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Branches of physics
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Main page Further information: Classical physics, Modern physics, and Outline of physics Branches of
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Physics deals with the combination of matter and energy. It
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also deals with a wide variety of systems, about which
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Donate to Wikipedia theories have been developed that are used by physicists.
Wikipedia store In general, theories are experimentally tested numerous
times before they are accepted as correct as a description
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of Nature (within a certain domain of validity). For instance, Domains of major fields of physics
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the theory of classical mechanics accurately describes the
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motion of objects, provided they are much larger than
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atoms and moving at much less than the speed of light. These theories continue to be areas of
Contact page active research: for instance, a remarkable aspect of classical mechanics known as chaos was
discovered in the 20th century, three centuries after the original formulation of classical mechanics
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by Isaac Newton (16421727). These "central theories" are important tools for research in more
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specialized topics, and any physicist, regardless of his or her specialization, is expected to be
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literate in them.
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 Contents
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1 Classical mechanics
Page information
Wikidata item
2 Thermodynamics and statistical mechanics
Cite this page 3 Electromagnetism and electronics
4 Relativity
Print/export 5 Quantum mechanics
Create a book 6 Optics, and atomic, molecular, and optical physics
Download as PDF 7 Condensed matter physics
Printable version 8 High energy/particle physics and nuclear physics

Languages 9 Cosmology
10 Interdisciplinary fields

11 Summary

Shqip 12 References

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Classical mechanics [edit]

Main articles: Classical mechanics and Mechanics

Classical mechanics is a model of the physics of forces acting upon bodies; includes sub-fields to
describe the behaviours of solids, gases, and fluids. It is often referred to as "Newtonian
mechanics" after Isaac Newton and his laws of motion. It also includes classical approach as given
by Hamiltonian and Lagrange methods. It deals with motion of particles and general system of
particles.

There are many branches of classical mechanics, such as: statics, dynamics, kinematics,
continuum mechanics (which includes fluid mechanics), relativistic mechanics, statistical
mechanics, etc.

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 Thermodynamics and statistical mechanics [edit]

Main articles: Thermodynamics and Statistical mechanics

The first chapter of The Feynman Lectures on Physics is about the existence of atoms, which
Feynman considered to be the most compact statement of physics, from which science could
easily result even if all other knowledge was lost.[1] By modeling matter as collections of hard
spheres, it is possible to describe the kinetic theory of gases, upon which classical
thermodynamics is based.

Thermodynamics studies the effects of changes in temperature, pressure, and volume on physical
systems on the macroscopic scale, and the transfer of energy as heat.[2][3] Historically,
thermodynamics developed out of the desire to increase the efficiency of early steam engines.[4]

The starting point for most thermodynamic considerations is the laws of thermodynamics, which
postulate that energy can be exchanged between physical systems as heat or work.[5] They also
postulate the existence of a quantity named entropy, which can be defined for any system.[6] In
thermodynamics, interactions between large ensembles of objects are studied and categorized.
Central to this are the concepts of system and surroundings. A system is composed of particles,
whose average motions define its properties, which in turn are related to one another through
equations of state. Properties can be combined to express internal energy and thermodynamic
potentials, which are useful for determining conditions for equilibrium and spontaneous processes.

Electromagnetism and electronics [edit]

Main articles: Electromagnetism and Electronics

See also: Optics

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 Relativity [edit]

Main articles: Special relativity and General relativity

The special theory of relativity enjoys a relationship with

Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism
electromagnetism and mechanics; that is, the principle of
relativity and the principle of stationary action in mechanics
can be used to derive Maxwell's equations,[7][8] and vice versa.

The theory of special relativity was proposed in 1905 by Albert Einstein in his article "On the
Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies". The title of the article refers to the fact that special relativity
resolves an inconsistency between Maxwell's equations and classical mechanics. The theory is
based on two postulates: (1) that the mathematical forms of the laws of physics are invariant in all
inertial systems; and (2) that the speed of light in a vacuum is constant and independent of the
source or observer. Reconciling the two postulates requires a unification of space and time into
the frame-dependent concept of spacetime.

General relativity is the geometrical theory of gravitation published by Albert Einstein in

1915/16.[9][10] It unifies special relativity, Newton's law of universal gravitation, and the insight that
gravitation can be described by the curvature of space and time. In general relativity, the curvature
of spacetime is produced by the energy of matter and radiation.

Quantum mechanics [edit]

Main article: Quantum mechanics

Quantum mechanics is the branch of physics treating

atomic and subatomic systems and their interaction with
radiation. It is based on the observation that all forms of

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energy are released in discrete units or bundles called
"quanta". Remarkably, quantum theory typically permits
only probable or statistical calculation of the observed
features of subatomic particles, understood in terms of
wave functions. The Schrdinger equation plays the role
in quantum mechanics that Newton's laws and
conservation of energy serve in classical mechanicsi.e.,
it predicts the future behavior of a dynamic systemand
is a wave equation that is used to solve for wavefunctions. The first few hydrogen atom electron
orbitals shown as cross-sections with
For example, the light, or electromagnetic radiation color-coded probability density
emitted or absorbed by an atom has only certain
frequencies (or wavelengths), as can be seen from the
line spectrum associated with the chemical element
represented by that atom. The quantum theory shows that
those frequencies correspond to definite energies of the Schrdinger equation of quantum
mechanics
light quanta, or photons, and result from the fact that the
electrons of the atom can have only certain allowed
energy values, or levels; when an electron changes from one allowed level to another, a quantum
of energy is emitted or absorbed whose frequency is directly proportional to the energy difference
between the two levels. The photoelectric effect further confirmed the quantization of light.
In 1924, Louis de Broglie proposed that not only do light waves sometimes exhibit particle-like
properties, but particles may also exhibit wave-like properties. Two different formulations of
quantum mechanics were presented following de Broglie's suggestion. The wave mechanics of
Erwin Schrdinger (1926) involves the use of a mathematical entity, the wave function, which is
related to the probability of finding a particle at a given point in space. The matrix mechanics of
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 Werner Heisenberg (1925) makes no mention of wave functions or similar concepts but was shown
to be mathematically equivalent to Schrdinger's theory. A particularly important discovery of the
quantum theory is the uncertainty principle, enunciated by Heisenberg in 1927, which places an
absolute theoretical limit on the accuracy of certain measurements; as a result, the assumption by
earlier scientists that the physical state of a system could be measured exactly and used to predict
future states had to be abandoned. Quantum mechanics was combined with the theory of relativity
in the formulation of Paul Dirac. Other developments include quantum statistics, quantum
electrodynamics, concerned with interactions between charged particles and electromagnetic
fields; and its generalization, quantum field theory.

See also: String theory, Quantum gravity, and Loop quantum gravity

String Theory

Also known as theory of everything, this theory combines the theory of general relativity and
quantum mechanics to make a single theory. This theory can predict about properties of both
small and big objects. This theory is currently under developmental stage.

Optics, and atomic, molecular, and optical physics [edit]

Main articles: Atomic physics; Molecular physics; Optical physics; Optics; and atomic,
molecular, and optical physics

Optics is the study of light, and the instruments created to use or detect it (i.e. telescopes,
spectrometers, etc.). Atomic physics, molecular physics, and optical physics are each individual
sub-fields of AMO that study the physical properties of the atom, molecules, and light, respectively.

See also: Nanotechnology and Optical instruments

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Condensed matter physics [edit]
Main article: Condensed matter physics
The study of the physical properties of matter in a condensed phase.
See also: Materials science and Solid-state physics
High energy/particle physics and nuclear physics [edit]
Main articles: Particle physics and Nuclear physics
Particle physics studies the nature of particles, while nuclear physics studies the atomic nuclei.
See also: String theory
Cosmology [edit]
Main article: Cosmology
Cosmology studies how the universe came to be, and its eventual fate. It is studied by physicists
and astrophysicists.
Interdisciplinary fields [edit]
To the interdisciplinary fields, which define partially sciences of their own, belong e.g. the
astrophysics, the physics in the universe, including the properties and interactions of celestial
bodies in astronomy.
biophysics, studying the physical interactions of biological processes.
chemical physics, the science of physical relations in chemistry.
econophysics, dealing with physical processes and their relations in the science of economy.
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 engineering physics, the combined discipline of physics and engineering.
geophysics, the sciences of physical relations on our planet.
mathematical physics, mathematics pertaining to physical problems.
medical physics, the application of physics to prevention, diagnosis, and treatment.
physical chemistry, dealing with physical processes and their relations in the science of
physical chemistry.
quantum computing, the study of quantum-mechanical computation systems.

Summary [edit]

The table below lists the core theories along with many of the concepts they employ.

Major
Theory Concepts
subtopics
Newton's laws of
motion,
Lagrangian
mechanics,
Density, dimension, gravity, space, time, motion, length,
Hamiltonian
position, velocity, acceleration, Galilean invariance, mass,
mechanics,
momentum, impulse, force, energy, angular velocity,
Classical kinematics,
angular momentum, moment of inertia, torque,
mechanics statics,
conservation law, harmonic oscillator, wave, work, power,
dynamics, chaos
Lagrangian, Hamiltonian, TaitBryan angles, Euler angles,
theory,
pneumatic, hydraulic
acoustics, fluid
dynamics,
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continuum
mechanics
Electrostatics,
electrodynamics, Capacitance, electric charge, current, electrical
electricity, conductivity, electric field, electric permittivity, electric
magnetism, potential, electrical resistance, electromagnetic field,
Electromagnetism
magnetostatics, electromagnetic induction, electromagnetic radiation,
Maxwell's Gaussian surface, magnetic field, magnetic flux, magnetic
equations, monopole, magnetic permeability
optics
Boltzmann's constant, conjugate variables, enthalpy,
entropy, equation of state, equipartition theorem,
thermodynamic free energy, heat, ideal gas law, internal
energy, laws of thermodynamics, Maxwell relations,
Thermodynamics irreversible process, Ising model, mechanical action,
Heat engine,
and statistical partition function, pressure, reversible process,
kinetic theory
mechanics spontaneous process, state function, statistical ensemble,
temperature, thermodynamic equilibrium, thermodynamic
potential, thermodynamic processes, thermodynamic
state, thermodynamic system, viscosity, volume, work,
granular material
Path integral
Adiabatic approximation, black-body radiation,
formulation,
correspondence principle, free particle, Hamiltonian,
scattering
Hilbert space, identical particles, matrix mechanics,
theory,
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 theory,
Planck's constant, observer effect, operators, quanta,
Quantum Schrdinger
quantization, quantum entanglement, quantum harmonic
mechanics equation,
oscillator, quantum number, quantum tunneling,
quantum field
Schrdinger's cat, Dirac equation, spin, wave function,
theory, quantum
wave mechanics, waveparticle duality, zero-point energy,
statistical
Pauli exclusion principle, Heisenberg uncertainty principle
mechanics
Covariance, Einstein manifold, equivalence principle, four-
momentum, four-vector, general principle of relativity,
geodesic motion, gravity, gravitoelectromagnetism, inertial
Special relativity, frame of reference, invariance, length contraction,
general Lorentzian manifold, Lorentz transformation, massenergy
Relativity relativity, equivalence, metric, Minkowski diagram, Minkowski space,
Einstein field principle of relativity, proper length, proper time, reference
equations frame, rest energy, rest mass, relativity of simultaneity,
spacetime, special principle of relativity, speed of light,
stressenergy tensor, time dilation, twin paradox, world
line

References [edit]

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 1. ^ Feynman, Richard Phillips; Leighton, Robert Benjamin; Sands, Matthew Linzee (1963). The
Feynman Lectures on Physics. p. 1-1. ISBN 0-201-02116-1.. Feynman begins with the atomic
hypothesis, as his most compact statement of all scientific knowledge: "If, in some cataclysm, all of
scientific knowledge were to be destroyed, and only one sentence passed on to the next generations
..., what statement would contain the most information in the fewest words? I believe it is ... that all
things are made up of atoms little particles that move around in perpetual motion, attracting each
other when they are a little distance apart, but repelling upon being squeezed into one another. ..."
vol. I p. I2
2. ^ Perot, Pierre (1998). A to Z of Thermodynamics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-856552-6.
3. ^ Clark, John O.E. (2004). The Essential Dictionary of Science. Barnes & Noble Books. ISBN 0-
7607-4616-8.
4. ^ Clausius, Rudolf (1850). "LXXIX". On the Motive Power of Heat, and on the Laws which can be
deduced from it for the Theory of Heat. Poggendorff's Annalee dere Physic. Dover Reprint. ISBN 0-
486-59065-8.
5. ^ Van Ness, H.C. (1969). Understanding Thermodynamics. Dover Publications, Inc. ISBN 0-486-
63277-6.
6. ^ Dugdale, J. S. (1998). Entropy and its Physical Meaning. Taylor and Francis. ISBN 0-7484-0569-0.
7. ^ Landau and Lifshitz (1951, 1962), The Classical Theory of Fields, Library of Congress Card
Number 62-9181, Chapters 14 (3rd edition is ISBN 0-08-016019-0)
8. ^ Corson and Lorrain, Electromagnetic Fields and Waves ISBN 0-7167-1823-5
9. ^ Einstein, Albert (November 25, 1915). "Die Feldgleichungen der Gravitation" . Sitzungsberichte
der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin: 844847. Retrieved 2006-09-12.
10. ^ Einstein, Albert (1916). "The Foundation of the General Theory of Relativity" . Annalen der
Physik. Bibcode:1916AnP...354..769E . doi:10.1002/andp.19163540702 . Archived from the
original (PDF) on 2006-08-29. Retrieved 2006-09-03.

V T E Branches of physics
Divisions Applied Experimental Theoretical
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 Divisions Applied Experimental Theoretical
Thermodynamics Mechanics (Classical (Ballistics Lagrangian Hamiltonian)
Energy Motion
Continuum Celestial Statistical Solid Fluid Quantum)
Gravitation Electromagnetism Optics (Geometrical Physical Nonlinear
Waves Fields
Quantum) Quantum field theory Relativity (Special General)
Accelerator Acoustics Astrophysics (Nuclear Stellar Heliophysics (Solar) Space
Astroparticle) Atomicmolecularoptical (AMO) Communication Computational
By speciality Condensed matter (Mesoscopic Solid-state Soft) Digital Engineering Material
Mathematical Molecular Nuclear Particle (Phenomenology) Plasma Polymer
Statistical
Biophysics (Virophysics Biomechanics) Medical physics (Cardiophysics
Physics in life science Health physics Laser medicine Medical imaging Nuclear medicine
Neurophysics Psychophysics)
Physics with
Agrophysics (Soil) Atmospheric (Cloud) Chemical Econophysics Geophysics
other sciences

Categories: Subfields of physics

This page w as last edited on 19 June 2017, at 06:28.

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