. CLASSIFICATION There are two different ways to classify bitumen

emulsion, as given below.
1. Based on surface charge.

2. Based on setting time.
46
3.2.3.1. BASED ON SURFACE CHARGE
Depending upon the type of surface charge, bitumen emulsions are primarily
classified into the following two types.
1. Anionic Bitumen Emulsion

2. Cationic Bitumen Emulsion
In case of an anionic bitumen emulsion, bitumen particles are electro-negatively

charged, where as for cat-ionic emulsions, bitumen particles are electro-positively
charged. Now days cationic bitumen emulsion are most commonly used.
The choice of bitumen emulsion (i.e. whether anionic or cationic) to be used depends
upon the mineral composition of aggregate used for construction. In case of silica rich
aggregates, the surface of the aggregates are electro-negatively charged. Therefore a
cationic emulsion should be used. This will help better spreading and binding of
bitumen with aggregates.
3.2.3.2. BASED ON SETTING TIME
When bitumen emulsions are applied on aggregates, water starts to evaporate causing
separation of bitumen from water. And then bitumen spreads on the surface of the
aggregate and acts as a binding material and slowly attains its strength.
Depending upon the speed at which water evaporates and bitumen particles separate
from water, it is classified into following 3 types.
1. Rapid Setting Emulsion (RS)

2. Medium Setting Emulsion (MS)
3. Slow Setting Emulsion (SS)
Note: Here the word setting should not mean attainment of strength; rather it means
the time taken by the bitumen to separate from water.
In case of rapid setting emulsion, bitumen is intended to break rapidly. Therefore this
type of emulsion sets and cures rapidly.
47
Medium setting emulsions do not break spontaneously when applied on aggregates.
But the process of breaking starts when fine dusts of minerals are mixed
with aggregate-emulsion mix.
Slow setting emulsions are manufactured by using special type of emulsifier, which
makes the setting process very slow. These types of emulsion are relatively stable.
3.2.4. APPLICATIONS
1. Emulsions are used in bituminous road construction work. They are especially
helpful for maintenance and patch repair works.
2. Emulsion can be used in wet weather even when it is raining.
3. Also emulsions have been used in soil stabilization, particularly for stabilization
of sands in desert areas.
4. A rapid setting type emulsion is suitable for surface dressing and penetration
macadam type of construction.
5. Medium setting type is used for premixing with coarse aggregates.
6. In case of fine aggregates, the surface area of aggregate is more and as a result
long duration of time is required to mix the emulsion. Therefore slow setting
emulsion is preferred which gives sufficient time for uniform blending of the
mix.
3.2.5. ADVANTAGES WHY TO USE BITUMEN EMULSIONS?
1. The strength properties of bitumen are preserved in emulsion mixes since

emulsions do not need hot mixing. Generally cold mixing or just slightly warming
the ingredients of the emulsion mix are done for construction of pavements.
2. Emulsion can be used in wet weather even when it is raining.
3. Emulsions possess anti-stripping properties.
4. Emulsions with lower viscosity or thinner consistency improve spreadability and
allows better coating of the bitumen on the surface of aggregate.
5. There is no wastage during laying and storage.
6. Since emulsions are water based, there is less effect on the environment.
7. It is the least energy intensive of all construction material: there is no need to heat.
48
3.2.6. LIMITATIONS
1. No one type of emulsion is suitable for every work. it depends upon whether the
aggregate is acidic or basic in nature..
2. The setting time may vary depending on the air temperature, wind velocity and
type of emulsion.
3. There is a wide range of curing time; a suitable emulsion mix needs to be
designed for a particular need, i.e. we need to determine for each case, the
optimum quantity of emulsion based on zone, type of emulsion, mix grade and
desired mechanical properties
4. It has limited storage time (ranging from few days to six months)
3.3 BINDER (CEMENT)

Soil binders consist of applying and maintaining a soil stabilizer to exposed soil
surfaces. Soil binders are materials applied to the soil surface to temporarily prevent
induced erosion of exposed soils on construction sites. Soil binders also prevent wind
erosion.
3.3.1. SUITABLE APPLICATIONS

Soil binders are typically applied to disturbed areas requiring short term temporary
protection. Because soil binders can often be incorporated into the work, they are a
good alternative to mulches in areas where grading activities will soon resume.
Soil binders are also suitable for use on stockpiles.
3.3.2. CEMENT AS BINDER

This is a formulated gypsum based product that readily mixes with water and mulch
to form a thin protective crust and the soil surface. It is composed of high purity
gypsum that is ground, calcined and processed into calcium sulfate hemihydrates with
a minimum of 86%. It is mixed in a hydraulic seeder and applied at rates 4,000 to
12,000 lb/acre. During time is 4 to 8 hours.
49
4. EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
To stabilize or improve the soil sample taken, the considered additives to be
added in percentages to soil so that at what point does the soil given its best
results to additive percentage.
The tests required to be done again with added additive percentages to the soil. To
know the strength variation against the addition of additives to the soil CBR test is
the main lab test to be done.
To do CBR test at different percentages of additives with soil, the OMC & MDD
of the soil with the added additive percentages to be known. The standard proctor
test to be done at different percentages of additives added to the soil.
The tests performed with addition of added percentages of additives to the soil sample
taken.
1. Standard proctor test

2. CBR test
a. Unsoaked soil sample
b. Soaked soil sample
4.1. STANDARD PROCTOR TEST ANALYSIS:

Mix propositions Water content (%) Dry density(g/cc)
Soil 26 1.61
Soil + 1% of bitumen 25.5 1.614
Soil + 7% of bitumen 22 1.71
Soil + 8% of bitumen 22 1.72
Soil + 9% f bitumen 21.7 1.688
Table: 5. OMC and MDD Values For Soil and Bitumen Admixtures
50
OMC & MDD of SOIL + 1% Bitumen
Emulsion
1.615
1.61
1.605
1.6
Dry Density
1.595
Dry Density v/s
1.59 Moisture Content
1.585
1.58
1.575
1.57
0 10 20 30 40
Moisture Content
Figure.21: Graph of OMC & MDD of Soil + 1% Bitumen Emulsion
Number of tests was carried to know the actual OMC & MDD of the soil sample with
1% added Bitumen Emulsion to it. By addition of Bitumen Emulsion to soil the OMC
& MDD values have been improved about 0.67% as compare to the actual OMC &
MDD values of the soil.
51
OMC & MDD for SOIL + 3% BITUMEN
EMULSION
1.64
1.63
1.62
Dry Density
1.61
1.6 Moisture Content

v/s Dry Density
1.59
1.58
1.57
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Moisture Content
Figure.22: Graph of OMC & MDD of Soil + 3% Bitumen Emulsion.
& MDD values have been improved about 1% as compare to the actual OMC &
52
OMC & MDD of SOIL + 6% BITUMEN
EMULSION
1.7
1.68
1.66
Dry Density
1.64
1.62
dry density v/s
1.6 moisture content
1.58
1.56
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Moisture Content
53
EMULSION
1.71
1.7
1.69
1.68
Dry Density
1.67
1.66
1.65
moisture content
1.64 v/s dry density
1.63
1.62
1.61
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Moisture Content
54
EMULSION
1.715
1.71
1.705
1.7
Dry Density
1.695
1.69
1.685
Moisture
1.68 Content v/s
Dry Density
1.675
1.67
1.665
1.66
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Moisture Content
Figure.25: Graph of OMC & MDD of Soil+ 8% Bitumen Emulsion
55
EMULSION
1.69
1.685
1.68
1.675
Dry Density
1.67
1.665 Moisture
Content v/s
1.66 Dry Density
1.655
1.65
1.645
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Moisture Content
Figure.26: Graph of OMC & MDD of Soil+ 9% Bitumen Emulsion
& MDD values have been improved about 3% as compare to the actual OMC &
56
4.2. CBR TEST ANALYSIS:
4.2.1. UNSOAKED SOIL SAMPLE
The CBR values of various mixes of Expansive soil and Bitumen Emulsion using
OMC obtained from compaction are determined. Variation of CBR with % bitumen
emulsion is presented.
UNSOAKED CBR TEST ANALYSIS OF SOIL +

1%BITUMEN EMULSION
160
140
120
100
LOAD(kg)
80
60 Load v/s
Penetration
40
20
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
PENETRATION(mm)
Figure.27: Graph of Unsoaked CBR Analysis for Soil + 1% Bitumen Emulsion.

penetration load
CBR at 2.5mm= 100
standard load
88
=1370 100
=6.423
112
CBR at 5.0mm=2055 100
=5.450
After number compaction tests carried out, the OMC & MDD of the soil sample (soil
+ 1% bitumen emulsion) was known. Then for that soil sample the CBR was known.
By addition of bitumen emulsion to the soil the values have been increased by 1% as
compared to normal soil CBR values.
57
3%BITUMEN EMULSION
250
200
150
LOAD(kg)
100 Load v/s

Penetration
50
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
PENETRATION(mm)
Figure.28: Graph of Unsoaked CBR Analysis for Soil + 3% Bitumen Emulsion
penetration load
CBR at 2.5mm= 100
standard load
89
=1370 100
=6.49635
158
CBR at 5.0mm=2055 100
=7.6885
58
6%BITUMEN EMULSION
300
250
200
LOAD(kg)
150
Load v/s
100 Penetration
50
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
PENETRATION(mm)
Figure.29: Graph of Unsoaked CBR Test Analysis of Soil + 6% Bitumen Emulsion
penetration load
CBR at 2.5mm= 100
standard load
90
=1370 100
=6.569
211
CBR at 5.0mm=2055 100
=10.2676
59
UNSOAKED CBR TEST ANAYLSIS OF SOIL + 7%
BITUMEN EMULSION
350
300
250
200
Load(kg)
150
Load v/s
Penetration
100
50
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Penetration
penetration load
CBR at 2.5mm= 100
standard load
93
=1370 100
=6.788
239
CBR at 5.0mm=2055 100
=11.68
60
UNSOAKED CBR TEST ANALYSIS OF SOIL + 8%
BITUMEN EMULSION
350
300
250
LOAD(kg)
200
150
Load v/s
Penetration
100
50
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
PENETRATION(mm)
penetration load
CBR at 2.5mm = 100
standard load
101
=1370 100
=7.3722
242
CBR at 5.0mm =2055 100
=11.77
61
UNSOAKED CBR TEST ANALYSIS OF SOIL
+ 9%BITUMEN EMULSION
350
300
250
LOAD(kg)
200
150
Load v/s
Penetration
100
50
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
PENETRATION(mm)
penetration load
CBR at 2.5mm = 100
standard load
99
=1370 100
=7.226
232
CBR at 5.0mm =2055 100
=11.289
By addition of bitumen emulsion to the soil the values have been decreased by 1% as
compared to previous soil sample CBR values. So that Bitumen was reacting
negatively after 8% of bitumen emulsion addition.
62
4.2.2. SOAKED SOIL SAMPLE
SOAKED CBR TEST ANALYSIS OF SOIL +

1%BITUMEN EMULSION
120
100
80
LOAD(kg)
60
Load v/s
40 Penetration
20
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
PENETRATION(mm)
Figure.33: Graph of Soaked CBR Analysis for Soil + 1% Bitumen Emulsion.
penetration load
CBR at 2.5mm= 100
standard load
34
=1370 100
=2.48175
62
CBR at 5.0mm=2055 100
=3.01703
63
3%BITUMEN EMULSION
140
120
100
LOAD(kg)
80
60
Load v/s
Penetration
40
20
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
PENETRATION(mm)
Figure.34: Graph of Soaked CBR Analysis for Soil + 3% Bitumen Emulsion
penetration load
CBR at 2.5mm= 100
standard load
38
=1370 100
=2.7737
82
CBR at 5.0mm=2055 100
=3.99026
64
6%BITUMEN EMULSION
180
160
140
120
LOAD(kg)
100
80
Load v/s
60 Penetration
40
20
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
PENETRATION(mm)
Figure.35: Graph of Soaked CBR Test Analysis of Soil + 6% Bitumen Emulsion
penetration load
CBR at 2.5mm= 100
standard load
41
=1370 100
=2.9927
92
CBR at 5.0mm=2055 100
=4.4768
65
SOAKED CBR TEST ANAYLSIS OF SOIL + 7%
BITUMEN EMULSION
160
140
120
100
Load(kg)
80
60 Load v/s
Penetration
40
20
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Penetration
penetration load
CBR at 2.5mm= 100
standard load
50
=1370 100
=3.6496
96
CBR at 5.0mm=2055 100
=4.6715
66
8%BITUMEN EMULSION
180
160
140
120
LOAD(kg)
100
80
Load v/s
60 Penetration
40
20
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
PENETRATION(mm)
penetration load
CBR at 2.5mm = 100
standard load
51
=1370 100
=3.7226
98
CBR at 5.0mm =2055 100
=4.7688
67
9%BITUMEN EMULSION
140
120
100
LOAD(kg)
80
60
Load v/s
Penetration
40
20
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
PENETRATION(mm)
penetration load
CBR at 2.5mm = 100
standard load
49
=1370 100
=3.5766
91
CBR at 5.0mm =2055 100
=4.428
By addition of bitumen emulsion to the soil the values have been decreased by 1% as
compared to previous soil sample CBR values. So that Bitumen was reacting
negatively after 8% of bitumen emulsion addition.
68
5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
5.1. EFFECT OF BITUMEN EMULSION ON CBR OF SOIL
5.1.1. UNSOAKED CONDITION
CBR VALUES OF DIFFERENT PERCENTAGES OF

BITUMEN EMULSION
14
12
10
Penetration
6 at 5.0mm
penetration
4
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Percentage Mixed
Figure.39. Graph Showing Variation Unsoaked CBR Values at Certain Percentages
Numbers of tests were carried out to know the effect of bitumen emulsion on CBR
value of soil. By addition of bitumen emulsion in increasing quantity with an
increment of 0.5% CBR value increased to a maximum of 11.77% (i.e. 2.87 times the
CBR of soil without bitumen emulsion) when 8% of bitumen emulsion is added.
69
s.no Mix proportions CBR at 2.5mm CBR at 5mm
1 100% soil 6.2043 4.233
2 Soil + 1% Bitumen 6.423 5.450
Emulsion
3 Soil + 3% Bitumen 6.5 7.688
Emulsion
4 Soil + 6% Bitumen 6.569 10.26
Emulsion
5 Soil + 7% Bitumen 6.788 11.68

Emulsion
6 Soil + 8% Bitumen 7.3722 11.77

Emulsion
7 Soil + 9% Bitumen 7.226 11.28

Emulsion
Table.6: Comparison of Unsoaked CBR Values
5.1.2. SOAKED CONDITION
CBR VALUES OF DIFFERENT PERCENTAGES OF

BITUMEN EMULSION
6
4
Penetration
3
at 5.0mm
penetration
2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Percentage Mixed
Figure.40. Graph Showing Variation Soaked CBR Values at Certain Percentages
70
Numbers of tests were carried out to know the effect of bitumen emulsion on CBR
value of soil. By addition of bitumen emulsion in increasing quantity with an
increment of 0.5% CBR value increased to a maximum of 4.766% (i.e. 2.15 times the
CBR of soil without bitumen emulsion) when 8% of bitumen emulsion is added.
s.no Mix proportions CBR at 2.5mm CBR at 5mm

1 100% soil 1.8248 2.48175
2 Soil + 1% Bitumen 2.48 3.010
Emulsion
3 Soil + 3% Bitumen 2.77 3.9902
Emulsion
4 Soil + 6% Bitumen 2.99 4.4768
Emulsion
5 Soil + 7% Bitumen 3.64 4.6715

Emulsion
6 Soil + 8% Bitumen 3.77 4.7688

Emulsion
7 Soil + 9% Bitumen 3.57 4.428

Emulsion
Table.7: Comparison of Soaked CBR Values
As the graphs & tables plotted above describes that the bitumen emulsion addition to
the soil sample was optimized at 8% of replacement. To improve strength or
strengthening water proofing nature was done at the 8% addition of bitumen emulsion
to the soil. More than 8% of bitumen emulsion shows the negative impact on soil,
which means minimizes the soil strength as compared to the 8% of bitumen emulsion
replacement.
71
6. CONCLUSION
It is found that the O.M.C of the Expansive soil has been increased by addition of
6%, 7% & 8% Bitumen emulsion.
It is found that the MDD of the soil is increased when Bitumen emulsion added to
the soil
It is also found that in the permeability test the passage of water in soil is more
when are added to the Bitumen emulsion soil when compared to the only soil.
It is observed that the C.B.R. value of the soil has been increased by addition of
Bitumen emulsion
After several tests carried out the bitumen emulsion addition minimizes various
things such as sub grade thickness, quantity of the soil, cost of soil required etc
Thats why combination of additives are used in this project to check the CBR
values of the soil. By this combination of additives CBR values of the soil are
increased. By this we can reduce the cost by using less cost of additives.
Bitumen emulsion is easily available and less in cost.
This concludes that maximum limit of replacement of bitumen emulsion in this
soil is 8% only, because at the 9% the values of CBR are decreased.
It was confirmed far before when the max.dry density value of soil with 9%
bitumen emulsion values turned down (decreased).
Until the replacing of bitumen emulsion by 8% it shows very good results for
strength improvement & water proofing of the soil.
After several tests carried out the bitumen emulsion addition minimizes various
things such as sub grade thickness, quantity of the soil, cost of soil required etc.
72
7. REFERENCES
Soil mechanics and foundation by B.C.PUNMIA, Ashok Kumar Jain and ARUN
Kumar Jain, LAXMI, publications Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
Soil mechanics and foundation ENGG. By K.R. ARORA, standard Publishers and
Distributors, Delhi.
Geotechnical engineering by MANOJ DUTTA & GULATI S.K Tata M
MC.GRAWHILL Publishers New Delhi.
Geotechnical engineering by C.VENKATARAMIAH, NEWAGE International
PVT Ltd, (2000).
Soil Mechanics T.W.LAMBE and WHITMAN, MC.GRAW Hill Publishing
Company, NEWYORK.
Basic and Applied Soil Mechanics by GOPAL RANJAN &ASR RAO, NEWAGE
International PVT Ltd, (2004).
DAS, B.M.,-(1999) Principles of Foundation Enginering-6th edition (Indian
edition) Thomson Engineering.
Geotechnical Engineering Principles and practices of soil mechanics and
foundation Engineering by VNS MURTHY, TAYLOR&FRANCIS Group.
73
8. PROJECT PICTURES
Figure.41. Photographs
74

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1.

The construction cost of the pavements will be considerably decreased if locally

1.1. NATURE OF EXPANSIVE SOIL:

1.2. EXPANSIVE SOILS FORMATION:

Figure.01: Silicon Structure

Figure.02: Aluminum Octahedral Structure

Figure.03: Montmorillonite & Kaolinite Structures

Figure.05: Flocculated & Dispersed Structures

2.1 SOIL STABILIZATION:

2.2 METHODS OF SOIL STABILIZATION:

2.2.1. STABILIZATION OF SOILS:

2.2.1.1. TYPES OF ADMIXTURES AND THEIR EFFECT ON SOIL

2.2.2.1. SOIL-CEMENT-WATER REACTIONS:

Engineering benefits of cement stabilization

2.2.3. STABILIZATION OF SOIL WITH LIME:

2.2.3.1. SOILLIME REACTIONS:

2.2.4. STABILIZATION OF SOIL WITH FLY ASH:

The flocculation creates a reduction in plasticity, an increase in shear strength of

2.2.5. STABILIZATION WITH BITUMEN:

2.2.6. STABILIZATION BY GEO-TEXTILES AND FABRICS:

2.2.7. MECHANICAL STABILIZATION:

2.2.8. CHEMICAL STABILIZATION:

2.2.8.2. CALCIUM CHLORIDE:

2.2.8.3. SODIUM CHLORIDE:

2.2.8.5. CHROME LIGNIN:

2.2.10. ELECTRICAL STABILIZATION:

2.2.11. STABILIZATION BY GROUTING:

2.2.11.1. CEMENT GROUTING:

2.2.11.3. CHEMICAL GROUTING:

2.2.11.4. CHROME-LIGNIN GROUTING:

3.1. EXPANSIVE SOIL (MUD SOIL)

CLAY STRUCTURE- THE MOLECULAR SANDWICH The expansion potential

EXPANSION POTENTIAL Potentially expansive soils which can cause foundation

DISADVANTAGES OF EXPANSIVE SOILS

3.1.1. GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION OBSERVATIONS:

2.36 137.7 13.77 71.37 28.63

1.18 80.48 8.048 79.418 20.582

0.425 27.54 2.754 86.608 13.392

0.3 26.63 2.663 89.271 10.729

0.15 41.50 4.150 93.421 6.579

0.075 28.57 2.857 96.278 3.722

pan 21.63 2.163 98.441 1.559

Table: 1. Observations for Sieve Analysis of Soil

GRAIN SEIVE ANALYSIS

Figure.06: Graph of Grain Size Distribution

3.1.2. CONSISTENCY LIMITS:

Figure.7: Casagrandes Liquid Limit Apparatus

Figure.8: Plastic Limit Apparatus

3.1.3.3. SHRINKAGE LIMIT:

Figure.10: Shrinkage Limit Apparatus

Figure.12: Pycnometer Bottles

1 619 911 1611 1425 2.75

2 620 910.5 1613.5 1427 2.79

3 619.4 911.64 1615 1428.46 2.76

Table: 2. Specific Gravity Test Values

3.1.4. PROCTOR COMPACTION TEST:

OMC & MDD for ONLY SOIL

Figure.14: Graph of OMC & MDD of Only Soil.

Figure.15: Permeability in Different Soils

3.1.5.1. FACTORS AFFECTING PERMEABILITY OF SOIL:

VOID RATIO (E):

ENTRAPPED AIR AND ORGANIC MATTER:

DEFINITION OF COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY: