Chemical Elements

Element Influence

Al Aluminum
A powerful deoxidizer and nitride former. In small amounts, can
serve as a powerful, inexpensive grain refiner ( i.e., restricts
Austenitic grain growth ). Can improve toughness, especially at
low temperatures.

B Boron Strongly increases harden ability, by suppressing Ferrite

precipitation during transformation from Austenite during heat
treatment. Effective in very small amounts (less than 0.003% B).

Also Boron reduces the brittleness of hardened steel, by having a

positive influence on the transformation from Ferrite to Austenite
to Martensite Structure. Especially on steels with lower carbon
content (e.g. C=0.27%) that tend to transform inert, Boron
strongly improves the transformation process.

C Carbon
The principal element responsible for hardness in steel, due to
formation of Fe 3C upon cooling through the Transformation
Temperature, when Gamma Iron ( Austenite ) decomposes into
Alpha Iron ( Ferrite ) + Fe3C ( Iron Carbide ). Increases tensile
strength in steels. Ductility generally decreases as C increases, but
in most cases this effect can be offset with proper heat treatment.
Weldability decreases as C increases. Excess oxygen usage may
be required to remove excess C ( takes furnace time ).

Cr Chrome Cr is a strong carbide former, and can improve wear resistance

and somewhat increase resistance to softening during tempering.

Improves hardenability depth. Promotes the response of steel

containing Cr the effects of carburizing heat treatment. In
combination with even very low P, Sn, As or Sb contents,
Chromium and Ni-Cr alloy steels are particularly susceptible to
"temper embrittlement" (loss of ductility when tempering or slow
cooling in the range 700-1100 F). When Cr > 4%, corrosion
resistance greatly improves ( Responsible for corrosion resistance
in Stainless Steels ). Not readily oxidized from bath; requires high
 temperatures, increased heat time and slag volume.

Cr makes steel oil and air hardenable.

Mo Molybdenum Mo is a strong Carbide former and has a high effect on

hardenability. Improves control of heat treatment by inhibiting
formation of certain microstructures ( e.g., Pearlite ). Can
improve high temperature corrosion resistance. Can improve
toughness & fatique properties. Expensive.

Vanadium V and Molybdenum Mo Both have influence on better

toughness and have the same negative influence as Cr they are
mostly used as fragility compensatory in High carbon steels like
D2 or in extreme cause in 440V steel.

Mn Manganese
Mn extremely reduces the critical cooling temperature und
increases hardenability. Yield strength, tensile strength and
durability increase with increasing Mn content. Also Mn has
positive impact on forging and weld ability and increases through
hardening.

Ni Nickel
Improves harden ability. Reduces distortion in heat treating.
Permits use of milder quenching media. Improves weldability,
plasticity & fatique properties. Improves toughness, especially at
low temperatures. Improves corrosion resistance.

P Phosphorus
Phosphor P and Sulfur S: these elements are necessary intrusions
caused by metallurgic process. They are undesirable and their
content should be less than 0,025 %.

S Sulphur
Phosphor P and Sulfur S: these elements are necessary intrusions
caused by metallurgic process. They are undesirable and their
content should be less than 0,025 %.

Si Silicon
Si is an element (like Mn) that is contained in every kind of steel
since already iron ore has a certain amount. In content up to 0,5%
 it has positive influence on mechanical properties and helps to
perform hot forming of steel. Si deoxidizes and increases
durability and strongly increases elasticity. Only steel with more
than 0.40% is called silicon steel.

Tungsten
W Forms extremely hard, stable carbides. Used almost exclusively
in High Speed and other tool steels (requiring wear resistance and
high hot hardness). Very expensive. Used in the manufacture of
High Speed Tool Steel, but otherwise almost never used due to
extremely high cost.

V Vanadium Vanadium V and Molybdenum Mo Both have influence on better

toughness and have the same negative influence as Cr they are
mostly used as fragility compensatory in High carbon steels like
D2 or in extreme cause in 440V steel.

V is an effective grain refiner ( i.e., restricts Austenitic grain

growth ). Strong carbide and nitride former ( improves abrasion
resistance ). Improves yield strength, toughness and hot hardness.
Strongly increases resistance to softening during tempering.
Expensive.

Hardness and Tensile Strength

1Kgf/mm2 = 9.804 N/mm2

Tensile strength and the equivalents

In Brinell, Rockwell and Vickers
Tensile Brinell Rockwell hardness Vickers Tensile Brinell Rockwell hardness Vickers
strength hardness 100 kg 150 kg hardness strength hardness 100 kg 150 kg hardness
kg/mm2 Hb Rb Rc Hv kg/mm2 Hb Rb Rc Hv
28 78 38 - 78 71 197 92 12 197
29 81 41 - 81 72 200 93 13 202
30 83 43 - 83 73 203 93 14 204
31 86 45 - 86 74 206 94 14 207
32 88 47 - 88 75 209 94 15 210
33 92 49 - 92 76 211 95 16 212
34 95 51 - 95 77 214 95 16 214
35 97 53 - 97 78 216 96 17 217
36 100 55 - 100 79 219 96 17 220
37 103 57 - 103 80 222 97 18 223
38 106 59 - 106 81 225 97 19 225
39 108 61 - 108 82 228 98 19 229
40 111 63 - 111 83 230 98 20 231
41 114 64 - 114 84 233 99 21 234
42 116 65 - 116 85 236 99 21 237
43 120 67 - 120 86 239 100 22 239
44 123 69 - 123 87 243 100 22 243
45 125 70 - 125 88 246 - 23 246
46 127 71 - 127 89 248 - 23 248
47 130 72 - 130 90 250 - 24 250
48 133 73 - 133 91 253 - 25 254
49 137 75 - 137 92 255 - 25 258
50 139 76 - 139 93 258 - 26 262
51 141 77 - 141 94 261 - 26 265
52 145 78 - 145 95 264 - 27 267
53 147 79 - 147 96 266 - 27 269
54 149 80 - 149 97 268 - 27 271
55 153 81 - 153 98 271 - 28 274
56 156 82 0 155 99 275 - 28 280
57 159 83 1 158 100 278 - 28 283
58 161 83 2 160 101 281 - 29 285
59 164 84 3 165 102 283 - 29 287
60 167 85 4 167 103 288 - 29 291
61 170 86 5 170 104 291 - 30 297
62 173 87 6 174 105 295 - 30 299
63 175 87 6 175 106 297 - 31 302
64 178 88 7 178 107 299 - 31 305
65 181 89 8 181 108 302 - 31 308
66 184 89 9 185 109 306 - 32 311
67 187 90 9 187 110 308 - 32 313
68 189 91 10 189 111 310 - 33 315
69 191 91 11 191 112 312 - 33 317
70 195 92 12 195 113 315 - 34 320

Rockwell Rockwell
Tensile Brinell Vickers Tensile Brinell
hardeness hardeness Vickers hardness
strength hardness hardness strength hardness
100 kg 100 kg Hv
kg/mm2 Hb Hv kg/mm2 Hb
Rb Rb
114 316 34 321 157 436 46 450
115 320 34 325 158 439 46 453
116 323 35 329 159 441 46 456
117 325 35 331 160 444 47 459
118 328 35 334 161 447 47 461
119 331 35 336 162 450 47 465
120 334 36 340 163 452 48 468
121 336 36 343 164 456 48 472
122 339 36 345 165 459 48 475
123 342 37 349 166 461 48 477
124 345 37 352 167 464 49 480
125 346 37 355 168 466 49 483
126 350 38 358 169 469 49 486
127 353 38 360 170 472 49 489
128 356 38 364 172 477 50 494
129 359 39 367 174 484 50 502
130 362 39 369 176 489 50 508
131 364 39 371 178 494 51 512
132 367 39 375 180 500 51 520
133 369 40 378 182 506 52 526
134 372 40 382 184 511 52 532
135 375 40 385 186 517 53 539
136 378 40 388 188 522 53 545
137 380 41 390 190 527 54 551
138 383 41 393 192 532 54 555
139 386 41 396 194 539 55 564
140 389 42 399 196 544 55 569
141 392 42 402 198 550 56 576
 142 395 42 405 200 556 56 582
143 397 42 408 205 570 .57 597
144 400 43 411 210 583 58 613
145 402 43 413 215 597 59 629
146 405 43 416 220 611 60 642
147 407 43 419 225 625 60 661
148 411 44 423 230 639 61 679
149 413 44 425 235 651 62 695
150 416 44 428 240 668 63 718
151 419 44 430 245 682 64 736
152 422 45 434 250 695 65 754
153 424 45 438 255 709 66 771
154 428 45 440 260 722 67 790
155 431 45 444 265 736 68 812
156 433 46 447 270 750 69 839

SHEET METAL GAUGES

Thickness in inches and Millimeters

No. Standard wire gauge Birmingham gauge

in. mm in. mm

15/0 - - 1.000 25.4

14/0 - - 0.9583 24.34
13/0 - - 0.9167 23.28
12/0 - - 0.8750 22.22
11/0 - - 0.8333 21.17
10/0 - - 0.7917 20.11
9/0 - - 0.750 19.05
8/0 - - 0.7083 17.99
7/0 0.500 12.700 0.6666 16.93
6/0 0.464 11.786 0.625 15.88
5/0 0.432 10.973 0.5883 14.94
4/0 0.400 10.160 0.5416 13.76
3/0 0.372 9.449 0.500 12.70
2/0 0.348 8.839 0.4452 11.31
0 0.324 8.230 0.3964 10.07
1 0.300 7.620 0.3532 8.971
2 0.276 7.010 0.3147 7.993
3 0.252 6.401 0.2804 7.122
4 0.232 5.893 0.250 6.350
5 0.212 5.385 0.2225 5.652
6 0.192 4.877 0.1981 5.032
7 0.716 4.470 0.1764 4.481
8 0.160 4.064 0.1570 3.988
9 0.144 3.658 0.1398 3.551
10 0.128 3.251 0.1250 3.175
11 0.116 2.946 0.1113 2.827
12 0.104 2.642 0.0991 2.517
13 0.092 2.337 0.0882 2.250
14 0.080 2.032 0.0785 1.994
15 0.072 1.829 0.0699 1.775
16 0.064 1.626 0.0625 1.588
17 0.056 1.422 0.0556 1.412
18 0.048 1.219 0.0495 1.257
19 0.040 1.016 0.0440 1.118
20 0.036 0.914 0.0392 0.9957
21 0.032 0.813 0.0349 0.08865
22 0.028 0.711 0.03125 0.7938
23 0.024 0.610 0.02782 0.7066
24 0.022 0.559 0.02476 0.6289
25 0.020 0.508 0.02204 0.5599
26 0.018 0.457 0.01961 0.4981
27 0.0164 0.4166 0.01745 0.4432
28 0.0148 0.3579 0.015625 0.3969
29 0.0136 0.3454 0.0139 0.3531
30 0.0124 0.3150 0.0123 0.3124
 31 0.0116 0.2946 0.0110 0.2794
32 0.0108 0.2743 0.0098 0.2489
33 0.0100 02540 0.0087 0.2210
34 0.0092 0.2337 0.0070 0.1956
35 0.0084 0.2134 0.0069 0.1753
36 0.0076 0.1930 0.0061 0.1549
37 0.0068 0.1727 0.0054 0.1372
38 0.0060 0.1524 0.0048 0.1219
39 0.0052 0.1321 0.0043 0.1092
40 0.0048 0.1219 0.00386 0.09804
41 0.0044 0.1118 0.00343 0.08712
42 0.0040 0.1016 0.00306 0.07772
43 0.0036 0.0914 0.00272 0.06909
44 0.0032 0.0813 0.00242 0.06147
45 0.0028 0.0711 0.00215 0.05461
46 0.0024 0.0610 0.00192 0.04877
47 0.0020 0.0508 0.00170 0.04318
48 0.0016 0.0406 0.00152 0.03861
49 0.0012 0.0305 0.00135 0.03429
50 0.0010 0.0254 0.00120 0.03048
51 - 0.00107 0.02718
52 - 0.00095 0.02413
http://www.medfab.com/quality/QPMan.pdf