Chapter 11 - Boiling and Condensation

10/1/2016 Chapter11.
BoilingandCondensationFundamentalsofHeatandMassTransfer
Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer
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Chapter 10. Natural (or Free) Convection Chapter 12. Heat Exchangers

Chapter 11
Boiling and Condensation

11.1 Introduction
Intheprevioustwochapters,westudiedheattransferinforcedandfreeconvection,i.e.heattransferwithfluidmotion,inducedeither
byanexternalmeansorbydensitydifferences.Inboththecases,fluidinvolvedwashomogeneousandinsinglephase.But,thereare
manyimportantpracticalcaseswhichinvolveheattransferwithachangeofphaseofthefluid,e.g.boilingwheretheliquidchangesto
vapourandcondensationwherethevapourcondensesintoaliquid.Boilingandcondensationareclassifiedunderconvectionsince
thereismotionofthefluidduringheattransferintheseprocesses.
Someoftheapplicationsofboilingandcondensationare:
1.Evaporatorsandcondensersofavapourcompressionrefrigeratingsystem
2.Boilersandcondensersofasteampowerplant
3.Reboilersandcondensersofdistillationcolumnsofcryogenicandpetrochemicalplants
4.Coolingofnuclearreactorsandrocketmotors
5.Processheatingandcooling,etc.
Uniquefeaturesofboilingandcondensationare:
1.heattransfer,practicallyataconstanttemperature,becauseofchangeofphase
2.latentheatandsurfacetensioncomeintoplayinadditiontobuoyancydrivenfloweffects,resultinginlargerheattransferrates
andheattransfercoefficientscomparedtotheusualfreeorforcedconvection
3.highheattransferrateswithsmalltemperaturedifference.
11.2 Dimensionless Parameters in Boiling and Condensation

Itisdifficulttoobtaingoverningequationsforboilingandcondensationbyapplyingtheusualconservationlaws.However,
dimensionalanalysishasbeensuccessfullyappliedwiththeuseofBuckinghamtheorem.Heattransfercoefficientineitherboiling
orcondensationprocessmaybereasonablyassumedtodependonthetemperaturedifferenceTbetweenthesurfacetemperatureTs
andthesaturationtemperatureTsatofthefluid,bodyforcearisingoutofthedensitydifferencebetweentheliquidandvapourphases
{=g.(lv)},latentheathfg,surfacetension,acharacteristiclengthLandthethermophysicalpropertiesoftheliquidorvapour
,Cp,andk.ApplyingtheBuckinghamtheorem,itcanbeshownthatthefunctionalrelationshipbetweenthevarious
dimensionlessgroupsisgivenby:
where,thedimensionalgroupsaredefinedasfollows:
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10/1/2016 Chapter11.BoilingandCondensationFundamentalsofHeatandMassTransfer
ThefirstterminsidebracketsinEq.11.1,i.e.
representstheeffectofbuoyancyinducedfluidmotiononheattransfer.
Jakobnumber(Ja)involvestheratioofmaximumsensibleenergyabsorbedtothelatentheatabsorbed.Generally,Jahasasmall
numericalvalue.
Bondnumber(Bo)istheratioofgravitationalbodyforcetothesurfacetensionforce.
11.3 Boiling Heat Transfer
11.3.1 Boiling and Evaporation

BoilingoccursatthesolidliquidinterfacewhenthesolidsurfaceisatatemperatureTs,sufficientlyabovethesaturationtemperature
Tsatoftheliquidatthatpressure.Incontrast,evaporationoccursattheliquidvapourinterfacewhenthevapourpressureabovethe
liquidislessthanthesaturationpressureoftheliquidatthegiventemperature.Uniquefeatureoftheboilingphenomenonisthe
productionofvapourbubblesatthesolidliquidinterfacecausingintensemixing.
11.3.2 Boiling Modes

Boilingisgenerallyclassifiedaspoolboilingandflowboiling.
Inpoolboiling,thereisnobulkfluidflow,andanymotionofthefluidisduetonaturalconvectionandthemovementofbubbles
underbuoyancyeffects.Heatingofaliquidbyimmersingaheatingelementinitisanexampleofpoolboiling.Whenboilingoccurs
whilefluidisinmotionundertheinfluenceofapump,itiscalledflowboiling.Thesetwomodesofboilingarefurtherclassifiedas
subcooledboilingandsaturatedboiling.Insubcooledboiling,mainbodyoftheliquidisatatemperaturebelowthesaturation
temperatureTsat,whileinsaturatedboiling,mainbodyoftheliquidisatatemperatureequaltoTsat.Duringinitialstagesofboiling,
wehavethesubcooledboilingwherebubblesoriginateattheheatingsurface,moveupduetobuoyancyeffects,anddissolveinthe
coolerliquidsincethebodyoftheliquidisatatemperaturelowerthanTsat.Asthebodyoftheliquidreachesthesaturation
temperature,bubblesstartreachinguptothefreesurfaceoftheliquidandwesaythatbulkorsaturatedboilingissetinmotion.
Sinceboilingisaformofconvectionheattransfer,boilingheatfluxisgivenbyNewtonslawofcooling,i.e.
2
qboiling=h(TsTsat)=hTeW/m (11.2)
where,Te=(TsTsat)=excesstemperature.
11.3.3 Origin and Growth of Bubbles

Boilingisassociatedwithbubbleformationattheheatingsurface.Bubblesarebelievedtooriginateatthesmallcavitiespresentonthe
heatingsurfacebyexpansionofentrappedgasorvapour.Theseareknownasnucleationsites.Then,thebubblesgrowinsize,detach
themselvesfromthesurfacewhenacriticalsizeisreached.Bubblegrowthanddynamicsiscloselyrelatedtothesurfacetension()at
theliquidvapourinterface,temperatureexcessandthepressure.Surfacetensionsignifiesthewettingcapabilityoftheliquidlower
thesurfacetension,higherthewettingcapability.
Wettingcapacityofaliquidsignifiesthecontactanglebetweenthewallandthefreesurface.SeeFig.11.1.
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FIGURE11.1Contactangleandshapeofvapourbubblesforwettingandnonwettingliquids
Largertheangle,pooreristhewettingcapacity.Aliquidisconsideredtowetasurfaceif<90deg.Thisistrueforliquidslike
water(=50deg.),kerosene(=26deg.),ether(=16deg.)etc.If>90deg.liquiddoesnotwetthesurface,eg.mercury(=137
deg.).
Basedontheoryofcapillarity,followingequationgivestheseparationdiameterdofabubbleinaquietliquid:
3
where,iscontactangleindeg.,issurfacetensioninN/m,isdensityofliquidorvapourinkg/m .
Forwaterboilingonametalsurface,Eq.11.3getsthefollowingform:
3 3
Atatmosphericpressure,forwater,l=957.9kg/m ,v=0.5978kg/m ,andweget
d=2.482mm.Notethatseparationdiameterdiminisheswithincreasingpressure.
Intensemixingcausedbytheseparationofthebubblesfromthesurfaceandtheirmovementthroughthefluidresultsinhighrateof
heattransferfromthesurfacetotheliquid.Itisobviousthathigherthenumberofnucleationsiteswherethebubblesoriginateand
higherthefrequencywithwhichthebubblesdetachfromthesurface,highertheheattransfercoefficient,h.Heattransfercoefficientis
afunctionofexcesstemperature,Te,asdiscussedbelow:
11.3.4 Boiling Regimes and Boiling Curve

Nukiyamaperformedhispioneeringexperimentsonboilingheattransferin1934.Heusednichromeandplatinumwireswhichwere
electricallyheatedwhileimmersedinliquids.Ingeneral,fourdifferentboilingregimesareobserveddependingupontheexcess
temperature(Te)imposed,namely
1.naturalconvectionboiling(Teuptoabout5deg.C)
2.nucleateboiling(Tefrom5degtoabout30deg.C)
3.transitionboiling(Tefrom30degtoabout120deg.C),and
4.filmboiling(Tebeyond120deg.C).
Fig.11.2showsatypicalboilingcurveforwateratoneatmospherepressure.Generalshapeoftheboilingcurveissameforotherfluids
aswell.InFig.11.2,boilingheatfluxisplottedagainsttheexcesstemperature.Also,shapeoftheboilingcurveisindependentofthe
geometryoftheheatingsurface,butdependsonthefluidpressureandthespecificfluidheatingsurfacecombination.
Abriefexplanationofthedifferentboilingregimesisgivenbelow:
(i)NaturalconvectionboilingThisrangeisuptothepointAinFig.11.2.Nobubblesareformeduptoasmallexcess
temperatureofabout5deg.andtheliquidissuperheated,risestothefreesurfaceandevaporatesfromthesurface.Inthisrange,the
freeconvectioncorrelationsderivedinthepreviouschaptercanbeappliedtomakeheattransfercalculations.
FIGURE11.2Typicalboilingcurveforwateratoneatmospherepressure
(ii)NucleateboilingRegionbetweenAandCisthenucleateboilingregion.StartingfrompointA,asTeincreases,bubbles
startformingatnucleationsitesatanincreasingrate.Nucleateboilingregionmayclassifiedintotwosubregions:
1.regionAB,wheretheisolatedbubblesformedriseup,butdonotreachthefreesurfaceandcollapseinthebodyoftheliquid
spacevacatedbythebubblesformedatthesurfaceastheymoveup,isfilledbyfreshliquid,andtheprocessisrepeated.
Movementofthebubblesthroughthebodyoftheliquidcausesagitationwhichisresponsibleforincreasingheattransferin
nucleateboiling.
2.regionBC,wherethebubblesformatafasterrateatalargelyincreasednumberofnucleationsitesandriseupintheliquidin
almostcontinuouscolumnsofvapour.Thesebubblesgushupintheliquidandreachthefreesurfaceandthencollapse.Heat
fluxinthisregionisverylargeduetothisreason.NotethatafterpointBthereisaninflectionintheboilingcurvethisis
becauseofthefactthatasexcesstemperatureisincreased,theheatingsurfacegetsalmostcoveredwithbubblesandtheheat
fluxincreasesatalowerrateasTeincreases,andreachesamaximumatpointC.HeatfluxatpointCiscalledcriticalor
2
maximumorburnoutheatflux,qmax.Forwater,qmax>1MW/m .
Itshouldbeclearthatfromheattransferpointofview,nulcleateboilingregimeisthemostdesirablerangetooperate,sinceveryhigh
heattransferratesareobtainedwithrelativelysmallTe.(under30C).
(iii)TransitionboilingRegionbetweenCandDisthetransitionboilingregion.Inthisrange,astheexcesstemperature
increases,theheatfluxdecreasesthisisduetothefactthatnowamajorportionoftheheatersurfaceiscoveredbythevapourfilm
whichhasasmallerthermalconductivityascomparedtothatoftheliquid,and,therefore,actsasaninsulation.BetweenpointsCand
D,nucleateandfilmboilingoccurpartiallyoralternatelyandisthereforecalledunstablefilmboilingregime.AtpointD,excess
temperatureisoftheorderof120C.
(iv)FilmboilingThisregionisbeyondthepointD.Asexcesstemperatureisfurtherincreased,nowastable,vapourblanket
completelycoverstheheatersurface.So,atpointD,theheatfluxreachesaminimumandthispointisknownasLeidenfrost
point,(inhonourofLeidenfrost,whoexplainedin1756thatthewaterdropsdroppedonaveryhotsurfacedanceonavapourfilm
andboilaway).Now,astheexcesstemperatureisincreasedfurther,heattransferbyradiationeffectalsocomesintopicturein
additiontoconductionthroughthevapourfilm,andtheheatfluxincreasesasshown.
11.3.5 Burnout Phenomenon

InFig.11.2,acontinuousboilingcurvewasshown.However,inpractice,whenNukiyamaconductedhisexperimentswithan
electricallyheatednichromewireimmersedinapoolofwater,heobservedthatwhenalittleexcesspowerwassuppliedtothe
nichromewireafterreachingpointC,wiretemperaturesuddenlyincreaseduncontrollablytothemeltingpointofthewire(i.e.1500
K)andburnoutoccurred.Whentheexperimentwasrepeatedwithplatinumwire(whichhasahighermeltingpointof2045K),it
waspossibletomaintainheatfluxhigherthanqmaxwithoutaburnout.Now,whenthepowerwasgraduallyreducedafterqminwas
reachedatpointD,therewasasuddendropintheexcesstemperature,landingintothenucleateboilingregion.NotethatthearmCD
oftheboilingcurvecannotbeobtainedinthepowercontrolledmodeofheating,unlessthepowerappliedisreducedsuddenlywhen
pointCisreached.ThephenomenonofhysterisiseffectexplainedaboveisshowninFig.11.3.
FIGURE11.3Actualboilingcurveforwaterheatedbyaplatinumwire
Aswegoonsupplyingelectricalenergytotheheater,pointC(Fig.11.2),i.e.thepointofcriticalormaximumheatfluxisreached
now,ifwetrytogopastthispointbyincreasingtheheaterpower,thefluidisnotabletoacceptthisincreasedpowerasshowninFig.
11.3,andasaresult,theheatertemperatureincreases.So,Teincreases,andthefluidcanacceptevenlesserenergyatthisincreased
T,andtheheatertemperaturefurtherincreases,andsoon.Thus,asteadystatepointEisreachedintheboilingcurveFig.11.2,which,
unfortunately,correspondstoaveryhighsurfacetemperature,thattheheatermayevenmeltorburnout.Hence,thenameburnout
heatfluxfortheheatfluxatpointC.
Knowledgeofburnoutfluxisveryimportantfrompracticalpointofview(inelectricallyheatedsurfacesandnuclearreactors),since
anyattempttogopastthepointCofmaximumheatfluxwillmakethesurfacetemperaturetojumpsuddenlytopointE,causinga
burnout.So,theaimshouldbetooperateatapointasneartothepointCaspossible,butnevertogobeyondit.Incryogenic
applications,however,pointEfallsattemperaturesmuchlowerthanthemeltingpointofmaterialsconcerned,andfilmboilingcan
beadoptedwithoutanydangerofaburnout.
11.3.6 Heat Transfer Correlations for Pool Boiling

Therearedifferentcorrelationsforthedifferentregimesofboilingdiscussedabove.Mostofthesecorrelationsareempirical,since,as
alreadymentioned,phenomenonofboilingisnoteasilyamenabletotheoreticalanalysis.
Naturalconvectionboilingregime(i.e.uptoanexcesstemperatureofabout5deg.C).Inthisregime,thecorrelationsalready
presentedinthepreviouschapteronNatural(or,Free)convectionmaybeused.
Nucleateboilingregime(i.e.excesstemperaturevaryingfromabout5deg.uptoabout30deg.C).Inthisregime,heattransfer
dependsonthenumberofnucleationsites,rateofvapourbubbleformation,etc.Itisthoughtthatmuchhigherheattransferrates
obtainedinthisregimeareduetothestirringandagitatingeffectcausedbythebubblesonthesurroundingliquid.Further,
experimentsshowthatnucleateboilingheatfluxisnotverymuchdependentonthegeometryororientationoftheheatersurface.
Therefore,thecorrelationgivenbelowisvalidforflatplates,cylindersandothergeometries.
CorrelationproposedbyRohsenowin1952,isthemostwidelyusedone,forheatfluxinthenucleateboilingregime:
where,
2
qnucleate =nucleateboilingheatflux,W/m
L =viscosityofliquid,kg/(m.s)
hfg =enthalpyofvaporisation,J/kg
2
g =gravitationalacceleration,m/s
3
L =densityofliquid,kg/m
3
V =densityofvapour,kg/m
CpL =Specificheatofliquid,J/(kg.C)
=surfacetensionofliquidvapourinterface,N/m
Ts =surfacetemperatureofheater,deg.C
Tsat =saturationtemperatureoffluid,deg.C
Csf =aconstantdependinguponthespecificsurfacefluid
combination
PrL =Prandtlnumberofliquid
n =1forwater,and1.7forallotherliquids.
SubscriptsLandVrefertoliquidandvapour,respectively.
Sincewaterisoneofthemostcommonfluidsused,itisusefultohaveitssurfacetensionandtheconstantCsfforwatersurface
combination,readilyavailable.
SurfacetensionandlatentheatofwateratafewtemperaturesaregiveninTable11.1.
TABLE11.1andhfgforwater
Saturationtemperature(T sat),deg.C Surfacetension(),N/m Latentheat(hfg),kJ/kg
0 0.0755 2500.8
20 0.0729 2453.7
40 0.0695 2406.2
60 0.0661 2357.9
80 0.0627 2308.3
100 0.0589 2256.7
150 0.0487 2113.4
200 0.0378 1939.3
250 0.0261 1714.7
300 0.0143 1406.2
350 0.0036 916.1
374 0.0 0.0
Aquickestimateofsurfacetensionofwateratagiventemperaturecanbemadeusingthefollowingequation:
=0.0743(10.0026T),N/m(11.6)
where,Tisindeg.C
ExperimentallydeterminedvaluesofconstantCsfforafewliquidsurfacecombinationsaregiveninTable11.2:
NotethatRohsenowEq.11.5isapplicableforcleansurfacesandforrelativelysmoothsurfaces.
Tocalculatetheheatfluxinnucleateboiling,CollierrecommendsthefollowingequationwhichissimplertouseascomparedtoEq.
11.5:
where,Teistheexcesstemperatureindeg.C,Pistheoperatingpressureinatm.,Pcr isthecriticalpressureinatm.
AnothercorrelationproposedbyMostinskitodeterminetheheattransfercoefficientinnucleateboilingis:
TABLE11.2Csfforafewliquidsurfacecombinations
Fluidandsurface Csf
Watercopper:
Scoredsurface 0.0068
Polishedsurface 0.0130
Waterstainlesssteel:
Tefloncoatedsurface 0.0058
Groundandpolishedsurface 0.0068
Mechanicallypolishedsurface 0.0130
Chemicallyetchedsurface 0.0130
Waterbrass 0.0060
Waternickel 0.0060
Waterplatinum 0.0130
npentanecopper:
Lappedsurface 0.0049
Polishedsurface 0.0154
npentanechromium 0.0150
Ethylalcoholchromium 0.0027
Benzenechrommium 0.101

where,PandPcr aretheoperatingandcriticalpressure(bar),respectively,Teistheexcesstemperatureindeg.C.
Oncehisknown,heatfluxiscalculatedas:q=h.Te.
AnotherusefulcorrelationforheattransfercoefficientinnucleateboilingisfromRussianliterature:
3 2
Notetheunitsintheaboveequation:inkg/m ,hfginkcal/kg,inkg/m,kinkcal/(mhrC),inkgs/m ,Cpinkcal/(kgC)and
subscriptsLandVrefertoliquidandvapour,respectively.
WhenalltermsareexpressedinS.I.Units,asinEq.11.5,aboveequationbecomes:
AdvantageofEq.11.9bisthatheattransfercoefficientispresentedasafunctionofphysicalpropertiesofthefluidonlytherefore,it
canbeusedtocalculatehforanyfluidandatanypressure,ifreliabledataonphysicalpropertiesareavailable.
BasedonEq.11.9,followingcalculationformulasarerecommendedspecificallyforwaterinnucleateboiling,inthepressure
range0.2100ata:
0.7 2
hnucleate=3.133q P0.15W/(m C)(forwater(11.10a))
and,
2.33 2
hnucleate=45.054T P0.5W/(m C)(forwater(11.10b))
2
IntheaboveequationsqistheheatfluxinW/m ,Pisthepressureinbar,andTistheexcesstemperatureindeg.C.
Peak(or,maximum)heatfluxinnucleatepoolboiling:
Duringthedesignofheattransferequipments(e.g.boilertubes),itisextremelyimportanttohaveanideaaboutthepeakheatflux,so
thatstepscanbetakentoavoidaburnout.
LeinhardandDhir(1973)givethefollowingcorrelationforpeakheatfluxinnucleatepoolboiling:
where,Co=0.149foralargehorizontalsurface
and,Co=0.116foralargehorizontalcylinder.
Unlikethenucleateboilingflux,peakheatfluxdependsonheatergeometryandorientation.
Eq.11.11indicatesthatwaterwillhavelargerpeakheatfluxthananyothercommonliquids,becauseofitslargeheatofvaporisation.
Also,peakheatfluxisafunctionofoperatingpressure,sincethepressureaffectstheboilingpoint,whichinturn,affectstheheatof
vaporisationandsurfacetension.Accordingtoexperimentaldata,peakheatfluxinitiallyincreasessharplyasthepressureisincreased,
reachesamaximum,thendecreasestozeroatcriticalpressure.Thistrendisshownclearlyforwater,inFig.11.4.
InFig.11.4,onXaxis,wehavetheratioofP/Pcr andonYaxisisplottedtheratio(qpeak,p/qpeak,1),whereqpeak,pisthepeakheat
fluxattheoperatingpressurePandqpeak,1isthepeakheatfluxatoneatm.pressure.Atthemaximumpointinthecurve,wehave:
6 2
P/Pcr=0.35andqpeak,p/qpeak,1=3.2.Rememberingthatforwater,Pcr =225ata,weseethatqpeak=4.65210 W/m mustoccur
atP=80ata.
Inadditiontopeakheatflux,theexcesstemperatureatpeakheatfluxisalsoimportanttodetermineifthesurfaceoftheheaterwould
reachtheburnoutpointatagivenpeakheatflux.Experimentalvaluesofpeakheatfluxandthecorrespondingexcesstemperatureare
giveninTable11.3forafewfluidsat1atm.pressure:
Anotherrelationforpeakheatfluxonhorizontalcylinders,whichfitsexperimentaldataverywell,ispresentedbySunand
Lienhard:
FIGURE11.4Variationofpeakheatfluxwithpressureforwater
TABLE11.3Peakheatfluxandcriticaltemperatureforafewliquidsatoneatm.pressure
where,Risadimensionlessradiusdefinedas:
and,qmaxFisthepeakheatfluxonaninfinitehorizontalplate,givenas:
AnotherusefulcorrelationforpeakheatfluxinnucleateboilingisfromRussianliterature:
3 2
Notetheunitsintheaboveequationinkg/m ,hfginkcal/kg,inkg/m,kinkcal/(mhrC),inkgs/m ,Cpinkcal/(kgC)and
subscriptsLandVrefertoliquidandvapour,respectively.
WhenalltermsareexpressedinS.I.Units,asinEq.11.5,aboveequationbecomes:
AdvantageofEq.11.14bisthatpeakheatfluxispresentedasafunctionofphysicalpropertiesofthefluidonlytherefore,itcanbeused
tocalculateqmaxforanyfluidandatanypressure,ifreliabledataonphysicalpropertiesareavailable.
Minimumheatflux:
ThisoccursatpointDinFig.11.2minimumheatfluxrepresentsthelowerlimitofheatfluxinfilmboiling.Foralarge,horizontal
plate,Zuberderivedthefollowingrelation(modifiedbyBerensonin1961)forminimumheatflux:
Filmboiling:
HeattransfercoefficientinstablefilmboilingregimeonahorizontalcylinderorsphereispredictedbyBromleyscorrelation:
where,
Foraverylargediametertube(diameterD)orahorizontalsurface,Eq.11.16isvalid,withthefollowingvalueforCo(Westwaterand
Breen,1962):
and,
Notethatforahorizontalsurface,Co=0.59,sinceD
VapourpropertiesinEq.11.16areevaluatedatthemeanfilmtemperature,
Tf=(Ts+Tsat)/2
Asstatedearlier,duringstablefilmboiling,athightemperatures(>300C),thermalradiationeffectsbecomesignificantandBromley
suggestedusinganoverallheattransfercoefficientgivenby:
h=hfilm+0.75hrad(11.17)
and,hradisgivenby:
8 2 4
where,=5.6710 W/(m K )(StefanBoltzmannconstant)
and,istheemissivityoftheheatedsurface.
Also,rememberthatinEq.11.18,thetemperaturesT sandT satmustbeinKelvin.
Heatfluxinstablefilmboilingiseasilycalculated,oncetheheattransfercoefficientisdetermined,i.e.

2
qfilm=h(TsTsat)W/m .(11.19)
11.3.7 Simplified Correlations for Boiling with Water

Sincewaterisoneofthemostcommonlyusedfluidsinpractice,itisusefultohavesomesimplifiedcorrelationsforboilingwater.
JakobandHawkins(1957)presentedfollowingsimplerelationsforwaterboilingatatmosphericpressureonsubmergedsurfaces:
Heattransfercoefficientsatpressuresotherthanatmosphericmaybecalculatedusingthefollowingempiricalequation:
where,hp=heattransfercoefficientatanypressurep,
ha=heattransfercoefficientatpressurepa(=1atm.)fromTable11.4.
TABLE11.4Simplifiedrelationsforboilingheattransfercoefficientforwateratoneatm.pressure
2 2
Typeofsurface Rangeofvalidity(kW/m ) h(W/m K)
1/3
Horizontal: qs<15.8 1040(Te)
3
15.8<qs<236 5.56(Te)
1/7
Vertical: qs<3.15 539(Te)
3
3.15<qs<63.1 7.95(Te)
Example11.1.Wateratapressureofoneatm.isboiledinapolishedcopperpan,300mmdiameter.Ifthesurfacetemperatureof
thepanis110C,(a)calculatetheboilingheatfluxandtheheattransfercoefficient.Whatistheevaporationrateofwater?(b)compare
thenucleateboilingfluxwiththemaximumheatflux(c)comparethevaluesofheattransfercoefficientobtainedfromRohsenows
correlationwiththoseobtainedusingColliers,MostinskisandRussiancorrelations.
Solution.
Data:
Ts:=110CTsat:=100Cd:=0.3mCsf:=0.013(fromtable11.2)
PropertiesofwateratTsat=100Care:
3 3 6
L=958.4kg/m V=0.5955kg/m CPL=4220J/(kgK)L=27910 kg/(ms)PrL=1.75
3 3
hfg=225710 J/kg=58.910 N/mn=1(exponentnineqn.11.5)(exponentnineqn.11.5)
2
g=9.81m/s
SinceTis10deg.C,itisreasonabletoassumethatcorrelationfornucleateboilingregimeisapplicable.Then,wehave,forheat
flux:
Heattransfercoefficient:
Evaporationrate:
(b)Maximumheatflux:
Wehave,fromEq.11.11forahorizontalsurface:
Thus,actualheatfluxismuchsmallerthanthecritical(max)heatflux.
LetalsochecktheactualheatfluxusingCollierscorrelation:
Wehave: Pcr :=225atm (criticalpressureforwater)
P:=1atm (operatingpressure)
Te:=TsTsat
Wehave,fromCollierscorrelation:
5
Comparethisvaluewith1.39610 ,obtainedusingRohsenowscorrelation.
LetusalsochecktheactualheatfluxusingMostinskiscorrelation:
3
i.e. hnucleate=8.73910
2
W/(m C)
and, qnucleate:=hnucleateTe
4 2
i.e. qnucleate=8.73910 W/m .
5 4
Again,comparethisvaluewith1.39610 ,obtainedusingRohsenowscorrelation,and8.96910 ,usingCollierscorrelation.
Also,fromRussianliterature:
3
i.e. hnucleate=9.63210
2
W/(m C)
and, qnucleate:=hnucleateTe
4 2
i.e. qnucleate=9.63210 W/m .

Thus,itmaybenotedthattheseempiricalrelationscangivevaluesthatdifferfromeachotherconsiderably.(c)comparingthe
valuesofhfromdifferentcorrelations:
2
h=1.396104W/(m C) Rohsenowscorrelation
2
h=8969W/(m C) Collierscorrelation
2
h=8739W/(m C) Mostinskiscorrelation
2
h=9632W/(m C) Russiancorrelation.
Example11.2.Anickelwire,1mmdiameterand300mmlong,issubmergedinawaterbathopentoatmosphere.Whatisthevalue
ofcurrentflowingthroughthewirethatwillcauseburnout,iftheappliedvoltageis10V?
Solution.
Data:
Tsat:=100CR:=0.0005mL:=0.3mV:=10V
PropertiesofwateratT sat=100Care:
3 3 6
L:=958.4kg/m V:=0.5955kg/m CpL:=4220J/(kgK)L:=27910 kg/(ms)PrL:=1.75
3 3 2
hfg:=225710 J/kg:=5810 N/mg:=9.81m/s
Thisisthecaseofahorizontalcylinder.So,letususeEq.11.12.
First,calculatethefactorR:
Therefore,
and,qmaxFisthepeakheatfluxonaninfinitehorizontalplate,givenas:
FromEq.11.12aweget:
Thisisthevalueofburnoutflux.
IfVisthevoltage,Ithecurrentthroughthewire,wehave:
Example11.3.Ahorizontal,metalcladheatingelement,10mmdiameterandofsurfaceemissivity0.85,issubmergedinawater
bath.Surfacetemperatureoftheheatingelementis300C.Ifthewaterisatatmosphericpressure,calculatethepowerdissipationper
unitlengthoftheheater.
Solution.
Data:
3
Tsat:=100CD:=0.01mL:=1mTs:=300C:=0.85L:=958.4kg/m
3 2 8 2 4
hfg:=225710 J/kgg:=9.81m/s :=5.6710 W/(m K )
Sincetheexcesstemperatureis(300100)=200C,itisfilmboilingregion.Weneedpropertiesofvapouratthemeanfilm
temperatureof(300+100)/2=200C.
Properiesofvapourat200C:
3 6
kV:=0.0375W/(mK)V:=7.85kg/m V:=15.710 kg/(ms)CpV:=2910J/(kgK)
6
hfg:=hfg+0.4CpV.(TsTsat)i.e.hfg:=2.4910 J/kg
Then,forahorizontalcylinder,wehave:
withCo=0.62andL=Dforahorizontalcylinder
Radiativeheattransfercoefficientisgivenby:
Therefore,thetotalheattransfercoefficientisgivenby:
h:=hfilm+0.75hrad(11.17)
2
i.e.h=477.145W/(m C)
Therefore,powerdissipationperunitlengthofheater:
Q:=h(DL)(TsTsat)W/m
3
i.e.Q=2.99810 W/m.
Example11.4.Alarge,horizontalplateiskeptimmersedinawaterbathboilingat1atm,100C.Surfacetemperatureoftheplateis
260C.Calculatetheheattransfercoefficientandtheheatflux.Assumetheemissivityofthesurfaceas0.9.
Solution.
Data:
3 3
Tsat:=100CTs:=260C:=0.9L:=958.4kg/m hfg:=225710 J/kg
2 3
g:=9.81m/s :=58.910 N/m
Sincetheexcesstemperatureis(260100)=160C,itisfilmboilingregion.Weneedpropertiesofvapouratthemeanfilm
temperatureof(260+100)/2=180C.
Propertiesofvapourat180C:
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kV:=0.03268W/(mK)V:=5.16kg/m V:=15.110 kg/(ms)CpV:=2709J/(kgK)
6
hfg:=hfg+0.4CpV(TsTsat)i.e.hfg:=2.4310 J/kg
Then,weapplyEq.11.16:
where,forahorizontalsurface,wehave:
Then,filmboilingheattransfercoefficient:
And,radiativeheattransfercoefficient:
Note:UseabsolutetemperaturesinEq.11.18forradiativeheattransfer.
Therefore,thetotalheattransfercoefficientisgivenby:
h:=hfilm+0.75hrad(11.17)
2
i.e.h=352.458W/(m C)
and,theheatflux:
2
q:=h(TsTsat)W/m
4 2
i.e.q=5.63910 W/m .
Example11.5.Waterisboilingat8atm.onthesurfaceofahorizontaltube,whosewalltemperatureismaintainedat8Cabovethe
boilingpointofwater.Calculatethenucleateboilingheattransfercoefficient
(b)Whatisthechangeinthevalueofheattransfercoefficientwhen(i)temperaturedifferenceisincreasedto16Catthepressureof8
atm.,and(ii)pressureisraisedto16atm.withTe=8C.
Solution.
Data:
Te:=8CPa:=1atmP:=8atm
2
Now,weusethefollowingrelation(assumingq>15.8kW/m ),fromTable11.4:
and,
(i)Now,whentheTisincreasedto16C,withthepressureremainingat8atm.:
i.e.heattransfercoefficientincreasesbyabout8timesascomparedtotheearliervaluewhenTwas8C.
(ii)Whenthepressureisincreasedto16atm.,withtheTremainingat8C.:
Te:=8C
P:=16atm
Again,wehave:
i.e.heattransfercoefficientincreasesbyabout32%ascomparedtotheoriginalvalueatapressureof8atm.
11.3.8 Flow Boiling

Flowboilingorboilinginforcedconvection,isimportantinthedesignofboilingnuclearreactors,inspacecraftsandspacepower
systems.
Inflowboiling,afluidisforcedtomoveoveraheatedsurfacewhilethephasechangeoccurs.Therefore,combinedeffectsof
natural/forcedconvectionandpoolboilingcomeintoplay.
Flowboilingisclassifiedas:
1.Externalflowboiling,and
2.Internalflowboiling.
FIGURE11.5Effectofflowvelocityinexternalflowboiling
(i)ExternalflowboilingInexternalflowboiling,flowoccursoverthesurfaceofaplateorcylindertherearetheflowregimes
similartothatinpoolboiling,butduetotheeffectofflowvelocity,boththenucleateboilingheatfluxandthecriticalheatfluxget
2
enhanced.SeeFig.11.5.Forwaterinexternalflowboiling,criticalheatfluxvalueashighas35MW/m hasbeenobtained(as
2
comparedtothevalueof1.3MW/m inpoolboilingatoneatm.).
ForcrossflowoveracylinderofdiameterD,LienhardandEichhornhavegivenfollowingcorrelations,dependingupon
whetherthefluidvelocityisloworhigh.
Criteriontodetermineifthevelocityisloworhighis:
and,
Correlationforlowvelocity:
Correlationforhighvelocity:
Here,VisthefluidvelocityandWeDistheWebernumber,definedastheratioofinertiaforcestosurfacetensionforces,i.e.
(ii)InternalflowboilingInternalforcedconvectionboilingreferstoflowinsideatube.Thisismorecomplicatedsince,now,
thereisnofreesurfaceforthevapourtoescapeandresultsintwophaseflowinsidethetube.Therearedifferentflowregimes
occurringinsidethetubedependinguponthequalityofthefluid.(Qualityisdefinedastheratioofmassofvapourtothetotalmass
offluidatagivenlocation).ThisisillustratedinFig.11.6,whichalsoshowsaqualitativegraphofvariationofheattransfercoefficient
withlocalquality.
Considerafluid,atatemperaturebelowitsboilingpoint,enteringavertical,heatedtube.Progressivevaporisationoccursalongthe
lengthofthetubeandthequalityincreases.Uptoashortdistancefromtheinlet,heattransfercoefficientforthesinglephasefluid
maybepredictedusingtheDittusBoelterequation.
FIGURE11.6Flowregimesandheattransfercoefficientinforcedconvectionflowinaverticaltube
BubbleflowregimeSoon,thebulktemperaturereachesthesaturationpoint,andbubblesareformedatthenucleationsitesonthe
wallandarecarriedintothemainstream,asinnucleateboiling.Thisisknownasthebubbleflowregime(seeFig.11.6(a))andthe
heattransfercoefficientincreases.Heattransfercoefficientinthisrangecanbepredictedbysuperimposingtheliquidforced
convectionandnucleatepoolboilingequations.
SlugflowregimeFurtheralongthedistance,vapourfractionincreasesandindividualbubblesagglomerateandslugsofvapourare
formed.Thisregimeisknownasslugflowregime.SeeFig.11.6(b).Fluidvelocityincreasesandsincetheslugsofvapourare
compressible,flowoscillationsmayoccur.Massfractionofvapourinthisregimeisaround1%,butvolumefractionofvapourmaybe
evenupto50%.Inthisregimealso,heattransfercoefficientmaybecalculatedbysuperimposingtheliquidforcedconvectionand
nucleatepoolboilingequations.Heattransfercoefficientincreasesbecauseofincreasedvelocity.
AnnularflowregimeAsthefluidprogressesfurtherupthetube,qualityincreasesduetofurtheradditionofheatandvapourforms
thecoreandafilmofliquidflowsontheinnerwallsurface.Vapourcoretravelsatahighervelocitythantheliquidandvapoursare
formedprimarilyattheliquidvapourinterfaceandnotatthewallsurface.Qualityinthisflowregimemaybeupto25%.SeeFig.11.6
(c).
TransitionflowregimeNow,asthequalityincreases,thereisasuddendropinthevalueofheattransfercoefficient.Heatfluxat
thispointisknownascriticalheatflux.Thisisthepointofdryout.Thissuddendrophappenssincetheliquidfilmatthewallisnow
replacedbyavapourfilm,whichhasapoorthermalconductivity.Theremaybesharpincreaseinthewalltemperatureandeven
burnoutmayoccur.
MistflowregimeNow,thetubeisfullyoccupiedbythevapour,whichmaycontaindropletsofliquid.Thisisknownasmistflow
regime.SeeFig.11.6(d).Heattransferisfromthewalltothevapourdirectly,andthenfromthevapour,heatistransferredtothe
dropletsofliquidcontainedinthevapour.
Fromtheannularflowregimeonwards,predictionofheattransfercoefficientisalittledifficultanduncertainduetoproblemsoftwo
phaseflow.
Correlationstofindoutheattransfercoefficientinnucleateflowboilingaswellasintwophaseflowboilingarepresentedbelow:
Correlationsfornucleateflowboiling:
RosenhowandGriffith(1955)havesuggestedthattotalheatfluxbecalculatedbyaddingthenucleatepoolboilingflux(fromEq.11.5)
andtheforcedconvectioneffect(fromDittusBoelterequationwiththecoefficient0.023replacedby0.019),
i.e.
qtotal=qnucleate+qforcedconvection(11.24)
Forforcedconvectionflowinsideverticaltubes,followingcorrelationisrecommended:
where,Te=TsTsat,andp=pressureinmegapascals.
Aboveequationisvalidforthepressurerangeof5to170bar.
Forhorizontaltubes,McAdamset.al.suggestfollowingrelationforlowpressureboilingwater:
3.96 2
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W/m for0.2<P<0.7MPa(11.25a)

Forhigherpressures,Levyrecommends:
Here,thepressurePisinmegaPascals.
Correlationsfortwophase,flowboiling:
Beyondthesaturatednucleateboiling,thereisannularflowregion,andChenscorrelation(1966)hasbeenwidelyusedfortwophase
heattransfercalculations.
Here,
h=hc +hb
where,hc isthecontributionduetoannularregionandhb isthecontributionduetonucleateboilingregion.Wehave:
and,
Psat=changeinvapourpressurecorrespondingtoatemperaturechangeofTe.
visthespecificvolume.
S.I.Unitsareusedthroughout.
ParameterFiscalculatedfrom:
ParameterSisgivenby:
1.14 1
S=(1+0.12ReTP ) forReTP<32.5
0.78 1
S=(1+0.42ReTP ) for32.5<ReTP<70
S=0.1forReTP>70
where,ReynoldsnumberReTPisdefinedas:
Chenscorrelationhasbeentestedforseveralsystems(includingwater)forpressuresrangingfrom0.5to35atmandqualityx
rangingfrom1to71%.
MorerecentcorrelationForflowboiling,recentcorrelationisduetoKlimenko(1988).Thisisforaliquidboilingatapressure
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wandcrosssectionalareaAc .Thiscorrelationisvalidforbothnucleateboilingand
annularfilmboilinguptodryout.
First,wehavetodeterminewhetheritisnucleateflowboilingregimeorannularfilmboilingregime.Thisisdonebyevaluating
parameter:
Qualityxisdefinedas:
where,mVisthemassofvapourandmListhemassofliquid,andm=(mV+mL)
4
Nucleateflowboiling(<1.610 ):
where,
4
Annularfilmboiling(>1.610 ):
where,
AllpropertiesareevaluatedattemperatureTsat.
Theactual,effectiveheattransfercoefficientduetoboilingandsinglephaseforcedconvectionisobtained
Example11.6.Waterat8atm.flowsinsideaverticaltubeof2.5cmdiameterunderflowboilingconditions.Tubewalltemperature
ismaintainedat8Cabovethesaturationtemperature.Determinetheheattransferforonemetrelengthoftube.
Solution.
Data:

D:=0.025mL:=1mTe:=8CP:=8atmi.e.P:=8.00.10132MPai.e.P:=0.811MPa

WeapplyEq.11.25
where,PisinmegaPascals
3 2
Therefore,h=2.19310 W/(m K)
Then,heattransferfor1mlengthoftube:
Q:=h(DL)TeW/m
3
i.e.Q:=1.37810 W/m.
Example11.7.A50mmdiameterverticalevaporatortube(kw=20W/(mK))carries1kg/sofsteamat14.55barataqualityx=0.2.
6 2
Thetubeissubjectedtoauniformheatfluxof10 W/m .Identifytheregimeofflowboilingandcalculatetheconvectiveheattransfer
coefficientandsurfacetemperatureofthetube.
(b)whenthequalityreaches0.8,whatistheboilingregimeandhowmuchistheboilingheattransfercoefficient?
Solution.
Data:
5 2 3
D:=0.05mP:=14.5510 N/m Tsat:=470K(at14.55bar)hfg:=195110 J/kg(at14.55bar)
3 3
m:=1kg/sx:=0.2kw:=20W/(mK)L:=868.056kg/m V:=7.353kg/m kL:=0.667W/(mK)
6 2
CpL:=4480J/(kgK)L:=13610 N.s/m PrL:=0.92:=0.0385N/m(surfacetension)
6 2 2
q:=10 W/m g:=9.81m/s
Crosssectionalareaoftube:
First,findouttheparametertodetermineiftheflowboilingregimeisnucleateorannularfilm:
Wehave:
4
Since<1.610 ,itisnucleateflowboilingregime.
WeuseKlimenkoscorrelationtodeterminetheboilingheattransfercoefficienthb .
FromEq.11.30:
where,
Therefore,
Singlephaseforcedconvectionheattransfercoefficienthc :
WeuseDittusBoelterequation,namely,
Therefore,totaloreffectiveheattransfercoefficient:
TotaloreffectiveheattransfercoefficientisgivenbyEq.11.32:
Tubesurfacetemperature:
i.e. Te=15.345C
and, Ts:=Tsat+Te
i.e. Ts=485.345K
i.e. Ts=212.345C (tubesurface

temperature.)
(b)Whenquality,x=0.8:

x:=0.8(quality)
Wehave:
4
Since>1.610 ,itisannularfilmflowboilingregime.
Inthisregime,Klimenkoscorrelationforboilingheattransfercoefficientis:
Therefore,
4
Comparethisvaluewithhb =6.51610 ,obtainedearlierfornucleateflowboiling.Itisasitshouldbe,sinceinannularfilmflow
boiling,theheattransfercoefficientislessthanthatinthenucleateflowboiling.
Example11.8.InExample11.7,ifthetubesurfaceismaintainedataconstanttemperatureof227C,calculatethetotalheattransfer
coefficientandsurfaceheatfluxatthepointwherethequalityis0.2.RestofthedataarethesameasinExample11.7.
Solution.
Data:
5 2 3
D:=0.05mP:=14.5510 N/m Tsat:=470K(at14.55bar)hfg:=195110 J/kgTs:=500K
5 2
Te:=TsTsatPs:=26.4bar,correspondingto500Ki.e.Psat:=(26.414.55)10 N/m m:=1kg/s
3 3
x:=0.2(quality)L:=868.056kg/m V:=7.353kg/m kL:=0.667W/(mK)CpL:=4480J/(kgK)
6 2 6 2 2
L:=13610 Ns/m V:=15.5410 Ns/m PrL:=0.92:=0.0385N/mg:=9.81m/s
Crosssectionalareaoftube:
Now,letususeChenscorrelation.
Wehave:
h=hc +hb
where,hc isthecontributionofsinglephaseconvectionandhb isthecontributionofboilingregion.
and,
First,letuscalculate1/Xtt,sothatfactorFcanbecalculated:
Thisisgreaterthan0.1.Therefore,
i.e.F=2.091
Also,G,themassvelocityis:
Then,wehave:
and,tocalculatehb ,weneedtocalculatethefactorS,afterfindingoutReTP,:
Then,wehave:
Therefore,
Then,totalheattransfercoefficienth:
h:=hc +hb
4
i.e.h=2.24310 W/(m2K)(totalheattransfercoefficient)
And,surfaceheatfluxatthatpointwherex=0.2:
q:=hTe
5 2
q=6.72810 W/m (localheatflux.)
11.4 Condensation Heat Transfer
11.4.1 Introduction

Condensationheattransferhasimportantpracticalapplications,e.g.inthermalpowerplants,lowpressureexhauststeamfromthe

steamturbineiscondensedontheoutsideofwatercooledtubesofacondenserinvapourcompressionrefrigerationandair
conditioningsystems,therefrigerantiscondensedinsidetubesofthecondenser,inthecondenserreboilerofcryogenicdistillation
columns,etc.
WheneverasaturatedvapouratatemperatureTsatisbroughtincontactwithasurfacemaintainedattemperatureTssuchthatTsis
lessthanTsat,vapourscondenseonthesurface.Thus,inaway,condensationisthereverseofboilingprocess.Whilecondensing,
naturally,thevapourswillreleasethelatentheatofvaporisation.
Thevapoursmaycondenseonthesurfaceinoneofthetwomodes:filmwisecondensationordropwisecondensation.
Infilmwisecondensation,say,onaverticalsurface,vapourscondenseonthesurfaceanddripdownformingacontinuousliquid
filmonthesurface.Thicknessofthecondensatefilmincreasesasittravelsdowntowardsthelower(ortrailing)endoftheplate.
Duringthecondensationprocess,latentheatofvaporisationisreleasedbythevapours.Forfurthercondensationtooccur,thereleased
latentheathastobeconductedthroughthisliquidfilmtothecooledsurfaceattemperatureTs.However,theliquidfilmoffers
resistancetotheflowofheatandthisresistanceincreasesasthethicknessofthefilmgrows.Filmwisecondensationoccurson
surfaceswhichtendtogetwetted.
Indropwisecondensation,thevapourscondenseonthesurfaceondrops,whichdripdownthesurface.Acontinuousfilmof
liquidisnotformedonthesurface.Thus,moreofthebaseareaattemperatureTsisalwaysexposedtothevapours.Therefore,heat
transferrateishigher(uptotentimes)indropwisecondensationascomparedtothevalueinfilmwisecondensation.Generally,
dropwisecondensationoccursonsmoothsurfaceswhichdonotgetwetted.
Whiledropwisecondensationwouldappeartobethepreferredmode,inpractice,itisdifficulttomaintainthismodeof
condensationsince,withtime,allsurfacestendtogetwetted.
Attemptstoachievedropwisecondensationhavebeenmadeeitherbycoatingthesurfacewithsomesuitablematerialorbyadding
someadditivestothevapoursbut,commercially,thesetechniqueshavenotyetbecomeviable.
FIGURE11.7Filmcondensationonaverticalplate
11.4.2 Film Condensation and Flow Regimes

ConsiderfilmcondensationofavapouratsaturationtemperatureTsatonthesurfaceofacooledverticalplate,maintainedata
temperatureTs(<Tsat.).SeeFig.11.7.
Vapourcondensesonthetopoftheplateandflowsdownasafilm.Thicknessofthefilm()iszeroatthetopoftheplate(i.e.atx=0
inthecoordinatesystemshown)andincreasesaswetraveldowntheplate(i.e.asxincreases)duetoadditionalcondensationof
vapour.Initially,theliquidfilmflowislaminaraftersomedistanceitwillbecomewavyandlater,itmayeventurnturbulent.These
differentflowregimesareidentifiedaccordingtoafilmReynoldsnumber,definedasfollows:
where,
Dh=4Ac /P=4.=hydraulicdiameterofcondensateflow,m
P=wettedperimeterofcondensate,m
2
Ac =P.=areaofcrosssectionofflowatthelowestpartofflow,m
3
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L=viscosityofliquid,kg/ms
VL=averagevelocityofcondensateatthelowestpartofflow,m/s
LAc VL=m=massflowrateofcondensateatthelowestpartofflow,kg/s.
Forthecommongeometriesofaverticalplate,verticalcylinderandahorizontalcylinder,hydraulicdiameterDhisequalto4times
thethicknessofthecondensate,,atthelocationwherethehydraulicdiameteristobeevaluatedthisisclearlyshownasfollows:
ForaverticalplateLetBbethebreadthoftheplate,perpendiculartopaper.Atanysectionalongtheverticalheight,letthe
thicknessoftheliquidfilmbe.Then,
Ac =B.=areaofcrosssection
P =B=wettedperimeter,and
Dh =4.Ac /P=4..
ForaverticalcylinderLetDbethediameterofthecylinder.Atanysectionalongtheverticalheight,letthethicknessoftheliquid
filmbe.Then,
Ac =.D.=areaofcrosssection
P =.D=wettedperimeter,and
Dh =4.Ac /P=4..
ForahorizontalcylinderLetDbethediameterofthecylinder,andLthelength.Alongthelengthofthecylinder,letthethickness
oftheliquidfilmbe.Then,
Ac =2.L.=areaofcrosssection
P =2.L=wettedperimeter,and
Dh =4.Ac /P=4..
Again,consideringEq.11.32,foraverticalplate,wettedperimeter,P=B,thebreadththerefore,(m/P)isthemassflowrateperunit
breadth.Ifwedenote(m/P)bym,wecanwritefortheverticalplate:
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Anotherpointtobenotedisregardingthelatentheatofvaporisatiion(h Today
)releasedduringcondensation:Vapouratatemperatureof
fg
TsatcomesincontactwiththeplateatatemperatureofTs(<Tsat)andcondenses.However,thecondensedliquidis,invariably,
furthersubcooledtoatemperaturesomewhereinbetweenTsandTsat,thusreleasingsomemoreheat.Rohsenow(1956)suggested
thatthissubcoolingoftheliquidcanbetakenintoaccountbyreplacinghfgbyamodifiedlatentheatofvaporisation,hfg,
definedas:
where,CpListhespecificheatofliquidattheaveragefilmtemperature.
Similarly,ifasuperheatedvapouratatemperature,Tv,entersacondenserandcondenses,thesuperheatedvapourhastobecooledto
Tsatfirst,andthencondensedatTsat,andthensubcooledtosometemperaturebetweenTsandTsat.Then,modifiedlatentheatof
vaporisationis:
where,CpVisthespecificheatofvapourattheaveragetemperatureof(TV+Tsat)/2.
Then,rateofheattransferincondensationbecomes:
where,Aisthesurfaceareaonwhichcondensationoccurs.
Then,fromEq.11.35and11.32,wecanwrite:
WheneitherQcondenorhisknown,itisconvenienttouseEq.11.36todetermineRef.
Now,differentflowregimesareidentifiedaccordingtothevalueofRefasfollows:
Ref30 (Liquidfilmissmoothandwavefree,i.e.fullylaminar.)
450<Ref<1800 (Liquidfilmhasripplesorwavesandtheflowiswavy
laminar.)
Ref>1800 (Liquidfilmisfullyturbulent.)
Heattransfercorrelationsvarydependingupontheflowregime.
11.4.3 Nusselts Theory for Laminar Film Condensation on Vertical Plates

Nusseltdevelopedhistheoryforlaminarfilmcondensationonverticalplatesanalyticallyin1916.
ConsideraverticalplatemaintainedatatemperatureTsandexposedtoasaturatedvapouratatemperatureofTsat.(Ts<Tsat).See
Fig.11.8.LettheheightoftheplatebeLandthebreadth,b.Coordinatesystemischosensuchthatxcoordinateistothedownward
direction,i.e.inthedirectionofflowofcondensateandycoordinateistowardstheright,asshown.Condensationoccursontheplate
andthecondensatemovesdownfromtoptobottom.Thicknessofcondensateiszeroatthetop(i.e.atx=0)andincreasesintheflow
direction,duetoadditionalcondensationofvapour.Sincetheliquidfilmoffersresistancetotheflowofheatfromthevapourtothe
coldsurface,thisalsomeansthatresistancetoheattransferisminimumatthetopoftheplateandtheresistanceincreasesasone
movesdownintheflowdirection.
Nusseltmadethefollowingsimplifyingassumptionsinhisanalysis:
1.Flowofliquidfilmislaminar
2.Inertiaforceinthefilmisnegligible(i.e.negligibleaccelerationoftheliquidinthefilm)comparedtoviscosityandweight
3.Heatflowismainlybyconductionthroughtheliquidfilmconvectioninliquidaswellasinvapourisneglected.
4.TemperatureisTsattheliquidplateinterfaceandTsatattheliquidvapourinterfaceandthetemperaturegradientbetween
themislinear
5.Velocityofvapourislow,i.e.thereisnoviscousshearforceattheliquidvapourinterface
6.Propertiesoftheliquidareconstant.
FIGURE11.8FilmcondensationonaverticalplateNusseltsanalysis
Velocityprofile:
Consideringavolumeelementasshown,applyNewtonssecondlawtogetthevelocityprofile:
F x=max=0
sincetheaccelerationoftheliquidfilmisnegligiblebyassumption.
So,makingtheforcebalance:
Integratingfromy=0(i.e.theplatesurface)toy=y,andrememberingthataty=0,u=0,andaty=y,u=u(y),weget:
Eqn.11.37isthedesiredequationforvelocityprofile.
And,themeanflowvelocityoftheliquidatasectionisgivenby:
Massflowrate:
Massflowrateofcondensatethroughanyxpositionisgivenby:
Massflowrate=densityareameanvelocity
Notethatmassflowrateisafunctionofposition(x),sincethefilmthicknessisfunctionofx.
Asweproceedfrompositionxto(x+dx),filmthicknessincreasesfromto(+d),andthereisadditionalmassdmcondensed.
Thisadditionalmassdmcondensedbetweenxand(x+dx)isobtainedbydifferentiatingEq.11.39w.r.t.x(or):
Heatflowrate:
Whilecondensingdmamountofliquid,certainamountoflatentheatofvaporisationisreleasedthisisequalto:
But,aspertheassumption,heatflowthroughtheliquidfilmisbypureconduction,withlineartemperaturegradient.Therefore,we
canwrite:
FromEqs.11.41and11.42:
Integratingtheaboveequationwiththeboundaryconditionthat=0atx=0,weget:
Eq.11.43givestheliquidfilmthicknessasafunctionofpositionx.Notethatthefilmthicknessincreasesasthefourthrootofthe
distancealongtheflowdirection.Increaseisrapidatthetopendoftheverticalplateandslowsdownlater.
Fortheheatflowthroughtheliquidfilm,wehave:

Also,byNewtonslawofcooling:
dQ=hx(bdx)(TsatTs)
where,hxisthelocalheattransfercoefficient
Fromtheabovetworelations,weget:
Notethatatanypositionalongtheheight,heattransfercoefficientisdirectlyproportionaltothethermalconductivitykLofthe
condensateandinverselyproportionaltothethicknessofthefilm.
SubstitutingthevalueoffromEq.11.43inEq.11.44:
Atx=L,i.e.atthelowerendoftheplate,localheattransfercoefficientis:
Obviously,rateofcondensationheattransferishigherattheupperendascomparedtothatatthelowerend.
Averagevalueofheattransfercoefficientovertheentireheightoftheplateisofinteresttocalculatethetotalheattransferrate.Thisis
obtainedbyintegratingEq.11.45overtheheightL:
Intheabove,hListhelocalheattransfercoefficientatx=L,i.e.atthelowerendoftheplate.SubstitutingforhLfromEq.11.46,we
get:
Eq.11.48isNusseltsequationforaverageheattransfercoefficientforcondensationonaverticalplate.
Itisobservedthatinpractice,experimentalvalueofaverageheattransfercoefficientisabout20%higherthanthatgivenbyNusselts
Eq.11.48.So,McAdamssuggestedtouseacoefficientof1.13insteadof0.943inEq.11.48.
Nusseltsequationunderpredictsthevalueofh,basicallybecause:
1.itdoesnottakeintoaccountnonlineartemperatureprofileintheliquidfilm,and
2.itdoesnottakeintoaccountthesubcoolingoftheliquidfilm.
TheseeffectscanbeaccountedforbyreplacinghfginEq.11.48byhfggivenbyEq.11.33.
Then,wehave,foraverageheattransfercoefficientforlaminarfilmcondensationonaverticalplate:
Intheaboveequationalltheliquidpropertiesshouldbeevaluatedatthefilmtemperature,
Tf=(Tsat+Ts)/2andhfgandVshouldbeevaluatedatTsat.
ItisdesirabletogetrelationsforheattransfercoefficientintermsofthefilmReynoldsnumber.Now,letusdefineadimensionless
numbercalledCondensationnumber,(Co)[or,modifiedNusseltnumber]asfollows:
Since,L>>V,condensationnumbercanbesimplifiedas:
Then,Rohsenow(1985)hasshownthatabovederivedrelationforheattransfercoefficientforcondensationonaverticalplateforthe
laminarregimesofcondensateflow,canberecastasfollows:
(a)Laminarflow,(Ref30):
(b)Inthelaminarwavyregion,(30<Ref<1800):
Kutatelazderecommendsfollowingcorrelation:
(c)Forturbulentregion,(Ref>1800):
Labuntsovrecommendsfollowingcorrelationforturbulentfilmcondensation:
Eqs.11.51,11.52and11.53aredepictedgraphicallyinFig.11.9below:
FromEq.11.53,itmaybeobservedthatintheturbulentfilmcondensationregion,thecondensationnumberdependsonliquid
Prandtlnumber,PrL,too,inadditiontothefilmReynoldsnumber,Ref.ThisPrandtlnumberdependenceofCointurbulentfilm
regionisclearlyshowninFig.11.9forPrL=1,3,5and10.
Abovecorrelationsforcondensationonaverticalplateareapplicabletocondensationinsideoroutsidevertical
tubesalso,ifthetubediameterisnottoosmall.
Calculationformulasforallthethreeregionsoffilmcondensationonaverticalplate(orcylinder)aregivenbelow:
Calculationformulasforlaminarregion,forvertcalplateare:
FIGURE11.9Condensationnumbervs.filmReynoldsnumberforaverticalplate
where,havgisfromEq.(11.49)
and,
Calculationformulasforlaminarwavyregion,forvertcalplateare:
Calculationformulasforturbulentfilmregion,forvertcalplateare:
and,
Chenet.al.(1987)havesuggestedthefollowinguniversalcorrelationforbothwavyandturbulentregions(insteadofEqs.11.52
and11.53)forcondensationonaverticalplate:
11.4.4 Film Condensation on Inclined Plates, Vertical Tubes, Horizontal Tubes and Spheres, and Horizontal Tube Banks
Inclinedplates:
Eq.11.49forlaminarcondensationonverticalplatescanalsobeusedforinclinedplates.Iftheplateisinclinedatanangleoftothe
vertical,(<60deg.),replacinggbyg.cos(q)inEq.11.49givessatisfactoryresultsforlaminarcondensationontheuppersurfaceof
theinclinedplate,i.e.
Wecanalsowrite:
Verticaltubes:
Eq.11.49forlaminarcondensationonverticalplatescanalsobeusedtodetermineheattransfercoefficientforlaminarcondensation
ontheouterorinnersurfaceofaverticaltube,ifthetubediameterislargecomparedtothethicknessoftheliquidfilm,i.e.
ifD>>
Horizontaltubesandspheres:
Horizontaltubelaminarfilmcondensation:
Forlaminarfilmcondensationonhorizontaltubesandspheres,NusselttypeofanalysisgivesrelationssimilartoEq.11.49,exceptthat
LisreplacedbydiameterDandthevalueofthenumericalconstantisdifferent.Weget:
Horizontaltubeforcedconvectioncondensation:
Eq.11.57isforthecaseofaquiescentvapourcondensingonahorizonaltube.However,forcondensersusedinpractice,avapourmay
beforcedthroughacondenserwhilebeingcondensed.ForthecaseofacylinderofdiameterDexposedtocrossflowofavapourwith
afreestreamvelocityofU,followingcorrelationduetoShekriladzeandGomelauri(1966),maybeapplied:
where,
Spherelaminarfilmcondensation:
Itisinterestingtocomparethelaminarcondensationonverticalandhorizontaltubes.FromEqs.11.49and11.57,wecanwrite:
Forhverttobeequaltohhoriz,weshouldhave:
4
L=(1.294) D
i.e.L=2.8D
i.e.forL>2.8.D,heattransfercoefficientwillbehigherforahorizontaltube.Itisafactthatmostofthetubesusedinpracticehave
lengthssuchthatL>2.8.D.Therefore,tubesusedinasteamcondenseraregenerallyarrangedinahorizontalorientation.
FIGURE11.10Correctionfactorforheattransfercoefficientindifferentrowsofacondenser
Horizontaltubebanks:
Morethanasinglehorizontaltube,anarrayofhorizontaltubescondensingavapourontheiroutersurfacesisofpracticalinterest.In
asteamcondenser,generallysuchanarrayoftubesisusedtocondenselowpressuresteamexitingfromthesteamturbine.Thesetubes
arecooledbycirculatingcoldwaterthroughthem.Itisclearthatthevapourcondensedontheoutersurfaceofthetubesatthetopof
thearraywilltrickledownontothetubesbelowthemthusthethicknessoftheliquidfilmonthesurfacesofthetubesatthelower
levelwillbelarger,andasaresult,theheattransfercoefficientwillbelowerforthetubesatthelowerlevel,i.e.theheattransfer
coefficientdependsuponthenumberoftherow,countingfromtop.Heattransfercoefficientfortubeonthefirstrowismaximum,
lowerforsecondrow,etc.Variationofheattransfercoefficientforcondensationontheoutsideofthetubesofdifferentrowsofa
condenserareshownqualitativelyinFig.11.10.
InFig.11.10,correctionfactor=h1/hn,where
h1=heattransfercoefficientforthefirstrow,and
th
hn=heattransfercoefficientforthen row.
AverageheattransfercoefficientforfilmcondensationonaverticaltiercontainingNtubesisobtainedbysubstituting(N.D)inplace
ofDinEq.11.57forasinglehorizontaltube,i.e.
Clearly,thisisrelatedtothevalueofheattransfercoefficientforasinglehorizontaltubeasfollows:
VerticalTierofNHorizontaltubes:
Chen(1961)hassuggestedthefollowingmodifiedformofEq.11.57forcondensationonaverticaltubebank,totakeintoaccountthe
condensationoccurringonthesubcooledfilmbetweentwoadjacenttubes:
NotethatthesecondsquarebracketsontheRHS,isacorrectionfactortoEq.11.60alsonotethatterminsidethissquarebracketis
hfgandnothfg.Eq.11.61isvalidfor:
and,
11.4.5 Eect of Vapour Velocity, Nature of Condensing Surface and Non-condensable Gases
Effectofvapourvelocity:
Aboveformulasarevalidforstationaryvapourorvapourmovingatverylowvelocities(V<10m/s).Athighervelocities,therewillbe
frictionbetweentheliquidfilmandmovingvapour.Foraverticalplate,ifthevapourismovingupwards,itwillacttodecreasethe
filmvelocitysincethefilmismovingdownwardsandso,thefilmthicknesswillincreaseandtheheattransfercoefficientwill
decrease.Whenthefrictionalforceovercomesthegravityforce,thefilmwillgetdetachedfromthesurfaceandtheheattransfer
coefficientwillincrease.Instead,ifthevapourmovesdownwardsinthedirectionofmotionoftheliquidfilm,thenthefilmvelocity
increases,filmthicknessdecreases,andasaresult,theheattransfercoefficientincreases.Itisalsoobservedthatatlowpressures,
effectofvapourvelocityonheattransfercoefficientissmall.
Effectofnatureofcondensingsurface:
Foraroughsurface,orforasurfacecoveredwithanoxidefilm,thesurfaceoffersadditionalresistancetotheflowofthefilm,thus
increasingthethicknessoftheliquidfilm.Thisresultsinreductionofheattransfercoefficient.
Effectofnoncondensablegases:
Ifthevapourscontainairorothernoncondensablegases,heattransfercoefficientreducesdrastically.Thishappensbecause,onlythe
vapourscondenseonthesurface,andthenoncondensablegasesformacloudnearthesurfaceimpedingtheapproachofvapoursto
thesurfaceforfurthercondensation.Inconnectionwithsteamcondensers,practicaldataindicatethatevenaonepercentofair(by
mass)inthevapourcausesareductionofabout60%inthevalueofheattransfercoefficient.So,inindustrialcondensers,provisionis
madeforcontinuousventingofthenoncondensablesfromthesystem.
11.4.6 Simplified Calculations for Water

Withreferencetoindustriallyimportantsteamcondensers,watervapouriscondensedontheoutsideoftubesarrangedmostlyina
horizontalorientation.Then,forahorizontaltube,wehave:
Then,withoutthecorrectionforliquidsubcooling,andforL>>V,wecanwrite:
where,
ForNhorizontaltubesinaverticaltier,DinEq.11.62aisreplacedby(N.D).
Forvapourscondensingonaverticaltube,again,Eq.11.62acanbeused,butwiththemodificationthatnumericalconstant0.729is
replacedby1.13andDisreplacedbytheheightofthetube,L.
Here,parameterAisevaluatedatthemeanfilmtemperature{=(Tsat+Ts)/2}andparameterBisevaluatedatTsat.
ValuesofAandBcanbeconvenientlytabulatedforwaterfordifferentvaluesofTsatandTs,respectively.Fortheindustrially
importantcaseofasteamcondenser,Eq.11.62acanbeusedtomakeaquickestimateoftheheattransfercoefficientvaluesof
parametersAandBcanbereadfromTable11.5andTable11.6,respectively,orfromFig.11.10andFig.11.11,respectively.
Example11.9.Saturatedsteamatatmosphericpressurecondensesonaverticalplate(size:30cm30cm)maintainedat60C.
Determineheattransferrateandthemassofsteamcondensedperhour.
(b)Iftheplateistiltedatanangleof30deg.tothevertical,whatisthevalueofcondensationrate?
Solution.
Data:
L:=0.3mb:=0.3mTsat:=100CTs:=60Cand,Tf:=80C(meanfilmtemperature=(100+60)/2)
PropertiesofliquidatTf=80C:
3 3 2
L:=971.8kg/m CpL:=4197J/kg.CL:=035510 kg/(ms)kL:=0.67W/(mC)g:=9.81m/s
Propertiesofsaturationvapoursat100C:
3 3
hfg:=225710 J/kgV:=0.5978kg/m
Averageheattransfercoefficient:
Letusassumelaminarfilmcondensationweshallcheckthislater.
Then,wehave:
TABLE11.5ValuesofparameterAatdifferentmeanfilmtemperaturesforwater
FIGURE11.10ParameterAforwater
and,
3 2
i.e.havg=5.91710 W/(m C)(averageheattransfercoefficientfortheplate)
Heattransferrate:
Q:=havg(Lb(TsatTs),W
4
i.e.Q=2.1310 W(heattransferratetotheplate)
Condensationrateofsteam:
Now,checktheassumptionoflaminarfilmcondensation:
Wehave,filmReynoldsnumber,givenby:
where,P=wettedperimeter=b,forverticalplate
However,Refis>30therefore,itislaminarwavyregion.
So,letusassumethatcondensationislaminaruptoaparticulardistanceL 1fromtop,andthenitbecomeswavy.Letusfindoutthe
distancefromtop,wherefilmbecomeswavy.
where,Q1istheheattransfertotheplateuptothelengthL 1
TABLE11.6ValuesofparameterBatdifferentsaturationtemperaturesforwater
FIGURE11.11ParameterBforwater
Then,fromEq.a:
Therefore,lengthofplateoverwhichfilmiswavy=L 2 =0.3L 1
i.e.L 2 =0.288m
OverthelengthL 2 ,weuseequationapplicabletowavyfilm,namely.
where,bydefinition,Condensationnumberis:
Lettherateofcondensationoverthetotallengthoftheplatebemtot:
Now,filmReynoldsnumberforwavyregion: Enjoy Safari? Subscribe Today
Then,fromEq.11.50band11.52andEq.cweget:
SolvethisforhwavyusingsolveblockofMathcad:
Startwithaguessvalueforhwavy.Then,immediatelyafterGiven,writetheconstraintequationThen,typethecommandFind
(hwavy)anditiscalculatedimmediately:
hwavy=1000(guessvalue)
Given
Now,fromEq.c:
Ref_wavy:=29.998+0.055hwavy(c)
i.e.Ref_wavy=411.368<1800,and>30(therefore,withinthewavyregion.)
Therefore,useofEq.11.52forwavyregionisjustified.
Then,totalrateofcondensation:
4 6
mtot:=7.98710 +hwavy(1.45810 )
i.e.mtot=0.011kg/s
i.e.mtot3600=39.27kg/h(totalrateofmasscondensation.)
Comments:Aboveprocedure,whereinwetookintoaccountthesmall,initiallengthfromtopoftheplatewherethefilmislaminar,
isquiteaccurate.But,notethatlaminarfilmexistsonlyforadistanceof0.012mfromtop,whereasfortheremaining0.288mof
height,theflowislaminarwavy.
So,ifwemakeanapproximationthattheflowislaminarwavyfortheentireheightoftheplate,weget:
Notethatthisvalueofmtotispracticallythesameasobtainedearlierwithexactanalysis.Therefore,itappearsthatcalculationsmade
assumingthattheentireplatehaslaminarwavyfilm,involvenegligibleerror,withtheadvantagethatthecalculationsaremucheasier
tomake.
Assumingthatthefilmislaminarwavyovertheentirelengthofplate,calculationswouldproceedasfollows:
Usingthecalculationformulasforlaminarwavyfilmregion:
LaminarwavyReynoldsnumber:
Now,since wewrite:
Heattransfercoefficientinlaminarwavyregion:
2
Comparethisvaluewiththevalueof6934W/(m C)obtainedearlierwithexactanalysis.
Heattransferred:
and,rateofcondensation:

(b)Iftheplateistiltedat30deg.tovertical:
Wecandeterminehbyreplacinggbyg.cos()inequationforverticalplate.
Sincehisalreadydeterminedforverticalplate,wecanusetherelation:
Note:whileusingMathcad,fortrigonometricfunctions,mustbeexpressedinradians:
Therefore,
and
Heattransferred:
and,rateofcondensation:
i.e.foraninclinedplate,rateofcondensationisdecreasedbyabout3.5%ascomparedtothatonaverticalplate.
Example11.10.Saturatedsteamatatemperatureof65Ccondensesonaverticalsurfaceat55C.Determinethethicknessofthe
condensatefilmatlocations0.2mand1.0mfromtop.Also,calculatethecondensateflowrate,localandaverageheattransfer
coefficientsattheselocations.
Propertiesofwateratthemeantemperatureare:
(M.U.2002)
Data:
3 4
L:=983.3kg/m kL:=0.654W/(mK)L:=4.6710 kg/(ms)CpL:=485J/(kgC)
3 2
hfg:=234610 J/kgTsat:=65CTs:=55Cg:=9.81m/s b:=1m(width,assumed)
Solution.Thicknessofcondensatefilm:
Wehave,fromEq.11.43
WhenL>>pVwecanwrite:
Therefore,
Massflowrateofcondensate:
Wehave,fromEq.11.39:
Again,whenL>>Vwecanwrite:
Therefore,
3
m(0.2)=7.26210 kg/s(massflowrateofcondensateat0.2mfromtop)
and,m(1.0)=0.024kg/s(massflowrateofcondensateat1.0mfromtop)
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WecanuseEq.11.44or11.45.Sinceisalreadycalculated,itiseasiertouseEq.11.44:
Again,writinghxasafunctionofx,Eq.11.44isrewrittenas:
Then,
3 2
hx(0.2)=6.38910 W/(m C)(localheattransfercoefficientat0.2mfromtop)
3 2
and,hx(1.0)=4.27210 W/(m C)(localheattransfercoefficientat1.0mfromtop)
Further,averageheattransfercoefficientbetweenx=0andx=xisgivenbyEq.11.47,i.e.
Werewritethisas:
Therefore,
3 2
havg(0.2)=8.51810 W/(m C)(averageheattransfercoefficientbetweenx=0andx=0.2)
3 2
and,havg(1.0)=5.69710 W/(m C)(averageheattransfercoefficientbetweenx=0andx=1.0m)
McAdamshassuggestedthatthiscalculatedvalueofhavgshouldbeincreasedby20%toaccountforliquidsubcooling,i.e.
2
havg(1.0)=1.25697=6846.4W/(m C)(correctedaverageheattransfercoefficientbetweenx=0andx=1.0)m.
Note:Alltheabovecalculationshaveassumedthatthefilmispurelylaminarduringcondensation.
(b)Inaddition,iftheheightoftheplateis1mletuscalculatethefollowing:
1.heattransferratetotheplate,
2.maximumvelocityofcondensateatthetrailingedge,and
3.also,drawthevariationofwithdistancefromtop.
L:=1m(heightofverticalplate)
Letuscheckifthecondensationisoflaminartype:
WeshouldfindfilmReynoldsnumber.
FromEq.11.32wehave:
mhasalreadybeencalculatedas0.024kg/satadistanceof1mfromtop.
Note:However,notethatRef>30therefore,flowisreallyinthelaminarwavyregion.
Assumingthatthefilmislaminarwavyovertheentirelengthofplate,calculationswouldproceedasfollows:
Usingthecalculationformulasforlaminarwavyfilmregion:
Wehave:
LaminarwavyReynoldsnumber:
Now,since wewrite:
i.e.Ref_wavy=235.355(LaminarwavyReynoldsnumber)

Heattransfercoefficientinlaminarwavyregion:
2
Note:Comparethisvaluewiththevalueof6836.4W/(m C)obtainedearlierforpurelaminarfilm.
(i)Heattransferrate:
Q:=hvert_wavy(Lb)(TsatTs)W
4
i.e.Q=6.44510 W(heattransferratetotheplate.)
(ii)Maximumvelocityofcondensateatthebottom(i.e.trailingedgeofplate):
Velocityisgivenby:
Now,themaximumvelocityoccurswheny=.
Therefore,rememberingthatL>>Vwecanwriteformaximumvelocityatthebottomoftheplate,i.e.atx=L,where=(L):
(iii)Drawthevariationofwiththedistancefromthetopoftheplate,x:
ItisconvenienttouseMathcadtodrawthisgraph:
x:=0,0.05,,1.0(definearangevariablexvaryingfromx=0tox=1matanintervalof0.05m.)
Then,todrawthegraph,clickonthegraphpallete,choosexygraph,filluptheplaceholderonxaxisbyx,andplaceholderony
4
axisby[(x).10 )Clickanywhereoutsidethegrapharea,andthegraphappears:
4
Verifythatatx=1m,isequalto1.53110 ,asalreadycalculated.Itisobservedthatfilmthicknessiszeroatx=0,i.e.thetopedge
andgoesonincreasingwithincreasingx,i.e.asonetravelsdowntheplate.
Example11.11.Dry,saturatedsteamatatmosphericpressurecondensesonahorizontaltubeofdiameter=5cmandlengthL=1m
surfaceofthetubeismaintainedat60C.Determineheattransferrateandthemassofsteamcondensedperhour.Assumelaminar
filmcondensation.
(b)Ifthetubeisvertical,whatisthecondensationrate?
Solution.
Data:
PropertiesofliquidatTf:=80C:
3 3 2
L:=971.8kg/m CpL:=4197J/kgCL:=0.35510 kg/(ms)kL:=0.67W/(mC)g:=9.81m/s
Propertiesofsaturatedvapourat100C:
(a)Forhorizontaltube:
WeshallmakeaquickestimateusingEq.11.62a:
where,
Now,AandBaretobeevaluatedatthemeanfilmtemperature(=80C)andatsaturationtemperatureofsteam(=100C),
respectively.ValueofAisreadfromTable11.5(orFig.11.10)andthatofBfromTable11.6(orFig.11.11).Weget:
A:=168.19
and,B:=68.596
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Heattransferrate:
Q:=hhoriz(DL)(TsatTs)W
4
i.e.Q=4.44410 W(heattransferratetothetube.)
(b)Forverticaltube:
WeshallmakeanestimateofhusingEq.11.62a.Sincethatequationisforhorizontaltubes,weshouldchangethenumericalconstant
to1.13,andDtoL,toapplyforverticaltubes:
ValuesofAandBarealreadydetermined:
i.e.A:=168.19
and,B:=68.596
Therefore,
Heattransferrate:
Q:=hvert(DL)(TsatTs)W
4
i.e.Q=3.25710 W(heattransferratetoverticaltube.)
Ratioofcondensationrates:
i.e.amountofsteamcondensedonahorizontaltubeis36.4%moreascomparedtotheamountcondensedforaverticaltube.
Note:Intheaboveanalysis,effectofliquidsubcoolinghasbeenneglectedalso,laminarfilmcondensationisassumed.
Example11.12.Dry,saturatedsteamatatmosphericpressurecondensesonaverticaltubeofdiameter=5cmandlengthL=1.5m
surfaceofthetubeismaintainedat80C.Determinetheheattransferrateandthemassofsteamcondensedperhour.
Solution.
Data:
PropertiesofliquidatTf:=90C
3 3
L:=965.3kg/m CpL:=J/kgCL:=0.31510 kg/(ms)kL:=0.675W/(mC)
2
PrL:=1.96g:=9.81m/s
Tostartwith,weshallassumethatthefilmthickness<<D,thetubediameterandalsothatthecondensationisinpurelaminar
regionweshallchecktheseassumptionslater.
Forlaminarfilmcondensationonverticalsurface,wehave:
3 2
i.e.havg=4.8310 W/(m C) Enjoy Safari? Subscribe Today
Heattransferrate:
Now,letuschecktheassumptions:
Filmthickness:
Wehave,fromEq.11.43:
i.e.filmthicknessatthebottomendofthetube=0.1876mm<<5cm.Therefore,theconditionthat<<Dissatisfied.
Next,letuscheckiffilmReynoldsnumberis<30:
Reynoldsnumber:
Wehave:
where,P=wettedperimeter,i.e.
However,Ref>30so,itisinthelaminarwavyregion.So,letusmakecalculationsforlaminarwavyregion:
Laminarwavyregion:
Wehave:
Calculationformulasforlaminarwavyregion,forverticalplate/cylinderare:
Assumingthatfilmontheentiretubelengthislaminarwavy(seecommentsinExample11.9),
Heattransferred:
And,rateofcondensation:
Note:Letuscomparethevalueofheattransfercoefficientforthewavyregion,obtainedaboveusingEq.11.52bwiththatobtained
usingChenscorrelation11.54:
FromChenscorrelation:
2
Thisvalue,whencomparedtothevalueof6160W/(m C)obtainedearlier,isabout11.9%higher.
Example11.13.Asteamcondenserconsistsofasquarearrayof400horizontaltubes,each6mmindiameter.Thetubesare
exposedtoexhauststeamarrivingfromtheturbineatapressureof0.1bar.Ifthetubesurfacetemperatureismaintainedata
temperatureof25Cbycirculatingcoldwaterthroughthetubes,determinetheheattransfercoefficientandtherateatwhichthe
steamiscondensedperunitlengthoftubesfortheentirearray.Assumelaminarfilmcondensationandthattherearenocondensable
gasesmixedwithsteam.
Solution.
Data:
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i.e.N:=20L:=1.0mD:=0.006mT sat
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:=45.8C
Ts:=25CTf:=35.4C(meanfilmtemp.)
PropertiesofliquidatTf=35.4C:
3 3
L:=994.04kg/m CpL:=4178J/kgCL:=0.72010 kg/(ms)kL:=0.623W/(mC)
2
PrL:=4.83g:=9.81m/s
Propertiesofsaturatedvapourat45.8C:
Then,forlaminarfilmcondensationonaverticaltierconsistingofNhorizontaltubes,wehave
Therefore,
Heattransferrate/mlength:
Then,fortheentirearrayof400tubes,totalcondensationratepermetrelengthis:
Alternatively:
WeanuseChenscorrelationforaverageheattransfercoefficientonaverticaltierofNhorizontaltubes:
Letuschecktheconditionsfirst:
Therefore,theconditionsaresatisfied.
Then,wehave:
2
Comparethisvaluewithh=5482W/(m C),obtainedearlierfromEq.11.60.WeseethatChenscorrelationgivesabout13.2%higher
valueofh.
Correspondingly,condensationratealsowillbe13.2%higher:
11.4.7 Film Condensation inside Horizontal Tubes

Condensersusedinvapourcompressionrefrigerationandairconditioningsystemshaverefrigerantvapourscondensinginside
horizontalorverticaltubes.Thesituationiscomplicatedtoanalyseand,obviously,heattransferdependsonvapourvelocity.
Forlowvapourvelocities,Chatorecommendsfollowingcorrelationforcondensationinsidehorizontaltubes,whenthetubelengthis
shortortherateofcondensationissmall:
Reynoldsnumberofvapoursisevaluatedattheinletconditions,withtheinsidediameterofthetubeasthecharacteristiclength.
Iftherateofcondensationishigh,orthetubeislong,correlationofAckersetal.maybeused(withtheunderstandingthaterrormay
beashighas50%):

where,
2
and,GLandGVareliquidandvapourmassvelocities(kg/(m s))calculatedonthebasisofinternalcrosssectionofthetube(=.
2
D /4).ThesecorrelationsmaybeusedforvapourReynoldsnumbers>20,000andtheliquidReynoldsnumber>5,000.
Example11.14.Ammoniaat40Ciscondensinginsideahorizontaltubeof16mmID.Massvelocityofammoniavapouratinletis
2
20kg/(m .s).Surfaceofthetubeismaintainedataconstanttemperatureof20Cbycirculatingcoldwater.Calculatethefractionof
vapourthatwillcondenseifthetubeis0.5mlong.
Solution.
Data:
2
L:=0.5mD:=0.016mGV:=20kg/(m s)Tsat:=40CTs:=20CTf:=30C(meanfilmtemp.)
PropertiesofliquidatTf=30C:
3 4 2
L:=596.4kg/m CpL:=4890J/kgCL:=2.08110 kg/(ms)kL:=0.507W/(mC)g:=9.81m/s
3 3 5
hfg:=1098.810 J/kgV:=12.029kg/m V:=1.073510 kg/(ms)
VapourReynoldsnumber:
Therefore,wecanusethecorrelationofChatoforfilmcondensationinsideatube:
Then,rateofheattransfer:
Rateofcondensation:
Rateofinputofammonia:
Therefore,fractionofvapourcondensed:
i.e.57.042%oftheammoniaenteringthetubeiscondensedoveralengthof0.5m.
11.4.8 Drop-wise Condensation

Indropwisecondensation,asalreadyexplained,heattransfercoefficientishigher(byasmuchastentimes)thanthatinfilm
condensation,duetoexposureoflargersurfaceareatothevapours.Dropwisecondensationisachievedeitherbygivingacoatingof
somematerial(suchasteflon,gold,silver,rhodium,platinum,etc.)orbyaddingsomepromotingchemicals(suchaswaxesorfatty
acids)tothevapours.However,maintainingthesurfaceconditionsfavourablefordropwisecondensationisverydifficultinpractice,
sincethesecoatingslosetheireffectivenessincourseoftimeduetofouling,oxidation,etc.Inaddition,thecostconsiderationalso
comesintopicture.
Condensationofsteamoncoppersurfaceshasbeenstudiedextensively,becauseofitsindustrialimportance(inSteamPowerplants).
P.Griffithrecommendsfollowingsimplecorrelationsfordropwisecondensationofsteamoncoppersurfaces:
Itmustbeappreciatedthatinheatexchangers,itisthetotalthermalresistancetoheattransferthatmatters.Heattransfercoefficients
areinherentlyhighinboilingandcondensationso,theassociatedthermalresistance[=1/(h.A)],isquitelow.So,theheattransferis
morelikelytobeaffectedbyotherresistancessuchasthefilmresistanceontheothersideoftheheatexchangerorthethermal
resistanceofthetubematerial.Assuch,itisnotnecessarytohaveanextremelyhighaccuracyinthedeterminationofheattransfer
coefficientsinboilingandcondensation.
11.5 Summary
Inthischapter,westudiedtwoimportantphenomenathatinvolvephasechange,namely,boilingandcondensation,whichhavegreat
industrialimportance.

WhenaliquidcomesincontactwithaheatedsurfacemaintainedatatemperatureTsgreaterthanthesaturatedtemperatureTsatofthe
liquidatthegivenpressure,boilingoccurs.Boilingphenomenonmaybeclassifiedintotwotypes:(a)poolboiling,and(b)flow
boiling.Inpoolboiling,liquidremainsstationaryasinapoolbutfortheconvectioncurrentscausedbytemperaturedifferencesand
theheaterissubmergedintheliquid.Inflowboiling,boilingoccursastheliquidflowspastaheatedsurfaceorinsideaheatedtube.
Inpoolboiling,therearevariousboilingregimesdependingupontheexcesstemperature,Te(=TsTsat).Sinceitisdifficulttoget
analyticalheattransfercorrelationsforboilingphenomenon,practicalcorrelationsareofempiricalnatureandsuchcorrelationsfor
thedifferentboilingregimeshavebeenpresented.
Flowboilinginsidepipesismorecomplicated,becauseofthepossibilityoftwophaseflow.Twoofthepracticallyimportant
correlationsfortwophaseflowboilinghavebeenpresentedalongwiththosefornucleateflowboiling.
Condensationisofimportantrelevanceinsteamcondensersofthermalpowerplants.Condensationcanbeconsideredasthereverse
ofboilingphenomenon.Again,condensationmaybeoftwotypes:(a)filmcondensation,and(b)dropwisecondensation.
Filmcondensationmaybeoflaminarorturbulenttype.Nusseltsrelationforlaminarfilmcondensationonaverticalplatewas
derived.Severalcorrelationsforlaminarfilmcondensationonsomeotherpracticallyimportantgeometrieswerepresented.Concept
ofcondensationnumberanditsuseincorrelationsforlaminarandturbulentfilmcondensationcorrelationswasexplained.Some
importantdatatoquicklyestimatetheheattransfercoefficientsforcondensationofsteaminacondenserwerealsogiven.Finally,for
dropwisecondensation,simplecorrelationsofGriffithforsteamcondensinginadropwisemanneroncoppersurfacesweregiven.
Questions
1.Differentiatebetween:
1.evaporationandboiling
2.subcooledboilingandsaturatedboiling,and
3.poolboilingandflowboiling.
2.Withtheaidofaneatsketchofaboilingcurveforwater(forpoolboiling),explainthevariousregimesofboiling.[M.U.]
3.Differentiatebetweennucleateboilingandfilmboiling.[M.U.]
4.Drawtheboilingcurveforpoolboilingofwaterandshowtheburnoutpoint.Whatisitssignificance?
5.Whatarethedifferentflowregimesoccurringinaverticaltubeduringflowboiling?
6.Mentionafewindustrialapplicationswhereboilingandcondensationareimportant.
7.Differentiatebetweenfilmcondensationanddropwisecondensation.Inwhichcaseistheheattransferhigher?Why?
8.Whatisthemechanismofheattransferincondensation?UsingNusseltstheory,developanexpressionforaverageheattransfer
coefficientincondensationoveralengthofaverticalplate.[M.U.]
9.WhataretheimportantassumptionsinNusseltstheoryofcondensationonaverticalplate?
10.Whatismodifiedlatentheatofvaporisation?Whatisthepurposeofintroducingthisquantity?
11.DefinefilmReynoldsnumber.AtwhatvalueoffilmReynoldsnumberdoesthecondensatefilmflowbecometurbulent?
12.Definecondensationnumber.DrawaqualitativegraphoffilmReynoldsnumbervs.condensationnumber,andidentifythe
laminar,wavyandturbulentfilmflowregions.
13.WhilecalculatingthefilmReynoldsnumber,howiswettedperimeter(P)defined?
14.Showthatthevalueofhydraulicdiameterforfilmcondensationonaverticalplate,verticalcylinderandahorizontalcylinder
isgivenby:Dh=4.,whereisthefilmthickness.
15.Consideringthefilmcondensationonhorizontalandverticaltubes,inwhichcaseistheheattransfercoefficienthigher?
Explain.
16.HowistheaverageheattransfercoefficientinaverticaltierofNhorizontaltubesrelatedtotheheattransfercoefficientfor
condensationonasinglehorizontaltube?Inagiventier,whereistheheattransfermaximum,fortheuppertubeorthetubesat
thelowerlevels?Why?
17.Writeashortnoteonhowthecondensationheattransferisaffectedby:
1.natureofsurface(smoothorrough)
2.vapourvelocity,and
3.presenceofnoncondensablegasesinthevapours.
Problems
1.Waterisboiledatatmosphericpressureinamechanicallypolished,stainlesssteelpanof30cmdiameter.Bottomsurfaceof
thepanismaintainedatatemperatureof108C.Calculate:(a)heattransfercoefficient(b)heattransferrate,and(c)rateof
evaporationofwater.
2.InProblem1,(a)calculatethemaximumheatfluxandcomparethenucleateboilingfluxwiththemaximumheatflux(b)
comparethevaluesofheattransfercoefficientobtainedfromRohsenowscorrelationwiththoseobtainedusingColliers,
MostinskisandRussiancorrelations.
3.Inproblem1ifthestainlesssteelpanisTefloncoated,howdotheheattransfercoefficientandrateofevaporationchange?
4.Anickelwire,1.5mmdiameterand400mmlong,issubmergedinawaterbathopentoatmosphere.Whatisthevalueof
currentflowingthroughthewirethatwillcauseburnout,iftheappliedvoltageis10V?
5.Ahorizontal,metalcladheatingelement,8mmdiameter,andofsurfaceemissivity0.9,issubmergedinawaterbath.Surface
temperatureoftheheatingelementis340C.Ifthewaterisatatmosphericpressure,calculatethepowerdissipationperunit
lengthoftheheater.
6.Alarge,horizontalplateiskeptimmersedinawaterbathboilingat1atm,100C.Surfacetemperatureoftheplateis300C.
Calculatetheheattransfercoefficientandtheheatflux.Assumetheemissivityofthesurfaceas0.85.
7.Waterisboilingat7atm.onthesurfaceofahorizontaltube,whosewalltemperatureismaintainedat9Cabovetheboiling
pointofwater.Calculatethenucleateboilingheattransfercoefficient.
(b)Whatisthechangeinthevalueofheattransfercoefficientwhen(i)temperaturedifferenceisincreasedto18Catthe
pressureof7atm.,and(ii)pressureisraisedto14atm.withTe=9C?
8.Waterat6atm.flowsinsideatubeof2.0cmdiameterunderflowboilingconditions.Tubewalltemperatureismaintainedat
7Cabovethesaturationtemperature.Determinetheheattransferforonemetrelengthoftube.
9.A50mmdiameterverticalevaporatortube(kw=20W/(mK))carries1kg/sofsteamat11.71bar(Psat=460K)ataqualityx=
6 2
0.2.Thetubeissubjectedtoauniformheatfluxof1.110 W/m .Identifytheregimeofflowboilingandcalculatethe
convectiveheattransfercoefficientandsurfacetemperatureofthetube.
(b)Whenthequalityreaches0.8,whatistheboilingregimeandhowmuchistheboilingheattransfercoefficient?
10.InProblem9,ifthetubesurfaceismaintainedataconstanttemperatureof227C,calculatethetotalheattransfercoefficient
andsurfaceheatfluxatthepointwherethequalityis0.2.RestofthedataarethesameasinProblem9.
11.Saturatedwaterat1atm.andvelocity1.5m/smovesacrossacylindricalheatingelementof5mmdiameter.Findoutthe
maximumheatingratefortheelement(W/m).[Hint:usethecorrelationofLienhardandEichhorn,Eq.11.21or11.22].
12.Saturatedsteamatatmosphericpressurecondensesonaverticalplate(size:30cm30cm)maintainedat80C.Determine
heattransferrateandthemassofsteamcondensedperhour.(b)Iftheplateistiltedatanangleof30deg.tothevertical,what
isthevalueofcondensationrate?
13.Saturatedsteamatatemperatureof75Ccondensesonaverticalsurfaceat65C.Determinethethicknessofthecondensate
filmatlocations0.2mand1.0mfromtop.Also,calculatethecondensateflowrate,localandaverageheattransfercoefficients
attheselocations.
3
Propertiesofwateratthemeantemperatureof70Care:L=977.5kg/m ,kL=0.663W/(mK),L=0.000404kg/(ms),CpL
=4190J/(kgC).And,hfgatsaturationtemperatureof75C=2321kJ/kg.TakeV<<L.
14.InProblem11.13,iftheheightoftheplateis1m,calculatethefollowing:
1.heattransferratetotheplate,
2.maximumvelocityofcondensateatthetrailingedge,and
3.also,drawthevariationofwithdistancefromtop.
15.Dry,saturatedsteamatatmosphericpressurecondensesonahorizontaltubeofdiameter=3cmandheightL=1msurfaceof
thetubeismaintainedat80C.Estimatetheheattransferrateandthemassofsteamcondensedperhour.Assumelaminarfilm
condensation.
(b)Ifthetubeisvertical,whatisthecondensationrate?
[Hint:UseEq.11.62a].
16.Dry,saturatedsteamatatmosphericpressurecondensesonaverticaltubeofdiameter=5cmandlengthL=1.5msurfaceof
thetubeismaintainedat60C.Determinetheheattransferrateandthemassofsteamcondensedperhour.
17.Asteamcondenserconsistsofasquarearrayof625horizontaltubes,each6mmindiameter.Thetubesareexposedtoexhaust
steamarrivingfromtheturbineatapressureof0.15bar.Ifthetubesurfacetemperatureismaintainedatatemperatureof25C
bycirculatingcoldwaterthroughthetubes,determinetheheattransfercoefficientandtherateatwhichthesteamiscondensed
perunitlengthoftubesfortheentirearray.Assumelaminarfilmcondensationandthattherearenocondensablegasesmixed
withsteam.
18.Asteamcondenserconsistsofanarrayofhorizontaltubes,each2.0cmindiameterand1.5mlong.Thetubesarearrangedin
suchamannerthateachverticaltierhas10tubestubesareexposedtosaturatedsteamat100C.Ifthetubesurface
temperatureismaintainedatatemperatureof80C,determinethetotalnumberoftubesrequiredtogetacondensationrateof
0.4kg/s.Assumelaminarfilmcondensationandthattherearenocondensablegasesmixedwithsteam.
19.Ammoniaat40Ciscondensinginsideahorizontaltubeof25mmID.Massvelocityofammoniavapouratinletis10
2
kg/(m s).Surfaceofthetubeismaintainedataconstanttemperatureof20Cbycirculatingcoldwater.Calculatethefraction
ofvapourthatwillcondenseifthetubeis0.5mlong.
20.InProblem19,ifammoniaiscondensingontheoutsidesurfaceofthetubes,whatwillbetheheattransferrate?
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Chapter 11 - Boiling and Condensation

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10/1/2016 Chapter11.

Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer

Boiling and Condensation

11.2 Dimensionless Parameters in Boiling and Condensation

11.3 Boiling Heat Transfer

11.3.1 Boiling and Evaporation

11.3.2 Boiling Modes

11.3.3 Origin and Growth of Bubbles

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11.3.4 Boiling Regimes and Boiling Curve

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11.3.5 Burnout Phenomenon

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11.3.6 Heat Transfer Correlations for Pool Boiling

Saturationtemperature(T sat),deg.C Surfacetension(),N/m Latentheat(hfg),kJ/kg

100 0.0589 2256.7

150 0.0487 2113.4

200 0.0378 1939.3

250 0.0261 1714.7

300 0.0143 1406.2

350 0.0036 916.1

374 0.0 0.0

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Also,rememberthatinEq.11.18,thetemperaturesT sandT satmustbeinKelvin.

11.3.7 Simplified Correlations for Boiling with Water

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Wehave: Pcr :=225atm (criticalpressureforwater)

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11.3.8 Flow Boiling

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where,hc isthecontributionduetoannularregionandhb isthecontributionduetonucleateboilingregion.Wehave:

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i.e. Ts=212.345C (tubesurface

where,hc isthecontributionofsinglephaseconvectionandhb isthecontributionofboilingregion.

11.4 Condensation Heat Transfer

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11.4.2 Film Condensation and Flow Regimes

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11.4.3 Nusselts Theory for Laminar Film Condensation on Vertical Plates

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11.4.6 Simplified Calculations for Water

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Now,filmReynoldsnumberforwavyregion: Enjoy Safari? Subscribe Today

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11.4.7 Film Condensation inside Horizontal Tubes

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11.4.8 Drop-wise Condensation

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