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FrenchRevolution

Introduction

ThisunitprovidesbasichistoricalbackgroundtotheFrenchRevolution.Itwill
showthattheRevolutionacceleratedintellectual,culturalandpsychological
change,andopenedupnewhorizonsandpossibilities.Infact,whilemuch
controversyandscepticismremainastotherealextentofunderlyingchangein
thesocialandeconomicstructureofFrance,itisgenerallyagreedbyscholars
thattheRevolutionstimulatedawideningofexpectationsandimaginative
awareness:abelief,inheritedfromtheEnlightenment,inthepossibilityof
progress,aswellasaconvictionthatstateandsocietycouldbereconstitutedwith
aviewtorealisingsocialandindividualaspirationsandhumanhappiness
generally.Asitdegeneratedintoviolenceandbloodshed,however,the
Revolutionalsoprovokedscepticismandpessimismaboutprogressandhuman
nature.Thetwobasictypesofmodernpoliticaloutlook,progressiveand
conservative,datefromthisexperience.Which,ifany,ofthesesetsofbeliefs
wastrueisnotatissuehere.WhatmattersisthattheRevolutiongaveriseto
themandgavethemlastinglife.

LearningOutcomes

Bytheendofyourworkonthisunityoushouldhave:

anunderstandingofthemaineventsoftheFrenchRevolution178999
anditssignificanceintheshiftinEuropeanculturefromEnlightenmentto
Romanticism;

anenhancedappreciationoftheFrenchRevolutionanditssignificance
throughexposuretoselectedcontemporarytexts,documentsand
illustrationsoftheperiod.

1Enlightenment,libertyandrevolution

Themainaimofthisunitistoprovideyouwithbasichistoricalbackgroundon
theFrenchRevolution,whichmarkedawatershedinthehistoryandcultureof
theperiod17801830.Thedocumentsandillustrationsassociatedwithitare
theretoillustrateandbringoutthepointsmade.Thefirstexerciseisprecededby
anextendedpreambledesignedtofacilitateyourreadingandunderstandingof
thefirstdocument.Thisshouldinturnpointawaytowardsengagingwithother
documentsandillustrationsassociatedwiththeunit.

TheFrenchRevolution,oratleastitsimpactonFranceandEurope,liesatthe
heartoftheculturalshiftfromEnlightenmenttoRomanticism.Itnotonly
markedadecisivebreakinthehistoryofFranceandEurope,butalsoaccelerated
intellectual,culturalandpsychologicalchange.Itopenedupnewhorizonsand
possibilities.Indeed,whilethereremainmuchcontroversyandscepticismasto
therealextentofunderlyingchangeinthesocialandeconomicstructureof
France,scholarsgenerallyagreethattheRevolutionbroughtawideningof
expectationsandimaginativeawareness:abelief,inheritedfromthe
Enlightenment,inthepossibilityofprogress,aswellasaconvictionthatstate
andsocietycouldbereconstitutedwithaviewtorealisingsocialandindividual
aspirationsandhumanhappinessgenerally.Asitdegeneratedintoviolenceand
bloodshed,however,theRevolutionalsoprovokedscepticismandpessimism
aboutprogressandhumannature.Thetwobasictypesofmodernpolitical
outlook,progressiveandconservative,datefromthisexperience.Which,ifany,
ofthesesetsofbeliefswastrueisnotatissuehere.Whatmattersisthatthe
Revolutiongaverisetothemandgavethemlastinglife.

ItisnotpossibleinoneunittodojusticetothecomplexityoftheFrench
Revolution,whosesignificancepreoccupiedcontemporariesandhascontinuedto
engagehistorianseversince.Sufficeittosaythatitwas,andwasconsideredby
thosewholivedthroughittobe,themostmomentousturningpointinmodern
historythusfar,atraumaticconvulsion(Doyle,2001,p.2)thatmadeitsimpact
onthewaypeoplelivedandthoughtacrossEuropethroughoutmostofthis
period.Therevolutionariesthemselvesrecognisedthebreakwiththepastby
namingthesocialandpoliticalorderbefore1789theOldRegime(ancien
rgime).

TheRevolutionarousedthedeepestpassions,fromardententhusiasmto
inveteratehostility.Someofitsenemiesattributedittoaconspiracyhatchedby
freemasonsorevenbyleadingfiguresoftheEnlightenment.CatherinetheGreat
ofRussia,oncethedarlingoftwoofthoseleadingfigures,VoltaireandDiderot,
wasby1794voicingthesuspicionthattheaimofthephilosopheswasto
overturnallthrones,andthattheEncyclopdiewaswrittenwithnootherendin
viewthantodestroyallkingsandallreligions(Lentin,1985,p.269).Thiswasa
wildexaggeration,butitillustratestheshockcausedbytheRevolution,andit
raisestheimportantquestionhowfartheRevolutionwasaresultofthe
Enlightenment.OthersstresstheroleofchanceandpersonalityintheRevolution
(forexample,theweaknessorfollyoftheFrenchkingandqueen,thefanaticism
oftheJacobins)andthepressureofeventsandforces(massviolence,civilwar,
invasion)whichtookonamomentumoftheirown,oftenoverwhelmingand
sometimesdestroyingtherevolutionariesthemselves.Thisunitcondensesa
sequenceoftumultuoushappeningsinFranceandEuropeinthedecade178999
(andabewilderingsuccessionofpoliticalconstitutionsandlegislativeacts),in
ordertofocusontheRevolution'smoreimportantstagesorturningpointsand
theirsignificance.

ThemaintargetoftheRevolutionwasthepoliticalandsocialprivilege
entrenchedundertheOldRegime.PowerinEuroperested,asithadfor
centuries,withaprivilegednobility.Socialstatusandpoliticalinfluence
dependedonbirth,hereditarytitletolandoroffice(whichcouldalsobe
purchased),andunearnedincomederivedfromlandandtherighttopeasants'
contributionsincash,kindorlabour.InFrance,inthegenerationbeforethe
Revolution,almosteveryoneoftheking'sministers,provincialgovernorsand
bishopswasanobleman.Thewatchwordlibertysumsupthemainsloganand
aspirationoftheRevolution:liberationfrompoliticaldespotism,socialexclusion
anddiscrimination.Thesecondwatchword,closelyrelatedtoliberty,was
equality.Bothlibertyandequalityweresupposedtobeinspiredbyand
suffusedwithathirdfraternityorbrotherlylove.ThehistorianFrancoisFuret
insiststhattheappealofliberty,equalityandfraternity,whichprovedso
infectious,stemmedfromwhathecallstheRevolution'sdeepestmotivating
force:hatredofthearistocracy(Furet,1996,p.51).Bethatasitmay,ontheeve
oftheRevolution,inallcountriesthedistinctionbetweenthenobleor
gentlemanandtherestofthepopulationwasthecardinalfactofsociallife
(Hampson,1969,p.55).

2DeathoftheOldRegime

2.1Thebankruptmonarchy

TheimmediatecauseoftheRevolutionwasthattheFrenchmonarchyfaced
imminentbankruptcy.(Thiswaspartlybecauseoftheenormoussumsithad
spentassistingtheAmericanRevolutionbetween1778and1781inorderto
discomfortthetraditionalenemy,Britain.)Neithernobilitynorclergypaiddirect
tax.Withouttheconsentoftheestablishedordersofsocietytoareorganization
ofthetaxburdensoastorestoreitsfinances,thegovernmentcouldnolonger
function.Successiveministerstriedtowinoverinfluentialsectionsofthe
nobilitytovariousreformproposals,withinconclusiveresults.In1788the
helplessKingLouisXVIwasadvisedtoturnforhelptothenationasawholein
theshapeofitsrepresentativesdulyelectedandconvenedinancientform:the
EstatesGeneral.

On5May1789,thisbodywasthereforeassembledatVersaillesforthefirsttime
since1614.Itconsistedofelectedrepresentativesofthethreeordersorestatesof
therealm:clergy,nobilityandtheThirdEstate,orcommoners,theremaining
95percentofthepopulation.TherepresentativesoftheThirdEstatewere
mainlyofficials,lawyers,landownersandmerchants.Iftheprecedentof1614
wasfollowed,eachoftheorderswouldassembleseparately,andiftheclergyand
nobilityvotedasestates,theycouldoutvotetheThirdEstatebytwotoone.In
1789,however,nobodyknewwhattheEstatesGeneralwoulddoTherewas
acompletevacuumofpower.TheFrenchRevolutionwastheprocessbywhich
thisvacuumwasfilled(Doyle,2001,p.36).

2.2TheThirdEstateasthevoiceofthenation

EmmanuelJosephSieys(17481836)trainedasapriestandbecameassistantto
abishop.Hehadnoreligiousvocation,however,andhisfamearoseastheauthor
ofahighlyinfluentialpamphlet,WhatistheThirdEstate?,publishedinJanuary
1789,onthestrengthofwhichSieyeswaselectedadeputytotheEstates
General.Foureditionsor30,000copiesofthebookcameoutwithinmonthsof
itsappearance,atatimeofheightenedconsciousnessthatgreatchangeswere
afoot.WhatisSieys'sargument,howdoeshepresentit,andwhatisthe
significanceofhisbook?

SampleanalysisanddiscussionofWhatistheThirdEstate?

Letustakeacloserlookatpartofthisdocumentbeforeattemptingtheexercise
below.Thispreambleshouldhelpyoutorelatetosimilarexercisesinthisunit.
Thedocumentisquitelong,byfarthelongestoneassociatedwiththisunit;but
youshouldnotfinditdifficulttoreaditthroughfairlyquicklyandtoextractits
mainpoints,tograspSieys'smessage,andtonotehowheconveyedit.After
youhavereaditthroughonce,rereaditfromthebeginninguptoanation
withinanation.

TheThirdEstate

ViewdocumentaboutTheThirdEstate

ThefactofitsimmediatesuccessandlargeprintrunalreadysuggeststhatWhat
istheThirdEstate?wascrisplywritten,hadaclearandtimelymessage,andwas
readilyandimmediatelyunderstoodandappreciated.Sieysismethodical,
conciseandtothepoint.Hetellsusstraightawaythatwehavethreequestionsto
askourselvesabouttheThirdEstate.Hesetsoutthosethreequestionsin
numericalorder.Toeachquestionhegivesaonewordanswer.Hethenstates,
Weshallseeifthesearetherightanswers,andundertakestoprovidethe
supportingevidence.
Thisdowntoearth,systematicapproachisverymuchinthestyleandspiritof
theEncyclopdieinitsclarityofpresentation,itspromiseoflogicalargument
basedonsupportingevidence,anditsconclusionscriticalofexistinginstitutions.
Sieysdoesnotexpresshisconclusionsasviewspersonaltohimselfbutas
demonstrablestatementsofobjectivefact(setoutunderpoints4,5and6).

Inthenextparagraphheasks,Whatisanation?,andproceedstogivea
definition.Again,hismethodandhisobjectiveareclearandlogical.Youwill
note,however,thatthistimehedoesnotofferanysupportingevidenceforhis
statement.Whynot?Presumably,hebelievedthathisdefinitionwasselfevident
andwouldbefoundsobyhisreaders,asindeeditwas.

Sieys'sbasicideaofanationwasnotnew.ItdrewonEnlightenmentconcepts
familiartoanyeducatedreader.Diderot,inhisarticlePoliticalauthority
publishedintheEncydopdiein1751,discussedtermsandideaswhichby1789
hadbecomethestapleofpoliticalthought.Hearguedthatsovereignty,or
ultimatepoliticalpowerinastate,derivesnotfromthemonarchbutfromthe
peopleornation,thatitmustbeexercisedintheirinterestandfortheir
benefit,thatitshouldbecontrolledandcircumscribedbylaws,andthatthe
ruler'stenureofofficeisinthenatureofatrustexercisedforthepeople'sbenefit
andwiththeirconsent,underpinnedbyanimplicitagreementorsocialcontract
(Gendzier,1967,pp.1858).

Againstthisfamiliarbackground,Sieystakesafurthereasyandlogicalstepby
postulatinganothercharacteristicofanation:namely,thatithasanelected,
representativelegislative(lawmaking)assembly.Thistoofollowsimplicitly
fromideaspopularizedintheEncyclopdie,butitreceivedatremendous
additionalboost,firstfromthesuccessoftheAmericanRevolutionandthe
summoningofaconstitutionalconventionbytheUnitedStatesin1787,andnow
inFrancebythesummoningoftheEstatesGeneral.TheFrenchpeople,or
nation,wereatlasttoberepresentedinanassemblyor,asitwassoontobe
called,aNationalAssembly,throughwhichittoowouldbeenabledtoexpress
itspoliticalwill,frameitsownlawsandshapeitsownnationaldestiny.

Afterthisdefinitionofanation,uncontroversialinitsEnlightenmentborrowings
butnowsuddenlyfreshandrevolutionaryinitsimmediaterelevancein1789,
Sieysmakesafurtherclaim,allthemoreunexpectedbecauseoftheequable
toneandcalmlogicemployedbyhimthusfar.Hesuddenlyclaimsthatthe
nobility,byreasonofitsprivilegesandexemptions,isnotpartofthenationat
all,butanationwithinanation.This,hestatesrhetorically,isonlytooclear,
isn'tit.Thereaderwilltaketheimplicitpoint(soontobemadeexplicit)thatnot
onlyisthisindeedthecase,butthatsuchasituationisillogical,unjustand
wrong,nolongertenableortolerable.Sieys'spurposeistoisolateand
marginalisethenobilityinhisreaderseyes,andtoexposeittotheircritical
censure.Inthecircumstancesof1789,hismessagetookonstartlingimplications
abouttherespectiverolesofthenobilityandtheThirdEstateintheEstates
General.

Nowgotop.72ofthedocument(fromTosumuptobecoming
something?,p.73).WeseehereareferencetoanotherEnlightenment
touchstonetherightsofmanandalsotothepetitions(cahiersde
dolances)whichtherepresentativesattheEstatesGeneralbroughtwiththem
fromtheirconstituents.Ininvokingtherightsofman,Sieysagaindrawsona
commonbackgroundandstrikesacommonchordwithhisreadersinhis
referencestothepoliticalterminologyoftheEnlightenment.Again,too,in
mentioningthepetitions,thereisthestrikingtopicalityofhiscommentsasthe
EstatesGeneralassembledtoairthenation'sgrievances.

ButSieysrefersonlyfleetinglytotherightsofman.Hismainpointinthis
passagerelatestosomethingelse,thoughcloselyrelatedtoit:equality.Equality
wasanotheremotivecatchwordderivedfromtheEnlightenment.Inhisarticleon
NaturalequalityintheEncyclopdie(1755),deJaucourtstatesthatnatural
equalityisbasedontheconstitutionofhumannaturecommontoallmen
Eachpersonmustvalueandtreatotherpeopleassomanyindividualswhoare
naturallyequaltohimself(Gendzier,1967,p.169).True,deJaucourtthengoes
ontosaythatIknowtoowellthenecessityofdifferentranks,grades,honours,
distinctions,prerogatives,subordinationsthatmustprevailinallgovernments
(Gendzier,1967,p.170).DeJaucourtmaybebeingironichere,orhemaybe
perfectlyserious.Bethatasitmay,Sieysiscertainlyseriousinhiscomplaint
concerningtheinequalityofrepresentationintheEstatesGeneraloftheThird
Estateinrelationtotheothertwoestates(churchandnobility).TheThirdEstate,
hesays,demandsthatthenumberofitsrepresentativesbeequaltothatofthe
twootherordersputtogether(emphasisadded);.

Exercise1

Nowreadfrom"Withregardtoitspoliticalrights"to"goingbackintimeabit."
Briefly(inabout100words)(i)explaininyourownwordswhatSieyshasto
sayabouttheThirdEstateandthenobility,and(ii)describehistone.

Nowreadthediscussion

ThesignificanceofSieys'spamphletlayinitsconsciousnessraising.His
defiantradicalismcapturedthemoodofthe648representativesoftheThird
Estateandinspiredthemtothumbtheirnosesatthenobilityoraristocrats,ashe
alsocallsthem.(By1789andthankspartlytoSieys,thewordaristocrathad
becomeatermofabusesynonymouswithundeservedprivilege.)
On17JunethedeputiesoftheThirdEstateunilaterallydeclaredtheassemblyof
theirownmemberstobethetruerepresentativevoiceoftheFrenchnation:the
NationalAssembly.Iftheclergyandnobilitywantedavoiceinshapingthe
futureofFrance,theymustsitintheNationalAssemblyasequalswiththeThird
Estate.Thepamphletwasbothatreatiseandabattlecry(Furet,1996,p.48),a
justificationofandasummonstorevolutionaryaction.On20June,findingitself
lockedout,theThirdEstate,callingitselftheNationalAssembly,withdrewtoa
nearbyindoortenniscourtanddeclared,inthesocalledtenniscourtoath,that
itwouldnotdisperseuntilithadprovidedFrancewithanew,written
constitution.Itdeliberatelyandexpresslyexcludedthenobilityandclergyas
suchfromthebodypolitic.TheNationalAssemblyhadseizedpowerinthename
oftheFrenchnation.TheRevolutionhadbegun.

2.3FalloftheBastille,14July1789

Inasimilarmoodofaggrievedselfrighteousnessandrevolutionaryexultation
camethefalloftheBastille,themedievalfortressandprisonofParis,on14July
1789.Acatastrophicharvestin1788hadprovokedfoodriotsinParisand
elsewhere.LouisXVI,alarmedbothbythisunrestandbytheunexpected
belligerenceoftheThirdEstate,calledtroopsintoParistomaintainorder.Itwas
fearedthathealsoaimedtosuppresstheNationalAssembly,whichralliedits
supporters.TheParisianelectors,thosequalifiedtochoosethecity's
representativestotheEstatesGeneral,raisedamilitiaof48,000men,the
NationalGuard,toprotecttheAssembly.Itscommanderwastheliberalminded
MarquisdeLafayette(17571834),whohadfoughtasavolunteerwiththe
Americanrevolutionaries.TheNationalGuardwasshortofarms.On14July,
havingransackedtheInvalidesformusketsandcannons,itmarchedonthe
Bastilleinsearchofgunpowder.Whenthegovernor,deLaunay,appearedto
offerresistance,itstormedtheprison.DeLaunayandthechiefcitymagistrate
werelynched,theirheadsstuckonpikesandparadedabout.

Theeventseemedtoitssupportersliterallyepochmaking.Infact,theBastillein
1789onlycontainedeightprisoners(includinglunaticsand,untiltheweek
beforeitsfall,theMarquisdeSade),butithadoncebrieflyhousedasstate
prisonerssuchleadingfiguresoftheEnlightenmentasVoltaireandDiderot.Its
fallwasfelttosymbolizetheunstoppablemightoftheRevolutionsweeping
awaythetyranny,oppressionandinjusticeofthepast.AnEnglisheyewitness
reportedthatthenewsproducedanimpressiononthecrowdreallyindescribable
suchaninstantaneousandunanimousemotionofextremegladnessasIshould
supposewasneverbeforeexperiencedbyhumanbeings(quotedinHampson,
1975,p.72).TheBritishambassadoragreed:Thegreatestrevolutionthatwe
knowanythingofhasbeeneffectedwiththelossofveryfewlives.Fromthis
momentwemayconsiderFranceasafreecountry;theKingalimited[thatis,
constitutional]monarchandthenobilityasreducedtoalevelwiththerestofthe
nation(quotedinTownson,1990,p.34).ToCharlesJamesFox,leaderofthe
Englishpartyinopposition,thefalloftheBastillewasthemostgloriousevent,
andthehappiestformankind,thathasevertakenplacesincehumanaffairshave
beenrecorded(quotedinRud,1966,p.181).

InFrance,theanniversaryofthetakingoftheBastillebecameanannualfestival.
ItssignificanceasmarkingthepassingoftheOldRegimewascommonly
celebrated(asintheAmericanWarofIndependence)byplantingtreesof
libertyassymbolsofnationalregeneration.Thekingwasconstrainedtoaccept
theflagoftheRevolutiondevisedbyLafayette,thetricolour(red,whiteand
blue),andtowearitscoloursonhiscockade.

GustavIIIofSweden'sletteronthefalloftheBastille

ViewdocumentaboutGustavIIIofSweden'sletteronthefalloftheBastille

Exercise2

Nowreadtheseconddocument(letterfromGustavIII,absoluterulerofSweden,
August1789.GustavhadjustlearnedoftheeventfromhisambassadorinParis.
Brieflystatewhatthelettertellsus(i)aboutthestormingoftheBastilleand(ii)
aboutGustav'sreactiontoitascomparedwiththatoftheBritishambassadorjust
quoted.

Nowreadthediscussion

2.4EnlightenedreformismdismantlingtheOldRegime

TheNationalAssembly,theselfproclaimedandnowdefactosupreme
representativeandlegislativeorganofstate,settoworkontheconstitutionwhich
ithadsworntointroduce.CallingitselftheConstituentAssembly(tostressboth
itsrepresentativecredentialsanditsconstitutionalmission),itconsistedof745
deputieselectedfortwoyearswithvirtuallyunlimitedpowertopasslaws.The
king,byinterposinghisveto,mightdelaybutcouldnotoverridelawspassedby
it.

Between1789and1791theAssemblyimplementedatransformationofFrench
institutions,markingaclearbreakwiththeOldRegimebyitssweeping
applicationoftheprincipleofequality.Inaseriesofrevolutionarydecrees
between4and11August1789,itremovedatonefellswoopthesocialand
administrativefoundationsoftheOldRegime.TheAssemblydecreedthe
abolitionofthefeudalsysteminitsentiretyandwithittheremovalofprivilege
inFrance:theabolitionofchurchtithes(inadditiontodrawingrevenuesfromits
ownershipofatenthoftheland,theChurchdrewatitheequivalenttoonetenth
oftheyieldoftheremainingland)andallrents,taxesandservicesduefrom
peasantstonoblelandowners(notablyrentspaidinkindandthecorve,or
forcedlabouronroadrepairs);abolitionofseigneuriallawcourts;abolitionof
thesaleofofficesandanendtotheexemptionfromdirecttaxationenjoyedby
churchandnobility.Itproclaimedthecomprehensiveprincipleofequality:social
equality,equalitybeforethelaw,equalliabilitytotaxation,andequalityof
opportunity.Allcitizens,itdecreed,withoutdistinctionofbirth,areeligible
foralloffices,whetherecclesiastical,civilormilitary(Hardman,1999,p.113).
Thenobilitythuslostitsautomaticmonopolyofthehigherofficesofstate.

2.5DeclarationoftheRightsofMan

On26August1789,theAssemblypassedtheDeclarationoftheRightsofMan
andCitizenasthepreambletoaconstitutiondrawnupin1791.(TheDeclaration
alsoprefacedthelaterconstitutionsof1793and1795.)

DeclarationoftheRightsofManandCitizen

ViewdocumentaboutDeclarationoftheRightsofManandCitizen

Exercise3

Nowreadthisdocument(above).Howfardoyouseeinittheinfluenceofthe
Enlightenment?Whatwasrevolutionaryaboutit?

Nowreadthediscussion

Article1reaffirmedtheprincipleofequality:Menarebornandremainfreeand
equalinrights;socialdistinctionscanonlybebasedonpublicutility(as
opposedtonoblebirthorstatus).Therightsofmanincludedfreedomfrom
arbitraryarrestandimprisonment,freedomofopinionandspeech,therighttoa
voiceinthelevyingoftaxes,therighttoownproperty,equalitybeforethelaw,
and(aswehaveseen)equalityofopportunityinaccesstogovernmentposts.

Therewasonecruciallimitation:therightsofmandidnotapplytowomen.The
(male)revolutionarieswerelargelyhostiletothecauseofwomen'ssuffrage,
thoughwomentookpartinsomeoftheeventsoftheRevolutionandtheircause
waschampionedbysuchdistinguishedwritersasCondorcet(174394),oneof
theyoungerphilosophesoftheEnlightenment.In1793womenweretobe
expresslyexcludedfromtherightsofcitizens.ThefeministOlympedeGouges,
authorofTheDeclarationoftheRightsofWomanandCitizen(1791),wastofall
victimtotheTerrorin1793.

AlsorevolutionaryintheEuropeancontextwastheassertionintheDeclaration
thatsovereigntyresidedwiththenation,notwiththeking(aclaimmadeinthe
Encyclopdie,aswehaveseen,andvindicatedintheAmericanRevolution).In
October1789,absolutemonarchywasformallyabolishedandreplacedby
constitutionalmonarchy.TheAssemblydecreedthatLouisXVIwasbythe
graceofGodandtheconstitutionallawoftheState,KingoftheFrench
(emphasisadded).

TheDecreeontheabolitionofnobility

ViewdocumentaboutTheDecreeontheabolitionofnobility

Exercise4

Nowreadthedecreeontheabolitionofnobility(above),June1790.Doyou
noticeanysimilaritywithWhatistheThirdEstate?bySieys?

Nowreadthediscussion

ImageryoftheDeclaration

Thedecreeontheabolitionofnobilitydrewthelineatdamagetoproperty,
ownershipofpropertyhavingbeenproclaimedanaturalrightintheDeclaration
oftheRightsofMan.(Thedecreeisevidencethat,asisknownfromother
sources,thecrowdwastakingthelawintoitsownhandsbyransackingchateaux,
destroyingrecordsofseigneurialdues,etc.)
Figure1:FrenchSchool,DeclarationoftheRightsofManandCitizen,1789,
oiloncanvas,MuseCarnavalet,Paris.Photo:Giraudon/BridgemanArt
Library

Exercise5

LookingatFigure1,whatdoestheimageryoftheDeclarationoftheRightsof
Manappeartodrawupon?

Nowreadthediscussion
Otherimageryisclassical,drawnfrommotifscommoninancientrepublican
Rome:

thecentralpike(theweaponofthefreecitizen),surmountedbythe
Phrygiancap,orlegendaryredcapofliberty,associatedwiththefreed
slave;
envelopingthepike,thefasces(uprightsticks,boundtogetherinabundle,
carriedbeforethelictorsorseniormagistratesandsymbolisingsolidarity
andcivicvirtue);
garlandsofoakleaves,symbolisingvictory.

Othersymbolsincludeachainwithabrokenfetter,symbolisingemancipation
frombondage;anequilateraltriangle,symbolisingequality;andtheallseeing
eyeofProvidence(amasonicsymbol).

Therevolutionariesthusdrewonappropriateaspectsofclassicalandreligious
imagery,familiarundertheOldRegime,andadaptedthemtoanewideology
after1789.

Enlightenment,revolutionandreformthedepartments

OldRegimeFrancewasaconfusedwelterofoverlappingadministrative,judicial
andfiscaldivisionsandauthorities(seeFigure2).
Figure2:TheFrenchprovinces,1789.Photo:JohnPaxton,Companionto
theFrenchRevolution,FactsonFile,NewYorkandOxford,1988.
ReproducedbypermissionofJohnPaxton

Therewere83newadministrativeunitscreatedinJanuary1790bydecreeofthe
Assembly,mostofwhichexisttothisday.Theyweresubdividedintodistricts,
andtheseinturnintocantonsandcommunes(ormunicipalities).
Figure3:ThedepartmentsofrevolutionaryFrance,1790.Photo:Franklin
L.Ford,Europe17801830,2ndedn,Longman,Harlow,1989.Reprintedby
permissionofPearsonEducationLimited

Exercise6

LookatFigure3,amapshowingthedepartments(dpartements).Thesewere
the83newadministrativeunitscreatedinJanuary1790bydecreeofthe
Assembly.CompareFigure3withFigure2(amapshowingthe35provincesof
prerevolutionaryFrance).Statewhatsignificantdifferencesyounotice.Give
examples.

Nowreadthediscussion
Powerwasdecentralisedandallocatedtoelectedconstituencies.Administration
wasentrustedtoofficialselectedbylocaltaxpayers,toageneralcouncilinthe
departmentandtoamayorineachcommune.

3From1789totheflighttoVarennes

3.1Themoderatereformers

178992wasaperiodofrelativelymoderatereforminthespiritofthe
Enlightenmentmoderate,thatis,comparedwithwhatfollowed.Itwascertainly
revolutionaryinrelationtowhatwentbefore.TheConstituentAssembly(August
1789September1791)anditssuccessor,theLegislativeAssembly(October
1791August1792),comprisingeducatedmembersoftheThirdEstatejoinedby
liberalmindednoblesandclergy,weresatisfiedwiththetransformationof
absolutemonarchyintoaparliamentarysystem,aconstitutionalmonarchyunder
aconstitutionintroducedin1791.PoliticalpowerlaywiththeAssembly,which
wasrunbywealthypropertyholders.Theirobjectwasnottoeffectasocial
revolutionbuttocreateamoreopensocietyinwhichopportunitiespreviously
restrictedtobirth,shouldnowbeopentotalent(Hampson,1975,p.95).

3.2PopularviolenceandtheRevolution

Thedeputieswereconcernedtoprotectpropertyandmaintainorder(asthe1790
decreeontheabolitionofnobilitysuggests)inthefaceofagrowingbreakdown
ofpublicorder;andtheirattitudetothemassestowhatthedemagogic
journalistJeanPaulMarat(174493)calledlepetitpeuple(thelittlepeople),the
millionsofpropertyless,distressed,violentandunpredictablefellowcitizens
wasoneofgrowingapprehension.Thepeopletraditionallyriotedwhenbread
wasshort,andincreasinglytheycameoutonthestreetstotakedirectaction
thatis,totakethelawintotheirownhandstheirexpectationsarousedbythe
sweepingchangestakingplace.

Themasseswereaneverpresentthreattoorderlyreform.Theleadersofthe
Pariscrowdwerepoliticalactivistswhocalledthemselvessansculottes(literally
withoutbreeches,becausetheyworetrousersratherthanthekneebreechesor
culottesassociatedwiththeupperclassesseePlate1).Thesansculotteswere
fromwhatmaybecalledthelowermiddleclasstobedistinguishedfromthe
idleandtheunemployed.Thecreamofthesansculottesincludedartisansand
tradesmen,mastercraftsmenandsmallshopkeepers,buttheirfollowerswere
hiredlabourers,porters,waiters,janitorsandbarbers.Throughdemonstrations
andstreetviolencethesansculottesforcedeventsfasterandfurtherthanthe
currentleadersofopiniondesired.

Plate1:LouisLopoldBoilly,TheActorChenardasaSansCulotte1792,
oilonpanel,33.5x22.5cm,MusedelaVilledeParis,MuseCarnavelet,
Paris.Photo:Giraudon/BridgemanArtLibrary

ViewdocumentaboutPlate1:LouisLopoldBoilly,TheActorChenardasa
SansCulotte1792,oilonpanel,33.5x22.5cm,MusedelaVilledeParis,
MuseCarnavelet,Paris.Photo:Giraudon/BridgemanArtLibrary

AnationwidepanicorGreatFearaccompaniedtheAssembly'sdecreesof
August1789abolishingfeudalismandprivilegeinFrance.Theking,unhappyat
hisnew,diminishedroleandatbeingrequiredtoassenttosomanyrevolutionary
measures,andencouragedbyhisfamilyandroyalistsupporterstoresist,atfirst
refusedtopromulgatethedecreesof4AugustandtheDeclarationoftheRights
ofMan.Iwillneverallowmyclergyandmynobilitytobestrippedoftheir
assets,hedeclared(quotedinVovelle,1984,p.114).

InOctober,whentheking'spersonalguardsatVersailleswereseentotrampleon
thetricolour,theNationalGuardreacted,caughtupinarevivedfearthatLouis
mightattempttoclosetheAssemblybyforce.AcrowdofParisianwomen,
marchingtotheAssemblyatVersaillestoprotestagainstrisingbreadprices,
advancedontheroyalpalace.Withtheacquiescenceandevencooperationofthe
NationalGuard,includingLafayette,theyforcedtheroyalfamilytoreturnwith
themtoParis,wheretheking,virtuallyaprisonerintheTuileriespalace,now
ignominiouslyassentedtothedecrees.

EdmundBurke'sReflectionsontheRevolutioninFrancebecamethebibleacross
Europeofwhatwastobecomeknownasconservatism.Fromthefirst,Burke
opposedtheRevolutiononprinciple.Hedeploredthesuddenbreakwithcustom
andtradition,andtheimplementationofchangebasedonabstractprinciples
(suchastherightsofman)drawnfromtheEnlightenment.Heabhorredthe
egalitarianismandlackofdeferencetonobilityandmonarchy,andtherunning
amokofwhathecalledtheswinishmultitude.Heforesawbloodshed.

Themajorityofthedeputies,underLafayette,weredeterminedtopreserveorder
andtokeeppowerinthehandsoftherepresentativesoftheresponsibleandthe
propertied.BranchesoftheNationalGuardwereestablishedacrossFrance.In
December1789theAssemblydrewadistinctionbetweenactive(thatis,
monied)andpassive(propertyless)citizens.Onlytheformerwereeligibleto
participateintheelectionofdeputies.Anelectorateoffourandahalfmillion
maletaxpayerschosesome50,000electors,whopaidevenhighertaxandwho
inturnelectedthedeputiestotheAssembly(andthecandidatesforpublic
office).Thedeputiesandofficeholdersthemselveswerequalifiedtostandby
virtueofthestillhighertaxeswhichtheypaid.Evenso,theelectoratewasfar
broaderthananyintherestofEurope,whereeventheseprovisionsseemed
madlydemocratic(Palmer,1971,p.70).TheFrenchradicals,however,pointed
tothearistocracyoftherich(aphrasecoinedbyMarat),whichwasreplacing
theoldfeudalaristocracyofbirth.

3.3ThedivideovertheChurch,1790

Therevolutionariesof1789alsoaspiredtoreformtheCatholicChurchinFrance,
thoughnottodisestablishit,stilllesstodeChristianisethecountry.Manyofthe
clergythemselvesfavouredreform.InAugust1789theAssemblydeprivedthe
Churchofitsincomebyabolishingthetithe.InNovemberitdecreedthe
sequestration(nationalisation)ofchurchlands,roughly10percentofalllandin
France,forpublicsale.TheAssemblywaspromptedbythesameneedtoraise
revenuetopayoffthenationaldebtwhichhadledtothesummoningofthe
EstatesGeneral.

Buttheprogrammeofchurchreformwasalsoideological,inspiredbythe
rationalismandhumanitarianismoftheEnlightenment.InFebruary1790the
Assemblyabolishedthemonasticordersandalsoproclaimedcivicequalityfor
Protestants.InJuly1790itintroducedtheCivilConstitutionoftheClergy,
whichcutthenumberofCatholicbishopricsfrom135to83,allocatingone
dioceseforeachdepartment,andmadeprovisionforasalariedclergyappointed
bypopularelection.ThesestartlingchangeswereintroducedbytheAssembly
withoutconsultingtheCatholicChurch.

AdeepandlastingbreakbetweenCatholicopinionandtheRevolutioncamein
November1790,whentheAssemblyforcedtheissuebyrequiringtheclergyto
swearallegiancetotheconstitution(includingtheCivilConstitutionofthe
Clergy).Almosthalftheordinaryclergyrefusedtotaketheoath,andonlyseven
bishopsassented,whilethePopedenouncedtheCivilConstitution(andby
implicationtheRevolution)inApril1791.Theclergywhorefusedtotakethe
oath(knownasnonjurors)wereimprisonedorwentintoexile30,000priests
hadleftFranceby1799swellingtheranksofthemigrsandturningtensions
betweenchurchandstateintoanideologicaldividebetweensupportersand
enemiesoftheRevolution.

ApublishedprotestbyaformerdeputyofthenobilitytotheEstatesGeneral
showshowdivisivetheissueoftheoathcouldbe.Marat'sL'Amidupeuplefrom
December1790providesevidenceofthemountingextremismthreateningthe
moderates.
3.4MonarchyandtheRevolutiontheflighttoVarennes,1791

Thetaskofthemoderateswasfurthercomplicatedbytheambiguousattitudeof
theroyalfamily.Fromthefirsttherewereroyalistswhorefusedtocompromise
withtheRevolution,includingLouisXVI'syoungerbrothers,thecomtede
Provence(laterLouisXVIII)andthecomted'Artois(laterCharlesX),wholeft
Franceasmigrsandfomentedcounterrevolutionfromabroad.By1791half
thenobleofficersintheFrencharmyhadresignedtheircommissions.Weak,
shiftyandoutofhisdepth,LouisXVIremainedsuspiciousoftheRevolutionand
hostiletotheconstitution.AsapractisingCatholic,hewasprofoundlydisturbed
bytheCivilConstitutionoftheClergy.Stillmoreantagonisticwasthequeen,
MarieAntoinette,whosebrotherwastheHabsburgemperor.MarieAntoinette
opposedanycompromisewiththeRevolution.Onlyarmedforce,shewrote,
canputthingsright(Hampson,1975,p.98).InJune1791theroyalfamily
attemptedtofleetoaplaceofsafetyontheeasternfrontierofFrance,from
whereLouis,withtheimplicitthreatofarmedforeignassistance,proposedto
renegotiatetermswiththeAssembly.TheywerecaughtatVarennes(theepisode
isknownastheflighttoVarennes)andwerereturnedtoParisunderguard.Once
moretheywerevirtuallyprisoners.

TheflighttoVarennesopenedupthesecondgreatschismoftheRevolution
(Doyle,2001,p.47).Theking'sloyaltytotheRevolutionandhiscredibilityasa
constitutionalmonarchwerefatallycompromised.Sowasthecauseofmoderate,
liberalconstitutionalisminFrance.InJuly1791anantiroyalistdemonstration
tookplaceintheChampdeMarsinParis.ItwasputdownbytheNational
GuardunderLafayette,andsome50demonstratorswerekilled.Whatlater
becameknownasthemassacreoftheChampdeMarsfurtherpolarisedopinion.

Forthemoderatesof1789,theRevolutionhadgonefarenough.Confidencein
constitutionalmonarchywouldberestored,theyhoped,bytheking'sformal
assenttothenewconstitutioninSeptember1791.Fromthespringof1792
onwards,however,thecauseofmoderationwasundercontinualchallenge:on
theonehand,fromtheking'sunreliabilityandthethreatofforeignintervention
andcounterrevolution,and,ontheother,fromthesansculottes,militant
agitatorsandradicalintellectualsinandoutsidetheAssembly.

4EuropeandtheFrenchRevolution

4.1Intellectual,governmentalandmonarchicalresponses
TherewasmuchsympathyamongintellectualsabroadfortheRevolution,which
seemedtobeputtingsomanyEnlightenmentidealsintopractice.TheGerman
philosopherImmanuelKantwasamongthefirsttohailtheRevolutionasa
uniquehistoricalphenomenon,andtheseearlyreactionsweresharedbyFichte,
Herder,SchillerandGoethe.EnthusiastsinBritainincludedtheradicalThomas
Paine,authorofTheRightsofMan(1791),MaryWollstonecraft,authorofA
VindicationoftheRightsofMen(1790)andAVindicationoftheRightsof
Women(1792),poetssuchasBurns,Blake,ColeridgeandWordsworth,and,
initially,thecampaigneragainstslaveryWilliamWilberforce,amanofdeep
religiousconviction.InlateryearsWordsworthrecalledhisemotionsof1789in
acelebratedcouplet:

Blisswasitinthatdawntobealive,

ButtobeyoungwasveryHeaven!

(ThePrelude,XI.1089)

WhatwastheattitudeoftheFrenchrevolutionariestoEurope?InMay1790the
AssemblyresolvedthattheFrenchnationrenouncesinvolvementinanywar
undertakenwiththeaimofmakingconquestsandthatitwillneveruseforce
againstthelibertyofanypeople(Vovelle,1984,p.123).Thiswasnot,however,
regardedasincompatiblewithwarsofliberationtospreadtheRevolution
abroad.IntheboastoftheradicaldeputyPierreChaumette:Thelandwhich
separatesParisfromStPetersburgwillsoonbegallicized,municipalized,
jacobinized(quotedinFuret,1996,p.104).

HowdidtheEuropeanmonarchsreact?AletterfromLeopoldII,Austrian
emperor,toCatherineII,empressofRussia,inJuly1791andtheDeclarationof
PillnitzofAugust1791,writtenimmediatelyaftertheflighttoVarennes,indicate
theattitudetotheRevolutionofthemonarchiesofAustriaandPrussia.Both
wereopendocuments,intendedtoinfluencepublicopinionacrossFranceand
Europeandtobeunderstoodasexpressionsofsolidaritybetweentherulersof
AustriaandPrussia,speakingonbehalfofEuropeanmonarchsgenerally.Inthe
lettertoCatherine,LeopoldexpressesindignationatthetreatmentofLouisXVI
andMarieAntoinetteandhisfearsfortheirsafety.Heseesinthedangerous
excessesoftheFrenchRevolutionathreattomonarchsandpoliticalstability
generally.TheRevolutionhadthusbecomeaninternationalissue.The
DeclarationofPillnitzisanappealforsupportbytheAustrianandPrussian
monarchstotheotherEuropeanmonarchsandawarningofpossiblemilitary
interventioninFrance.

TherulersofBritainandcontinentalEuropein1792werealarmedbythe
Revolution,butnotsomuchthattheytookseriousstepstosuppressit.Kaunitz,
theAustrianchancellor,indeedprotestedagainstinterveninginFrance'sinternal
affairsasunnecessary.Austria,PrussiaandRussiaactedintraditionalfashionby
takingadvantageoftheweaknesstowhichtheysupposedtheRevolutionhad
broughtFrance,inordertocompletethepartitionofFrance'sformerprotg,
Poland,swallowedupbyRussiaandPrussiainthepartitionsof1793and1795.

ItwastheFrenchwhodeclaredwar.TheywerenottoknowhowfarAustriaand
Prussiawereseriousintheirthreats.Whattheydidknowwasthatin1787the
PrussianshadintervenedmilitarilyinHolland,whiletheAustriansin1788had
senttheirtroopsintotheAustrianNetherlands(Belgium),ineachcaseto
suppressarevolutionaryuprising.InApril1792Francedeclaredwaronthe
HabsburgrulerofAustria,EmperorFrancis(Leopold'ssuccessor),andinvaded
theAustrianNetherlands(presentdayBelgium).InNovembertheAssembly
decreedthatFranceofferedfraternalassistancetoallpeopleswishingtorecover
theirliberty.Oncehostilitiesbegan,theDeclarationofBrunswick(August
1792)issuedbytheDukeofBrunswick,commandingthePrussianandAustrian
armies,threatenedtoputParistoswordandfireshouldanyharmbefallthe
Frenchroyalfamily.WarbetweenFranceandEuropeanmonarchsspreadthe
RevolutionbeyondFrance'sfrontiers,andinspiredanulteriorgoalofsecuring
forFrancethenaturalfrontieroftheRhine.

4.2Politicalpolarizationandthefallofthemonarchy

By1792theliberalconstitutionalistsof1789,menlikeLafayette,found
themselvesincreasinglyonthedefensive.Therewasgrowinghostilitytothe
NationalAssembly,withitslimitedfranchiseandaristocracyoftherich.A
fringeofradicaldeputiesseatedontheleftoftheAssembly(thepoliticalterms
leftandrightdatefromthisperiod)weresupportedinParisandacrossFrance
bynumerousradicalpoliticalorganizationsorclubs,notablyaclubcalling
itselftheSocietyoftheFriendsoftheConstitution(andlaterSocietyofthe
FriendsofLibertyandEquality)betterknownastheJacobinclub.Foremost
amongtheJacobindeputiesintheAssemblywasMaximiliendeRobespierre
(175894),aferventdiscipleofRousseau,whoseemedtobelievehimselfthe
embodimentofthegeneralwillandrepublicanvirtue.

InSeptember1791theNationalAssembly,afterthetwoyearswhichithad
allotteditselftoenactaconstitution,dulydissolveditself,transferringitspowers
toaLegislativeAssembly,fromelectiontowhich,atRobespierre'ssuggestion,it
quixoticallybarreditsownmembers.Therewerethusnoexperienceddeputies,
andtherewasaninfluxofyoungerradicalrevolutionaries.Halfthedeputieswere
under30.
OutsidetheAssembly,thepressureoftheclubsandthegrowingpoliticisation
ofthesansculotteswereaccompaniedbyatorrentofpublicationsreleasedunder
therighttofreedomofthepresslaiddownintheDeclarationoftheRightsof
Man.By1791therewere150newspapers,includingmuchinflammatory
journalism,inwhichissueswerepersonalisedandpoliticalopponentswere
blackguarded.NotoriousamongthesetabloidsofthedaywereJacquesHbert's
LePereDuchesne(OldManDuchesne),withacirculationrunningto200,000,
lardedwithfoulinvective,andJeanPaulMarat'sdailyL'Amidupeuple(The
People'sFriend),bothofwhichcontinuallyincitedthesansculottestoviolence.
Asearlyas1789Marathaddeclared:Thepoliticalmachinecanonlybewound
upbyviolence,justastheaircanonlybeclearedbywords(Vovelle,1984,p.
209).Objectsofattackincludedtheusualtargetsaristocratsandpriestsand
increasinglytheroyalfamilyandalsoextendedtotheactivecitizenswho
supportedandadministeredthenewFrancetheauthoritiesandmembersofthe
NationalAssembly.

InfightingincreasedintheAssemblyandradicalisedit.ByMay1792the
AssemblywasfallingundertheinfluenceoftheJacobinsandotherextreme
factionssuchastheGirondins,whodecreedthedeportationofnonjuringpriests
andthedeathsentenceforcounterrevolutionarymigrs.InJunetheAssembly
calledforalevyof20,000volunteerstodefendParisfromitsenemiesathome
andabroad.Whenthekingvetoedthemeasure,theGirondinscalledformass
demonstrationsoutsidetheTuileries.Anarmedcrowdofsansculottesbrokeinto
thepalaceandforcedLouistoweartheredcapofliberty.On10Augustabody
ofsansculottes,nationalguardsandotherssackedtheTuileries.Theking's600
Swissguards,whomLouisorderednottofireonthecrowd,weremassacred.The
royalfamilytookrefugeintheAssembly,fromwheretheyweretransferred,as
prisoners,toasecurefortressinParis.Thecauseofconstitutionalmonarchywas
drownedinviolenceandbloodshed.

4.3Birthoftherepublic:war,civilwarandterror

Afterthechurchandmonarchy,warwasthethirdgreatpolarizingissueofthe
Revolution(Doyle,2001,p.50).WithadeclarationbytheAssemblyinJuly
1792oflapatrieendanger(thefatherlandindanger),PrussiantroopsonFrench
soilinAugust,andthefalloftheborderfortressofVerduninSeptember,there
wasmasspanicinParis,withaccusationsoftreacheryagainstthekingand
queen,Lafayette(whofledabroad),aristocratsandpriests.IntheSeptember
massacre,some1,400priestsandsuspectedcounterrevolutionarieswere
draggedfromprisonbyrampagingsansculottes,andtogetherwithcommon
criminalsandprostituteswerewantonlybutchered.LePreDuchesneeggedon
theperpetrators,whiletheministerofjustice,GeorgesDanton(175994),did
nothing.TheFrenchRevolution,antinoblealmostfromthestart,hadalso
turnedanticlerical,antimonarchicaland(withtheSeptembermassacres)
terroristic(Doyle,1999,p.xv).

On20September1792,underpressurefromRobespierreandtheJacobins,the
LegislativeAssemblywasreplacedbyaNationalConvention.(Thetermwas
takenfromtheConstitutionalConventionwhichdrewuptheUSConstitutionin
1787.)Thesignificanceofthisappearedtwodayslater,whentheConvention
dulydecreedtheabolitionofthemonarchyandthecreationoftheFrench
Republicwithanewconstitution.Theoretically,thelegislaturewasnowforthe
firsttimeinmodernhistoryelectedbyuniversalmalesuffrage.Inpractice,
onlyonetenthoftheelectoratethesansculottesventuredtovote.

InJanuary1793LouisXVIwastriedbytheConventionforsocalledcrimes
againstthenation.Addressedbyhissurname(citizenCapet)justlikeanyother
citizen,hewas,byanarrowmajorityvote,sentencedtodeath.Hewas
guillotinedinwhatbecametheplacedelaRevolution(formerlyplaceLouisXV,
nowplacedelaConcorde).MarieAntoinette,longdefamedastheAustrian
bitchonsuspicionofschemingforAustria'sinterests,wasguillotinedin
October.Again,theRevolutionmadeaviolentbreakwiththeFrenchpastandin
doingsoissuedadefiantchallengetotherestofEurope.InDanton'swords,
FrancethrewdownitsgauntlettoEurope,andthatgauntletwastheheadofa
king(quotedinDoyle,1989,p.4;Figure4shows,beneaththeseveredheadof
LouisXVI,thewordsfromtheMarseillaise:Letimpurebloodwaterour
furrows.Thecaptionreads:Monday21January1793at10.15a.m.ontheplace
delaRevolutionformerlycalledplaceLouisXV.Thetyrantfellbeneaththe
swordofthelaws.Thisgreatactofjusticeappalledthearistocracy,destroyedthe
superstitionofroyalty,andcreatedtherepublic.Itstampsagreatcharacteronthe
NationalConventionandrendersitworthyoftheconfidenceoftheFrenchIn
vaindidanaudaciousfactionandsomeinsidiousoratorsexhaustallthe
resourcesofcalumny,charlatanismandchicane;thecourageoftherepublicans
triumphed:themajorityoftheConventionremainedunshakeableinits
principles,andthegeniusofintrigueyieldedtothegeniusofLibertyandthe
ascendancyofvirtue.Extractfromthe3rdletterofMaximilienRobespierreto
hisconstituents(trans.Lentin)).
Figure4:Villeneuve,Matirerflectionpourlesjongleurscouronnees
(Matterforthoughtforcrownedtwisters),1793,engraving,Bibliothque
nationaledeFrance,Paris

Attitudesbecamestillmorepolarised.TheConventionorganizedadetermined
resistancetoforeigninvasion,combinedwithactionagainstthoseinFrancestill
loyaltothecauseofmonarchy.By1793Francewasnotonlyatwarwithmostof
theEuropeanstates,awarwhichcontinueduntil1799,butalsoinastateof
virtualcivilwarandwithintensifiedcivilwarcamemountingviolenceand
extremism.Figure5showstheinvasionpointsoftheFirstCoalitionagainst
France(Austria,Prussia,Holland,Britain,SpainandthekingdomofSardinia)
andthelocationsofinternalresistancetotheRevolutionin17923.Therewere
twokeycentresoflongtermresistance:theroyalistinsurgents,knownasthe
Chouans,ofNormandyandBrittany,andamassiveuprisingintheVendee
southoftheLoirein1793.

Fromthistime,untiltheenemiesofFrancehavebeenexpelledfromtheterritory
oftheRepublic,allFrenchmenareinastateofpermanentrequisitionforthe
army.

(AnthologyI,p.90)
Figure5:Therepublicunderinternalandexternalattack,1793.Photo:
MarcBouloiseau,TheJacobinRepublic17921794,CambridgeUniversity
Press,1983

SobeganthedecreeontheLeveenmasseissuedbytheConventioninAugust
1793,acompulsorycallupof750,000men(allsinglemenaged1825)andthe
harnessingofallhumanandmaterialresources.Itwasineffectadeclarationof
totalwar(Blanning,2000,p.253),whichunleashedenthusiasticsupportfrom
theforcesofpopularradicalisminParisandelsewherenotablythesans
culottesandprovokedarmedresistancefromtheforcesofcounterrevolutionin
theVendeeandaroundBordeaux,LyonsandMarseilles.TheMediterraneanport
ofToulon,occupiedbytheBritishfleet,defectedtotheBritish.ByAugust1793,
60departments,orthreequartersofthetotal,weredeclaredtobeinastateof
rebellion.

TheGirondins,whodominatedtheConventionfromSeptember1792,were
oustedinMay1793bytheJacobinsunderRobespierrewiththehelpof80,000
armedsansculottes.AfurtherconstitutionwasintroducedinJune1793,more
democraticthanthatof1791,butitwassuspendedforthedurationofthewar.
ThetwelvemonthsfromJuly1793toJuly1794wereknownastheperiodofwar
government,revolutionarygovernment,orsimplytheTerror.Realpowerwas
vestedinasocalledCommitteeofPublicSafety,ineffectawarcabinetof12
membersoftheConvention.TheCommitteetookdirectchargeofmobilising
France'smaterialandhumanresources,fixingwagesandprices,callingupand
provisioningthearmyanderadicatinginternalopposition.

4.4Theguillotine

Thenewsystemofdepartmentsintroducedin1790removedthemanydiffering
andoftenoverlappingjurisdictionsofOldRegimeFranceandreplacedthem
withauniformsystemofjustice.Eachdepartmenthaditsowncriminalcourt,
eachdistrictacivilcourt.Allcriminalcasesweretobetriedbyjury,another
revolutionaryinnovation.EnlightenmentthinkersincludingMontesquieuand
VoltairehadcriticizedthearbitrarinessandbrutalityofpenalpracticeinOld
RegimeFrance.Judicialtortureasameansofexactingevidenceincriminal
proceedingsandtortureingeneralnotablythehorrificpenaltyofbreakingon
thewheel(sufferedin1762bytheinnocentJeanCalas,whosecausehadbeen
takenupbyVoltaire)wereabolishedinOctober1789.Thereremainedthe
questionofcapitalpunishmentitself.TheLegislativeAssemblyresolvedbya
narrowmajoritytoretainthedeathpenaltyandadoptedtheguillotineasthe
instrumentofexecution,followingareportfromDrLouis,secretaryofthe
AcademyofSurgeonsandauthorofthearticleDeathintheEncyclopdie.

TheDecreeonthedeathpenalty

ViewdocumentaboutTheDecreeonthedeathpenalty
Exercise7

Nowreadthedecreeconcerningthedeathpenalty,March1792(AnthologyI,
p.879).WhydidtheAssemblyapprovetheguillotine?

Nowreadthediscussion

Theadoptionoftheguillotinewasanotherexampleoflegalandsocialequalityin
action.Noblemanandcommonmurderersufferedthesamepenalty,andboth
wereexecutedpublicly.Thekingandqueenwereguillotinedintheyearafter
thisdecree.TheguillotinewasnamedafterDrGuillotin,amemberofthe
ConstituentAssembly,whoenthusedovertheinstrumentasasymbolofthe
penal,technologicalandhumanitarianprogressinspiredbytheEnlightenment.

4.5Thesansculotteasrevolutionaryhero

Revolutionarysymbolism(whichwenotedearlierwithreferencetothe
DeclarationoftheRightsofMan)extendedtoclothing:thewearingofthe
tricolourcockadewasmadecompulsoryformenbyadecreeofJuly1792.The
redcapoflibertybecamethenormalheadgearofthesansculottes,now
officiallyidealizedasheroesofthepeople.

Plate1showsanactordressedasasansculotte,carryingthetricolourbanner(on
whichisemblazonedthesloganlibertyordeath)atthefestivaloflibertyin
SavoyinOctober1792.(SavoyhadjustbeenannexedtoFrance.)Thepole
supportingthebannermaybeintendedtosuggestapike,aweaponassociated
withthesansculottes.Robespierrecalleditasacredweapon(Vovelle,1984,
p.218).

Boilly'sportraitofthesansculottes

ViewdocumentaboutBoilly'sportraitofthesansculottes

Exercise8

WhatothersignscanyoudetectinBoilly'sportraitofthesansculotte(Plate1)
thatdifferentiatehimfromanaristocratichero?

Nowreadthediscussion

ThearticleWhatisasansculotte?,publishedin1793,wasakindofJacobin
counterparttoSieyes'sWhatistheThirdEstate?
Embodimentofthecommonman,thesansculottewasheldoutinJacobin
ideologyastheherooftheRevolution,thepersonificationofliberty,equality
andfraternity,thegeneralwillandrepublicanvirtue.Asanegalitarian,the
sansculottemadeapointofaddressingeveryone,includingdeputiesand
officials,ascitoyen(citizenanyonesayingmonsieurormadamewasliableto
fallfouloftheLawofSuspects,1793),andofusingthefamiliarsecondperson
singulartunotthepoliteformvous.

Thesansculottewasanavowedpoliticalactivistandmilitant.Hisduty,as
defenderoftheRevolution,wastomaintainanatmosphereofconstantvigilance
andsuspicion,andifnecessarytoresorttoviolenceandterror.Thesansculottes
werechampionedbyMaratinL'AmidupeupleandbyHbert,whourgedinLe
PreDuchesne:Toyourpikes,goodsansculottes!Sharpenthemupto
exterminatethearistocrats(Vovelle,1984,p.219).Itwasthesansculotteswho
attendedtherevolutionarywatchcommittees(theymadeupsomethreequarters
ofthepersonnel,Rud,1966,p.150).Thoughoftenbarelyliterate(Williams,
1989,p.30),theyissued(orrefused)certificatesofgoodcitizenship(certificats
decivisme)todistinguishgoodcitizens(revolutionaries)fromenemiesofthe
people.

Thesansculotteswereassociatedbytheirenemieswiththestreetmobexcesses
oftheRevolution:theheadsonpikes,thestringingsuponlampposts,the
Septembermassacres,thecastrationbyfrenziedwomenriotersofthecorpsesof
theSwissguards,thetricoteuses(womenknittingaroundtheguillotineasthe
headsrolled).Itwaspoeticjusticethat,ofthosewhohadeggedonthesans
culottes,MaratwasassassinatedbyCharlotteCordayin1793(hisdeathbecame
thesubjectofahagiographicpicturebyJacquesLouisDavidseePlate2),
whileHebertfellfoulofRobespierreandwasguillotinedin1794.

Plate2:JacquesLouisDavid,TheDeathofMarat1793,oiloncanvas,160.7
x124.8cm,MusesroyauxdesBeauxArtsdeBelgique,Brussels.Photo:
Giraudon/BridgemanArtLibrary

ViewdocumentaboutPlate2:JacquesLouisDavid,TheDeathofMarat1793,
oiloncanvas,160.7x124.8cm,MusesroyauxdesBeauxArtsdeBelgique,
Brussels.Photo:Giraudon/BridgemanArtLibrary

4.6TheTerrorinaction

TheyearofauthorisedstateterrorfromJuly1793toJuly1794wastheclimactic
yearoftheRevolution(Palmer,1971,p.113).UndertheCommitteeofPublic
Safety,nowincludingRobespierre,revolutionarytribunals,backedinevery
communebyarevolutionarycommitteeorwatchcommittee(comitde
surveillance),weresetupthroughoutFrance,staffedbymembersofthelocal
Jacobinclubsandthesansculottestorootoutcounterrevolutionaries,realand
supposed.DeputiesoftheConventionweresentintotheprovincesas
representativesonmissiontoenforcetheordersandreassertthecontrolbythe
centralgovernmentwhichhadbeendevolvedwhenthedepartmentswerecreated
in1790.Therightsofmanweresuspended.Anyoneseekingpublic
employmenthadtoapplytothewatchcommitteeforacertificatdecivismeas
proofofideologicalsoundness.Possessionofacertificatebecamevirtually
mandatoryundertheLawofSuspectsofSeptember1793,whichauthorized
indefiniteimprisonmentwithouttrial.Itisreckonedthathalfamillionmenand
womenweredetainedunderit(Jones,1988,p.115).

AdecreeofJune1794introducedbyRobespierredeclaredthatthetribunalis
institutedtopunishtheenemiesofthepeople(Furet,1996,p.146).TheLawof
Suspectsdefinedenemiesofthepeopleunderacatchalldescriptionasthose
whoshowedthemselvestobepartisansoftyrannyandenemiesofliberty.
Suspectswereaccused,triedandexecutedinbatches.Therewasnoappeal
againstsentence.Theaccusedweredeprivedoftherighttobedefendedby
counselandtocallwitnesses.Tobeaccusedwasasgoodastobecondemned;
convictionratesrosefrom30percentto70percent,andtheRevolutionbeganto
devouritsownmenwhohadplayedaleadingpartineventssince1789,
particularlytheGirondins.JacobinssuchasDantonandCamilleDesmoulins
(176094),whotriedtostemthetideofterror,werethemselvesdenouncedby
Robespierreandcondemnedtodeath.

BetweenSeptember1793andJuly1794perhaps17,000peopleweresentenced
todeathbyrevolutionarytribunalsandexecuted,threequartersforalleged
counterrevolution.85percentofthoseguillotinedwerecommonersratherthan
noblesRobespierredenounced'thebourgeoisieinJune1793butin
proportiontotheirnumber,noblesandclergysufferedmost.Some1,200nobles
wereexecuted.AmongthelastvictimsoftheTerrorwerethecelebratedchemist
AntoineLavoisier(174394)andthepoetAndrChnier(176294).The
EnlightenmentphilosopherCondorcet(174394),wholaidthefoundationsofa
systemofuniversaleducationdecreedin1793,andwhoproclaimedhisfaithin
humanity'sfutureinaneloquentSketchontheProgressoftheHumanMind
(1793),committedsuicidewhileawaitingexecution.Including1012,000
summaryexecutionswithouttrial,especiallyinwesternFrance,andanother10
12,000deathsinprisonamongthosedetainedforrevolutionaryoffences,atotal
ofaround3540,000seemsalikelytollofthosewhoperishedundertheTerror
(Bouloiseau,1983,pp.21011;Jones,1988,p.115).Thefarewelllettersof
OlympedeGougesandAmableClementattesttotheindiscriminatesavageryof
theTerror.(Thereisapresumptioninfavourofthetruthofdeathbed
statements.)Thevictimsprotesttheirinnocence,patriotismandloyaltytothe
principlesof1789.

Robespierrewasforemostinwhippinguppassionsforacampaignof
exterminationagainstcounterrevolution.InParis1,376peoplewereguillotined
insevenweeksinJuneandJuly1794thesocalledGreatTerrormorethan
inthepreceding15months.InLyonsthereweremassexecutionsbyfiringsquad
becausetheguillotinewasconsideredtooslow(takingaroundtwominutesper
victim).IntheVendeeregiontherepresentativeonmissionauthorizedmass
drowningsintheRiverLoireandadecreewasimplementedorderingnothing
lessthanthedestructionoftheVendee(Furet,1996,p.139).Rebellious
MarseillesandLyonswererenamedrespectivelyCitywithoutnameand
LiberatedCity(villeaffranchie).

FranoisFuretseestheTerrorasmorethanthesuppressionofpolitical
oppositionbytheJacobineliteinpower:thefinalGreatTerrorwasunleashed
whenitwasalreadyclearthattheRevolutionwasemergingvictoriousagainstits
internalandforeignenemies.TheTerror,Furetargues,waspartofa
revolutionaryphilosophy,ultimatelyinspiredbytheEnlightenment.Itsfollowers
notonlybelievedintheperfectibilityofmanandtheregenerationofsocietyon
newlines,butinthatcauseandinthenameofthepeoplealsobelieved
themselvesjustifiedinextirpatingthroughterrorallwhostoodinthewayof
thatvision.MmeRoland,wifeoftheGirondinleader,and,likehim,avictimof
theTerror,exclaimedfromthescaffold:OLiberty,whatcrimesarecommitted
inyourname!(GrandDictionnaireEncyclopdiqueLarousse,1985,p.284).

5Enlightenment,universalismandrevolution

5.1Revolutionarycalendarandmetricsystem

Weconsideredearliertheuniversalistprinciplesof1789derivingfromthe
EnlightenmentthatinspiredtheDeclarationoftheRightsofManandthe
redivisionofFranceintodepartments.AsthedominantgroupintheConvention
by1793,theJacobinsregardedthemselvesasmandatedtoenactthegeneral
willofthepeopleinasenseinspiredbyRousseau:notastheaggregateweight
oftheindividualaspirationsof28millionFrenchmen,butastheexpressionof
thatwhich,asvirtuousmenandcitizens,Frenchmenoughttowant.Always
confidentoftheirownunderstandingofthegeneralwill,theJacobinsaimedto
shapepublicconsciousnessandtopropelitingivendirectionsthroughartand
themedia.AtthelowestlevelcamethedistributiontothearmyofLePre
Duchesnetostimulatethefightingmen'srevolutionaryardour.
TheJacobinsrevolutionisedtimeitself.InOctober1793theConventiondecreed
theintroductionoftherevolutionarycalendarbasedona10dayweek(and
originallyevena10hourday)andayearof12monthsofequallength(30days
each,towhichextradayswereaddedattheendoftheyear).

Exercise9

ExaminePlate3headedCalendrierpourl'anIIIdelaRpubliqueFranaise
(CalendarforyearIIIoftheFrenchRepublic).Whydoyousuppose1795
becameyearIII'?

Nowreadthediscussion

Plate3:CalendarforYearIIIoftheFrenchRepublic,Bibliothque
NationaledeFrance,Paris

ViewdocumentaboutPlate3:CalendarforYearIIIoftheFrenchRepublic,
BibliothqueNationaledeFrance,Paris

Thenewcalendarwasintroducedin1793afterthereplacementofthemonarchy
bytherepublic.Theyear1792wasretrospectivelyrenamedyearItomarka
neweraintheevolutionofmankinddatingfromtheestablishmentofthe
republic,andtheyearbeganon22September,thedateofthefoundingofthe
republic.Datesbefore1792including1789itselfwereexpressedas,for
example,theyear1789oftheOldRegime(ancienrgime).Toadeputywho
arguedthatyearIshouldbe1789ratherthan1792,anotherdeputyreplied,to
applause:Wehavebeenfreeonlysincewehavenolongerhadaking(Furet,
1996,p.117).Thecultoftherepublic,asHampsonputsit,wasbecoming
somethingofareligioninitsownright(1981,p.20).

Namesforthenewmonthswereinventedtocorrespondwithnaturalphenomena,
climaticandagricultural.AutumnconsistedofthemonthsVendmiaire,
BrumaireandFrimaire,tosignifyrespectivelyharvest,mistandcold.Thewinter
monthswerenamedNivse,PluviseandVentse,monthsofsnow,rainand
wind.Thethreespringmonthssignifiedseedtime,floweringtimeandmeadow
Germinal,FloralandPrairialfollowedbythesummermonthsofMessidor,
ThermidorandFructidor,orsummerharvest,heatandsummerfruit.Britons
scornedtherevolutionarycalendar.Asatiricalcontemporarytranslationran:
Slippy,Nippy,Drippy;Freezy,Wheezy,Sneezy;Showery,Flowery,Bowery;
Heaty,Wheaty,Sweety(Doyle,2001,pp.11617).Thecalendarwasintendedto
beuniversal,butthenamesofthenewmonthswereinappropriateforthe
southernhemisphere,whichiscoldduringthehotmonthofThermidor.
Thenewcalendarlasteduntil1806.The10hourdaywasparticularlyshortlived.
The10dayweek,witharestdayoccurringonlyonthetenthday(Dcadi)
insteadofontheseventh,wasnotpopular!Norwastherenamingofthe
weekdayspopular(Primidi,Duodi,Tridi,i.e.firstday,secondday,thirdday),or
thereplacementofsaintsdaysbydaysnamedafteragriculturalandbotanical
terms(25November,StCatherine'sday,becamethedayofthepig).

Whatcharacterisesthesedefiantlyutopianreformsistheradicalbreakwiththe
past,theapplicationofnatural,mathematicalanduniversalprinciplesthatwould
(inthewordsofthepoetFabred'Eglantine,whodevisedthenamesofthe
months)enlightentheentirehumanrace(Kennedy,1989,p.348).Similar
thinkinglaybehindthemetricsystemofweightsandmeasures,introducedby
decreein1795,withitsdivisionsandsubdivisionsintounitsoften.Itwas
intendedtoreplacethemultiplicityofweightsandmeasurescurrentinOld
RegimeFrance,aboutwhichcomplaintswerecommoninthecahiersde
dolancesof1789,andtobebasedonconceptsofuniversal,albeitFranco
centric,validity.ThearcofthemeridianfromtheNorthPoletotheequator,
measuredattheParisObservatory,becamethebasisofthemetre.Areaand
volumewerefixedbysquaringandcubingthemetre,andweightwascalculated
inunitsofacubicdecimetreofwater.

Likethenewcalendar,themetricsystemwashailedbyonememberofthe
ConventionasabenefittohumanityworthyoftheGreatNation(Grande
Nation)towhomitbelongsandofothercivilisedpeople,whoarealsoprobably
destinedtoadoptitsoonerorlater(Kennedy,1989,p.79).Themetricsystem
wasindeedspreadbytherevolutionaryarmiesacrossmostofcontinental
Europe,whereithasbecomestandard.

5.2ThecultoftheRevolution

Withthesuppressionofaristocrats,royalistsandcounterrevolutionarypriests
cameaculturalrevolutionagainstsymbolsandmonumentsoftheOldRegime,
themonarchyandtheCatholicChurch(seeFigure6,below).Freedomof
religionwasdecreedin1793.TheAbbeyofStDenisoutsideParis,burialplace
oftheFrenchkingssincethesixthcentury,wasdespoiledofitscorpses.The
bodiesofHenriIV,LouisXIV,LouisXVandothersweretossedintoacommon
grave.Royalstatuesandemblemsweredemolishedorvandalized(theword
wasinventedin1794).Suchdeliberatedestructionanddesecrationsuggest,
again,adesireliterallytorootoutthepastandbeginagain.
Figure6:JosephChinard,LaRaisonsouslestraitsd'Apollonfoulantaux
piedslaSuperstition(Reason,inthepersonofApollo,treadingSuperstition
underfoot),1791,terracottamodel,51.5x13.3x12cm,Louvre,Paris.
Photo:RMN/C.Jean

JosephChinard'sLaRaisonsouslestraitsd'Apollonfoulantauxpiedsla
Superstition(Reason,inthepersonofApollo,treadingSuperstitionunderfoot)
(Figure6)depictsApollo,thesungod,theraysofthesunstreamingfromhis
head,stridingacrossacloudbearingatorch.Superstition,inanun'shabitand
veiled,isunabletoseethetruelight.Superstitionholdstwosacredemblemsof
Christianity,thecrossandthechalice.Chinard,whowasthenattheFrench
Academy(ofart)inRome,wasforatimeimprisonedbythepapalauthorities,
almostcertainlybecauseofhisblasphemoustreatmentofChristianemblems.(I
amgratefulforthisinformationtoDrLindaWalsh.)
Mostchurcheswerecloseddown,thesansculottesmakingsureofthat.Place
nameswerechanged.ThetownofStPierreleMoutier(StPeter'sMonastery)
becameBrutusleMagnanime(BrutustheMagnanimous).Montmartrebecame
MontMarat.Around1,400Parisstreetswererenamed:theruedesvierges
(virginsstreet)becomingtherueVoltaireandtheleSaintLouischangedtothe
ledelaFraternit.TherewasaruedelaLibertandaruedel'galite.Even
Christiannames,strictlysocalled,werediscouragedinfavourofthenamesof
heroesofrepublicanRomeorprecursorsoftheRevolution:JeanJacques(after
Rousseau)ratherthanJoseph.MenchristenedLouistendedtochangetheirname.

AlternativestoRomanCatholicismwereencouragedbytheinstitutionof
revolutionarypublicfestivalswiththeirownsymbolismreplacingChristian
festivalsandsaintsdays.Therevolutionaries,likethethinkersofthe
Enlightenment,eveniftheybelievedinGod,weremostlydoubtfulaboutthe
realityofanafterlife,andtheyfelttheneedforasecularalternativethatwould
glorifythenamesofthosewhohadcontributedtotheprogressofhumanityby
immortalizingtheminthenation'scollectivememory.Diderothadwrittenthat
posteritywasforthephilosophewhatheavenwasforthebeliever.Thiswas
appliedliterallyin1791whenthechurchofSainteGenevieveinParisbecame
thePantheon(templeofallthegods),rededicatedasafinalrestingplaceforthe
greatmenofthenation.Theinscriptionontheporticoreads:Auxgrands
hommeslapatriereconnaissante(toitsgreatmenthegratefulfatherland).Here
theremainsofVoltairewhosenamepersonifiedtheEnlightenmentasnone
otherwereceremoniallyreburiedinJuly1791inafestivaldecoratedwith
floatsdesignedbytheartistJacquesLouisDavidandaccompaniedbybrassand
massedchoirssingingtheanthemPeuple,veilletoi!(People,awake!)underthe
directionofitscomposer,FranoisJosephGossec.InOctober1794theremains
ofRousseauwerelikewisetransferredtothePantheonwithsimilarpomp.Thus
whileLouisXVIwasdecapitatedandthebodiesofhisBourbonancestorswere
wantonlydesecrated,thoseofthetwobestknownfiguresoftheEnlightenment
werereconsecratedashallowedrelicsoftheprophetsoftheRevolution.In
November1793themetropolitancathedralofNotreDamewasrededicatedasthe
TempleofReason.

InMay1794theConventionpassedadecreeintroducingthecultoftheSupreme
Being.ThisrepresentedthetriumphofthedeisttrendoftheEnlightenment.Men
mightbescepticalofaparticularist,sectarianconceptofaChristiangod,butthat
didnotnecessarilylessenfaithintheSupremeBeingofanaturalreligion.The
climaxcameinJune1794withtheFestivaloftheSupremeBeing,publicly
celebratedbyRobespierre.

TheexampleofPariswasswiftlyfollowedthroughoutFrance.On19December
1793,withinsixweeksoftherededicationofNotreDameinParis,thecommune
ofAubenasinthedepartmentoftheArdechehelditsownfestivaltocelebrate
thepreciousbenefitsoftheRevolutionandtheabolitionoftheabusesofa
hatefulregime,rememberedonlywithhorror(Charay,1990,p.195;trans.
Lentin).ItwasalsoagreedthatinordertoimmortalizethememoryofMarat,
thefriendofthepeople,therewillbeanapotheosis(thegrantingofdivineor
elevatedstatus)onthedayoftheFestivalofReason,inhonourofthemartyrof
liberty(Charay,1990,p.195).MarattoowasburiedinthePantheon.

In1795theCatholicChurchinFranceasreorganizedundertheCivil
ConstitutionwasformallyseparatedfromthestatebydecreeoftheConvention.
TheepisodeofdeChristianizationwasnotlonglived,butitwassignificantof
theutopianismwhichinspiredmanyrevolutionariesandwhichderived
ultimatelyfromtheEnlightenment.Inparticular,thisutopianismcamefrom
Rousseau:abeliefinregeneratedman,thepeopleandhumanity,areturnto
thesupposedvirtuesofSpartaorrepublicanRome(seeFigure7).Itwas
accompaniedbytheritualdemonizationofroyalists,noblesandpriestsas
enemiesofthepeople.
Figure7:JacquesLouisPre,RegeneratedManGivesThankstothe
SupremeBeing,17945,41.5x29cm,BibliothquenationaledeFrance,
Paris.WithonehandheholdsuptheRightsofMan;intheotherhewieldsa
mattock.BeneathhisfeetliestheaxedtreeoftheOldRegime,thedebrisof
aristocraticprivilegeandluxury.Ashaftoflightningsearsacrown

Ideasofregenerationandreconstructionreceivedfurtherimpetusduringthe
RevolutionaryWars,inwhich,forexample,thecityofLilleneartheBelgian
frontierwasdamaged.PlansforrebuildingdrewonthecultoftheRevolution,on
Rousseau,andonrepublicanidealswiththeirstrongclassicalassociations.These
idealswereeloquentlyexpressedbyRobespierreinhisspeechtotheConvention
of5February1794(AnthologyI,pp.989):

Nowwhatisthefundamentalprincipleofdemocraticorpopulargovernment,
thatistosay,theessentialforcethatmaintainsandinspiresit?Itisvirtue:Iam
speakingofpublicvirtue,whichbroughtaboutsomanywondersinGreeceand
Rome,andwhichmustproduceevenmoreastoundingonesinrepublicanFrance.

Foranexampleofthereinterpretationofrepublicanidealsinarchitecture,see
Plate4(Verly'sdesignforapublicbathandtheatreinLille).Thisdesignrecalls
thepublicbuildingsandmonumentsofancientRome(bathsandtheatre,
obelisks,equestrianstatues).TheRomanrepublicwascentraltotheconceptofa
modernrepublicoffreeandequalcitizensinspiredbypublicvirtue.Thedesign
isseverelyclassical:symmetricalwitharchesandcolumns.(Forotherclassically
inspiredrepublicansymbolsseePlates4and5.)

Plate4:FranoisVerly,viewoftheproposedpublicbathandtheatreinLille,
MusedesBeauxArts,Lille.Photo:RMN/QuecqdHenripret

ViewdocumentaboutPlate4:FranoisVerly,viewoftheproposedpublicbath
andtheatreinLille,MusedesBeauxArts,Lille.Photo:RMN/Quecq
dHenripret

Plate5:Quatremre,groupwithlaPatrieinthecentrefortheeasternnaveof
thePantheon,1793,BibliothqueNationaledeFrance,Paris

ViewdocumentaboutPlate5:Quatremre,groupwithlaPatrieinthecentrefor
theeasternnaveofthePantheon,1793,BibliothqueNationaledeFrance,Paris
Plate6:JosephChinard,basreliefforthecityhallinLyon,6.4x5.4x3cm,
MusedesBeauxArtsdeLyon.Photo:StudioBasset

ViewdocumentaboutPlate6:JosephChinard,basreliefforthecityhallin
Lyon,6.4x5.4x3cm,MusedesBeauxArtsdeLyon.Photo:StudioBasset

5.3TheMarseillaise

DuringtheRevolutionaryWars,asRobespierreinsisted,republicanenthusiasm
mustbeexaltedbyallmeanspossible.TheJacobinsencouragedarevolutionary
solidarityandpatriotism,expressedinthesloganLiberty,Equality,Fraternity.
TheMarseillaisebeganasthebattlehymnofthearmyoftheRhine,composed
byRougetdeLisleinApril1792immediatelyafterFrancedeclaredwaron
FrancisofAustria.Itacquireditsnamewhenabattalionofvolunteersfrom
MarseillesreachedParisinJuly1792.ItbecametheanthemoftheRevolution,
andthenationalanthembyadecreeoftheConventionin1795.Achoralversion
withorchestralaccompanimentbyGossecwasperformedattheParisOpera130
timesbetween1792and1799(Hemmings,1987,p.51).Youwillalmost
certainlybefamiliarwithitstune.(Youcanhearafewbarsfromitintheaudio
clipstowardstheendofthisunitonBritainandtheFrenchRevolution.)Itis
livelyandrousing,magnificentlyevocative,asSimonSchamasays,ofthe
comradeshipofcitizensinarms(Schama,1989,p.598).Whataboutthewords?

ThelyricsoftheMarseillaise

ViewdocumentaboutThelyricsoftheMarseillaise

Exercise10

ReadthewordsoftheMarseillaise.Howwouldyoucharacterisethem?

Nowreadthediscussion

InthedynasticwarsoftheOldRegime,bloodyastheywere,monarchsdidnot
normallyencouragepersonalhatredoftheenemy.TheRevolutionaryWarswere
embitteredbyideologicalzeal.Bytraitorsandconspiringkings,theauthor
hadinmindLouisXVIandhismigrsupportersaswellascounter
revolutionarymonarchsabroad.Atthesametime,thewordsweregeneral
enoughtoserveforFrance'svariousenemiesthroughouttheRevolutionaryWars,
andtheimpurebloodoftheinvaderswasidentified(inFigure4)withtheblood
oftheexecutedLouisXVI.
Figure4:Villeneuve,Matirerflectionpourlesjongleurscouronnees
(Matterforthoughtforcrownedtwisters),1793,engraving,Bibliothque
nationaledeFrance,Paris.BeneaththeseveredheadofLouisXVIarethe
wordsfromtheMarseillaise

Theproclamationof1792topeopleofBelgiumcontainsthesamelanguageof
incitement.TheBelgiansareinvitedtodefecttoFranceinthecauseofliberation
fromtyranny(theHabsburgemperor).
6TheThermidorianSettlementandtheendoftheRevolution

InThermidor(July)1794therewasafurtherpoliticalcoup,thistimeengineered
bydeputiesintheConventionwhofeltthatJacobinfanaticism,mobviolenceand
bloodshedhadgotwildlyoutofhandandfearedfortheirownlives.They
succeededinoutmanoeuvringRobespierre,whowasarrestedand(afterabotched
suicideattempt)guillotinedtogetherwithover100otherJacobins.The
Thermidoriansthenputastoptoshowtrialsandbloodletting.Theyalsocalledin
thearmytoputdownthesansculottes:forthefirsttimesince1789the
authoritiesfelttheycouldrelyonsoldierstorestoredomesticorder(Doyle,
2001,p.59).WhentheParissansculottestwicetooktothestreetsin1795,they
wereruthlesslysuppressed.TheslaughtercontinuedinasocalledWhiteTerror
(socalledfromthewhiteflagoftheBourbons)bycounterrevolutionariesin
Lyons,NmesandMarseillesavengingthemselvesontheirformerpersecutors.

Yetanotherconstitutionwasintroducedin1795whichdismantledthe
dictatorshipoftheTerrorandestablishedarulingexecutivecommittee,or
Directory,offiveandabicamerallegislatureconsistingofaCouncilof500and
anupperhouse,orCouncilofEldersorAncients.Eligibilityforpublicoffice
wasrestrictedtosome30,000menofproperty.FrancoisBoissyd'Anglas(1756
1826),whodrewuptheconstitution,equatedacountryruledbyproperty
ownerswithrulebythebestthosewithmosteducation,concernedwithlaw
andorder(Hampson,1969,p.118).Thefranchiseoffourandahalfmillionmale
taxpayerswasnonethelessstillthewidestinEurope.

InthewordsofRichardCobb,1795wasthedecisiveyearofthewhole
revolutionaryperiod,foritwasbasicallytheThermidorianSettlementthat
survivedintotheRestauration[Bourbonrestorationof1815](Cobb,1970,p.
197).ThemainbeneficiariesoftheRevolutionwereinabroadsensebourgeois,
buttheywerealandowningbourgeoisie,whohadboughtuplandmadeavailable
bythesequestrationofchurchproperty,notanentrepreneurialbourgeoisie.The
Revolutionwasdisastroustotradeandindustry,andamercantileandindustrial
bourgeoisiedidnotcomeintoitsowninFrancebeforethe1830s.Menofmeans
whoqualifiedforthefranchisethatispropertyownersandthosewithmost
educationincludedmembersofthenobility,whoreemergedafterThermidor.
Themenof1789includednobleswhohadjoinedwiththeThirdEstateand
willinglyjettisonedtheirprivileges,andwhileeventsafter1789haddrivenmany
noblesabroad,themigrsconstitutednomorethan7to8percentoftheFrench
nobility.Mostnoblesremained,survivedtheTerror,participatedinandeven
benefitedfromtheRevolutionforexample,asgeneralsduringthe
RevolutionaryWars.Bytheturnofthecentury,mostofthewealthiest
landownersinFrancewerestillthenoblesoftheOldRegime(Blanning,1987,
p.55).

TheenergiesoftheFrenchpeopleasawholeweredirectedintospreadingthe
Revolutionabroad.AsGwynneLewisputsit:after1795,theFrenchRevolution
continued,butwearingamilitaryuniformandwithouttheactivesupportofthe
masses(Lewis,1993,p.52).Insofarasthemasseswereidentifiedwiththe
excessesofthesansculottes,therulingclassesweregladtoseethemputintheir
place.

In1799afreshconstitutionentrustedsupremepowertooneofthesuccessful
generalswhohadbeenspreadingtheRevolutionbymilitaryconquestinthe
neighbouringstates:NapoleonBonaparte.Theauthorofthislatestconstitution
wastheabbSieys,whomwemettenyearsearlieratthesummoningofthe
EstatesGeneralasthechampionoftheThirdEstate.Allthatseemedaworld
awaynow,somuchhadhappenedinthemeantime.Sieyswasasked,whatdid
youdoduringtheRevolution?Isurvived,hereplied(Caratini,1988,p.507).
WhatthepropertiedgoverningclassinFrancedesirednowwastoenjoythe
gainswhichtheRevolutionhadbroughtthemandtokeepthemsafefromthe
mobathome,fromcounterrevolutionabroad,andfromthepossibilityofa
restorationoftheOldRegime.Bonapartewouldguaranteetheneworderin
FranceandspreadtheRevolutionabroad,incidentallysecuringFrance'snatural
frontierontheRhine.WithBonaparte'shelpawhiffofgrapeshotthe
lowerchamber,whichhadroyalistleanings,wasdispersedinOctober1795.Ina
coupd'taton18Brumaire(9November)1799,theupperchambersurrendered
powertothreeconsuls,thefirstofwhomwasBonaparte.On15December
BonaparteissuedaproclamationclaimingthattheRevolutionisestablishedon
theprincipleswithwhichitbegan.Itisover(Tulard,1987,p.498).

7Conclusion

7.1TheEnlightenment,theFrenchRevolution,BritainandEurope

Jesuistombparterre,

C'estlafauteVoltaire;

Lenezdansleruisseau,

C'estlafauteRousseau

[I'vetumbledtotheground
thankstoVoltaire;

Withmynoseinthebrook,

thankstoRousseau]

(QuotedinHugo,n.d.,pp.2045;trans.Lentin)

SoranadittypopularaftertheRevolution,whichblameditonVoltaireand
Rousseau.TheideawascommonamongthosehostiletotheRevolution,
includingCatherinetheGreat.Buttheideawasalsolongsharedbyhistorians
thattheRevolutiontookplaceasaresultofthewritingsofthephilosophes,who,
itissaid,underminedconfidenceintheinstitutionsoftheOldRegimeandpaved
thewayforitsoverthrow.

Exercise11

ThenatureoftherelationshipbetweentheEnlightenmentandtheRevolution
remainsacomplexandcontroversialquestion.Withoutgoingintoitindepth
here,youmightusefullyaddressarelatedbutslightlydifferentquestion:howfar
didthephilosophesintendtobringaboutarevolution?

Nowreadthediscussion

Butideasofequalityasconceivedbymostphilosophesweremoralratherthan
politicalininspiration.Whatwasmeantwasthathumanbeings,whether
religiousminoritiesorblackslaves,shouldbetreatedwithhumanity(for
instance,byaccordingfreedomofworshiptotheformerandemancipationtothe
latter),notthatsocialoreconomicdistinctionsshouldbeabolished.Few
philosophesweresocialorpoliticalradicals,andtheyweremostlyopenminded
oreclecticaboutformsofgovernment.Fewwereoutandoutrepublicans
(thoughRousseauexpressedmoreradicalideasonthegoodsociety,
characterisedbyrepublicanvirtue).

Inyourbriefanswer,then,youmayhavesaidsomethingonthefollowinglines:

CertainlytherevolutionarieshailedtheEnlightenmentastheprecursorof
revolution.Thiswassymbolisedbytheceremonialtransferoftheremainsof
VoltaireandRousseautothePantheon.WhetherVoltaireorRousseauwould
haverecognisedtherevolutionthaterupted11yearsaftertheirdeathastheir
legitimateprogenyisdoubtful.NeitherhadcalledfortheoverthrowoftheOld
Regime,stilllessforterrororbloodshed.
Exercise12

AccordingtoR.R.Palmer,theFrenchRevolutionrepresentedtheEnlightenment
inmilitantform(1964,p.355).Statebrieflyhowfaryouagreewiththis
proposition.

Nowreadthediscussion

Broadly,Voltairemaybesaidtohaveinfluencedthefirst,reformist,liberal
phaseoftheRevolutionepitomisedintheDeclarationoftheRightsofMan,
whileRousseau'sfaithinmankind'sinnategoodnessandhisideasofthe
regenerationofsocietybothenhancedthisgeneraloptimismattheoutsetofthe
RevolutionandalsoaffectedleaderslikeRobespierre,attunedashebelieved
himselftobetothegeneralwill,duringitsmoreradicalcourseafter1792.

7.2ThemainconsequencesoftheRevolution

WhatwerethemainconsequencesoftheRevolution?Anyanswerdemandsso
manyqualificationsthatthequestionmaybebestansweredinbroadterms.The
Revolution,saysNormanHampson,putanendtoawayoflife(1975,p.174).
Suddenly,thetraditionalassumptionsoftheOldRegime,theoldcertainties,
weregone,transformed.Newperspectivesandnewexpectationstooktheirplace.
Inthelongrun,NormanDaviesargues,theRevolutionprobablyhadits
greatestimpactintherealmofpureideas(1997,p.713),andtoWilliamDoyle,
therealmessageoftheRevolutionwasthattheworldcouldbechanged;fresh
startscouldbemade(1989,p.8).ThomasPainehadsaidinCommonSenseas
earlyas1776underthestimulusoftheAmericanRevolution:Wehaveitinour
powertobegintheworldoveragain.Heexpressedthesameradicalconviction
withequalconfidencein1791inTheRightsofMan,hisrobustreplytoBurke's
ReflectionsontheRevolutioninFrance.InThePreludeWordsworthrecalled

atimewhenEuropewasrejoiced,

Francestandingonthetopofgoldenhours,

Andhumannatureseemingbornagain.

(ThePrelude,VI.3524)

HowpeoplerespondedtotheRevolutiondeterminedtheshapeoffuturepolitical
discourseinEurope.Broadlyspeaking,therewereprogressivesliberalsand
radicalsontheleft,whoapplaudeditsaimsandachievements(orsomeofthem)
andconservativesontheright,whodidnot.WhatwasthereintheRevolution
toapplaudordeplore?WhatprecedentsandchallengesdiditsettoEuropeasa
whole?

Rulebydivinerightandabsolutemonarchywerechallengedbythe
principleofnationalsovereigntyproclaimedbytheRevolution.The
nation,nottheking,wasrecognizedastheultimatelegitimateand
legitimisingsourceofauthorityintheFrenchstate.Thisbecameexplicit
withtheestablishmentoftherepublicin1792.Writtenconstitutions
introducedarepresentativeassembly,alegislatureelectedbypopular
suffrage.
Ahierarchicalsocietyjuridicallydividedintosocialorders(estates),
headedbyaprivilegednobilitysetapartbybirthandcaste,was
challengedbytheinclusiveconceptofcitizenshipandequalitybeforethe
law.Officesofstatewerethrownopen,theoreticallyatleast,toindividual
merit,andtheturmoilofeventspropellednewmenintopositionsof
authorityinFrance.
TheCatholicChurchasanestateoftherealminaconfessionalstatewas
displacedbytheconceptoftheFrenchnationorpeopleasafocusof
commonallegianceinasecularstate.Churchandstate,identifiedfor
centuries,wereseparated.Freedomofreligionwasestablishedandnon
Catholicsachievedcivicequality.Civilmarriagewasintroducedin1792,
togetherwithdivorceandsomemeasureofgreaterequalitybetweenthe
sexes.
Therightsofman,drawnfromEnlightenmentideals,wereformally
proclaimed.TheFrenchRevolution,asRobespierredeclared,was,sofar
asEuropewasconcerned,thefirstrevolutiontobefoundedonthetheory
oftherightsofhumanity(FuretandOzouf,1988,p.685).
Liberty,equality,fraternity:thesewereamongthepotentrevolutionary
symbolsandideasforwhichpeoplewerewillingtodieandtokill.
Thepeople,thenation,thefatherland,therepublic,citizens,thenationin
arms:thesesloganshadarevolutionarydynamicoftheirown.Underthe
OldRegime,government,especiallyforeignpolicy,wastheprivate
businessofthekingandhisministers.AftertheRevolution,domesticand
foreignpolicywassomethinginwhichcitizenswereencouragedtofeel
theyhadapersonalstakeandacommoninterestaschildrenofthe
fatherland(inthewordsoftheMarseillaise)andmembersofanational
armyofcitizenconscriptsmarchingtothestrainsofanationalanthem.

RevolutionarychangeswereintroducedbytheFrencharmiesintotheterritories
annexedbyFrance.By1799therepublichadincorporatedthepapalenclavesof
AvignonandComtatVenaissin(1791),Savoy(1792),Nice(1793),Belgium
(formerlytheAustrianNetherlands)(1795),theleftbankoftheRhineand
Geneva(1798).Thesamethinghappenedinthesixsatellitestatesorsister
republics:Holland(theBatavianRepublic),Switzerland(theHelvetic
Republic)andthefourItalianrepublics(seeFigures8and9).Eachrepublichad
itsconstitution,basedontheFrenchmodel.Theconstitutionproclaimedthe
sovereigntyofthepeople,aslaiddowninarticle3oftheDeclarationofthe
RightsofMan,andthenation'srightfulpowertodetermineitsowndestiny
(quotedinBouloiseau,1983,p.10);thatis,itinvokedtheprincipleofself
determination,denyingtherightofkingstodisposeofpeopleswithouttheir
consent.
Figure8:ThedepartmentsofrevolutionaryFrance,17939.Photo:William
Doyle,TheOxfordHistoryoftheFrenchRevolution,OxfordUniversity
Press,1989.BypermissionofOxfordUniversityPress

Figure9:TheexpansionofrevolutionaryFrance,17939.Photo:E.J.
Knapton,RevolutionaryandImperialFrance17501815,Scribner,New
York,1972

7.3TheGreatNation

TheexpandedFrance,whichstyleditselftheGreatNation,provokedasecond
Europeancoalitionagainstit,butby1799ithadestablisheditselfasaforcetobe
reckonedwith:amilitaryforceinthefirstinstancebutalsoandnotleastapotent
ideologicalforce.Itsinfluenceandattractionspreadfarbeyonditsfrontiersto
otherpeoplesunderforeignrule,toPolandunderthedominionofPrussia,Russia
andAustria,toGreeceundertheTurks,andtoIrelandundertheBritish.A
Dublinballadran:

Oh!MaythewindofFreedom

SoonsendyoungBoneyo'er,

Andwe'llplanttheTreeofLiberty

UponourIrishShore!

(Palmer,1964,p.336)

Exercise13

ForadetaileddiscussionoftheimpactoftheRevolutioninBritain,nowlistento
tracks17:BritainandtheFrenchRevolution(foundbelow)andconsultthe
relatedAVNotesalsobelow)(Amongotherthings,thesereferyoutothe
illustrationsdiscussedintherecording.)Thefollowingtwoparagraphsarea
summaryofreactioninBritaintotheRevolution.

TheAVnotesrelatingtotheaudioextracts

ViewdocumentaboutTheAVnotesrelatingtotheaudioextracts

Audio1:AnimpressionoftheFrenchRevolutionandtheBritishreaction
ListeninseparateplayerClickplaytostart.

ViewtranscriptofAudio1:AnimpressionoftheFrenchRevolutionandthe
Britishreaction

Audio2:AnextractfromEdmunBurke'sReflectionsontherevolutioninFrance
ListeninseparateplayerClickplaytostart.

ViewtranscriptofAudio2:AnextractfromEdmunBurke'sReflectionsonthe
revolutioninFrance

Audio3:AnextractfromTomPaine'sTherightsofmanListeninseparate
playerClickplaytostart.

ViewtranscriptofAudio3:AnextractfromTomPaine'sTherightsofman

Audio4:'Peaceandbread'ListeninseparateplayerClickplaytostart.

ViewtranscriptofAudio4:'Peaceandbread'
Audio5ListeninseparateplayerClickplaytostart.

ViewtranscriptofAudio5

Audio6:TheIrishreactionListeninseparateplayerClickplaytostart.

ViewtranscriptofAudio6:TheIrishreaction

Audio7:ConclusionsabouttheBritishreactionListeninseparateplayerClick
playtostart.

ViewtranscriptofAudio7:ConclusionsabouttheBritishreaction

ThepicturesreferredtointheAVnotes

ViewdocumentaboutThepicturesreferredtointheAVnotes

InBritainthegovernmentwasalarmedbothbyarevolutionaryideologywhich
challengeditstraditionalpoliticalandsocialstructureandbythereemergencein
anewformoftheFrenchthreattotheEuropeanbalanceofpower,signalledby
FrenchexpansionintotheLowCountries.BothfactorsexplainBritain's
participationinthewarsagainstrevolutionary(andthenNapoleonic)France
from1793onwards.AFrenchattemptin1796tolandtroopsatBantryBaywas
followedbyrebellioninIrelandin1798,leadingtotheActofUnion(1800)
betweenIrelandandGreatBritain.NavalmutiniesatSpitheadandtheNorein
1797seemedtotheauthoritiestoreflecttheinfluenceoftheRevolution.

Againstthisbackgroundaroseafermentofradicalideas,initiallydirected
towardsremovingthecivildisabilitiessufferedbyDissenters(Protestantsoutside
theestablishedChurchofEngland)butrapidlyspreadingtoencompassareform
ofParliamentandawideningofthefranchise.InspiredbytheRevolution,radical
politicalassociationswereestablished(notablytheLondonCorresponding
Society)andradicalpublicationswerecirculatedwidelyacrossthecountry.The
governmentofPrimeMinisterWilliamPitt,ineffectacoalitiongovernmentafter
1794,sensingathreattolawandorder,imposedavarietyofrepressive
measures:amendmentstothelawoftreason,thepartialsuspensionoftheHabeas
CorpusAct(prohibitingdetentionwithouttrial),increasedcontrolofpublic
meetingsandpublications.TheLondonCorrespondingSocietywasproscribedin
1799.

FrancehaddictatedthecultureofcivilisedEuropesincetheseventeenthcentury.
TheeighteenthcenturyParisiansalonswereattheheartoftheEnlightenment.
TheFrenchrevolutionariesassumedthatenlightenedpeopleeverywherewould
continuetolooktoParisasthecentreofprogressivethought,wouldwishtobe
partoforatleastassociatedwithlaGrandeNation.InAugust1792theNational
AssemblyconferredhonoraryFrenchcitizenshipon17assortedforeigners,as
menwhoinvariouscountrieshavebroughtreasontoitspresentmaturity
(Palmer,1964,p.54).TheseincludedleadersoftheAmericanRevolution
GeorgeWashington,AlexanderHamiltonandJamesMadison;Swisseducational
pioneerPestalozzi;EnglishutilitarianphilosopherandlegalreformerJeremy
Bentham;theradicalsThomasPaineandJosephPriestley;leadersoftheanti
slaverycampaignThomasClarksonandWilliamWilberforce;andGermanpoet
andplaywrightFriedrichvonSchiller.InhisSketchofaHistoricalOutlineofthe
ProgressoftheHumanMind(1793),Condorcetlookedforward,inthe
cosmopolitanspiritoftheEnlightenment,toaworldinwhichnational
differenceswouldbeerased.Inthesamespiritofinternationalfraternity,German
admirersoftheRevolutiontookupSchiller'sOdetoJoy,bestknowninitslater
settingbyBeethovenbutinthe1790ssometimessungtothetuneofthe
Marseillaise:

Seidunschlungen,Millionen

DiesenKussderganzenWelt!

[Embraceeachother,yemillions,

Here'sakissforalltheworld!]

(Palmer,1964,p.445)

TheRevolution,bothinitsoriginalunderlyingprinciplesandinitslater
excesses,wasdeeplydivisiveinFranceandEuropegenerally.Itengendered
conservatismandcounterrevolutionjustasitdidliberalism.Burkehadfromthe
firstdenouncedtheattempttoremodelsocietyonabstractprinciplesand
preachedthevirtuesofasettled,aristocraticsociety,ofrespectforprecedent,
traditionandtimehonouredinstitutions.Hedeploredtheexampleofthosewho
haveprojectedthesubversionofthatorderofthingsunderwhichourpartofthe
worldhassolongflourished(thatis,thedeathoftheOldRegime),and
predictedthattheRevolutionwouldleadtobloodshedandtyranny(quotedin
Welsh,1995,p.114).Britainwastoprovethemostpersistentenemyofthe
Revolution.

ButevenmenpassionatelyattractedtotheRevolutionbecameawareoftheperils
ofviolentchange.Idreamedofarepublic,Desmoulinswroteontheeveofhis
executionin1794,thatwouldhavebeentheenvyoftheworld.Icouldnot
believethatmencouldbesocruelandunjust(quotedinSchama,1989,p.xi).
Evenin1794,however,whentheTerrorhadalienatedmany,Wordsworthstill
declaredhimselftobeofthatodiousclassofmencalleddemocrats,theenemy
ofmonarchicalandaristocraticalgovernmentsandhereditarydistinctionsand
privilegedordersofeveryspeciesandthereforenotamongsttheadmirersofthe
BritishConstitution(Palmer,1964,pp.22,458).Wordsworthhimselfwassoon
tochangehismindandtoevolveafarmorecritical,reflectiveandconservative
attitudetotheRevolution.Likeitornot,however,everyoneacceptedthatthe
FrenchRevolutionmarkedanepochinworldhistoryandthatthingscouldnever
bethesameagain.

Dothis

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References

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Acknowledgements

ThecontentacknowledgedbelowisProprietary(seetermsandconditions)andis
usedunderlicence.

Figures

Plate1:LouisLopoldBoilly,TheActorChenardasaSansCulotte1792,oil
onpanel,33.5x22.5cm,MusedelaVilledeParis,MuseCarnavelet,Paris.
Photo:Giraudon/BridgemanArtLibrary

Plate2:JacquesLouisDavid,TheDeathofMarat1793,oiloncanvas,160.7x
124.8cm,MusesroyauxdesBeauxArtsdeBelgique,Brussels.Photo:
Giraudon/BridgemanArtLibrary

Plate3:CalendarforYearIIIoftheFrenchRepublic,BibliothqueNationalede
France,Paris

Plate4:FranoisVerly,viewoftheproposedpublicbathandtheatreinLille,
MusedesBeauxArts,Lille.Photo:RMN/QuecqdHenripret

Plate5:Quatremre,groupwithlaPatrieinthecentrefortheeasternnaveofthe
Pantheon,1793,BibliothqueNationaledeFrance,Paris

Plate6:JosephChinard,basreliefforthecityhallinLyon,6.4x5.4x3cm,
MusedesBeauxArtsdeLyon.Photo:StudioBasset

Figuresfrommaintext:

Figure1:FrenchSchool,DeclarationoftheRightsofManandCitizen,1789,
oiloncanvas,MuseCarnavalet,Paris.Photo:Giraudon/BridgemanArtLibrary

Figure2:TheFrenchProvinces,1789.Photo:JohnPaxton,Companiontothe
FrenchRevolution,FactsonFile,NewYorkandOxford,1988;

Figure3:ThedpartementsofrevolutionaryFrance,1790.Photo:FranklinL
Ford,Europe17801830,2ndedition,Longman,1989;
Figure4:Villeneuve,Matirerflectionpourlesjongleurscouronnes
(Matterforthoughtforcrownedtwisters),1793,engraving,Bibliothque
nationaledeFrance,Paris

Figure5:Therepublicunderinternalandexternalattack,1793.Photo:Marc
Bouloiseau,"TheJacobinRepublic17921794",CambridgeUniversityPress,
1983;

Figure6:JosephChinard,LaRaisonsouslestraitsdApollonfoulantauxpieds
laSuperstition(Reason,inthepersonofApollo,treadingsuperstitionunderfoot),
1791,terracottamodel,51.5x13.3x12cm,Louvre,Paris.Photo:RMN/
ChristianJean

Figure7:JacquesLouisPre,RegeneratedManGivesThankstotheSupreme
Being,17945,41.5x29cm,BiliothquenationaledeFrance,Paris

Figure8:ThedpartementsofrevolutionaryFrance,17939,Photo:William
Doyle,TheOxfordHistoryoftheFrenchRevolution,OxfordUniversityPress,
1989.BypermissionofOxfordUniversityPress,www.oup.com

Figure9:TheexpansionofrevolutionaryEurope17939.Photo:E.J.Knapton,
"RevolutionaryandImperialFrance17501815",Scribner,NewYork,1972;

UnitImage

JacquesLouisDavid,TheDeathofMarat1793,oiloncanvas,160.7x124.8cm,
MusesroyauxdesBeauxArtsdeBelgique,Brussels.Photo:Giraudon/
BridgemanArtLibrary

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