Professional Documents
Culture Documents
FOR
DESIGN
2
MATERIALS
FOR
DESIGN
2
Victoria Ballard Bell
AND
PatricK R and
NEW YORK
Published by
Princeton Architectural Press
37 East 7th Street
New York, New York 10003
www.papress.com
Materials for Design 2 exists because of the favorable Materials for Design 2 has been such a gift to write
assessments made by readers and reviewers of the and a joy to produce.
first volume of this title. Our thanks go to those read- I want to thank my amazingly supportive, encour-
ers, with hopes that this volume will build upon that aging and loving husband, Bryan Bell. His own work
positive foundation. and passion are undeniably inspiring yet he never
I treasured this chance to again collaborate with wavers in enthusiasm for anything I do. I also want to
Victoria Ballard Bell. Equally important was the thank my two beautiful children who bring me daily
collaboration with the fine editors, designers, and joy: Lily Sky for her relentless bliss and great artistic
production experts at Princeton Architectural Press. talent and Cole for his focused and passioned inter-
In particular, we wish to thank editor Dan Simon, ests. For better or worse at this young age they both
who guided this edition with abundant talent and want to be architects.
resourcefulness. Many thanks also go to Benjamin Thank you also to my mother and father, Valerie
English, designer of this volume, who deftly set forth and Richard, who gave me so very much and always
text and image in exquisite sequence, hierarchy, support anything I do. This book is dedicated to my
and beauty, in keeping with Paul Wagners award- dad, who always encouraged me to do what I believed
winning original concept. in and whose love I will always feel. I feel his pride in
I also acknowledge the talented architecture me always.
students who, after the publication of the first vol- Thank you to Pat for being the best coauthor
ume, called upon me to offer a Materials for Design and partner one could hope for. His great knowledge
graduate seminar at North Carolina State University. and sensitivity is evident throughout this book. Thank
The class forced me to make explicit the analytical you to Jennifer Lippert at Princeton Architectural
method I used to write the project narratives for the Press for reaching out to us and supporting the
books, which these talented students then employed sequel, and to editor Dan Simon for his incredible
to prepare their own case studies. Helping them expertise and hand-holding along the way; Meredith
discover what made an excellent building really Babers extraordinary organization was utterly
work catalyzed my own eagerness to do this again. fundamental to the project as well. Thank you to all
Special thanks go to Laura Reed, one of those of the students and architects who have helped give
seminar students who later helped us compile files ideas for this book and to those who actually use the
of the hundreds of worldwide projects that were books in their classes and studiosit is our primary
identified as candidates for the sixty projects in the goal, and why we write.
second volume. Thank you lastly, but not least, to my extraordi-
I also thank my wife Christine Nalepa, whose nary friends who always inspire me and fill my life
patience, tolerance, and endless support were essen- with happiness.
tial for the making of this volume.
Victoria Ballard Bell
Patrick Rand
Contents
8 Introduction
Coll-Barreu Arquitectos
58 Casa Pentimento 96 Private Residence in Riedikon
20 Glass Townhouses Quito, Ecuador Uster, Switzerland
Venice, California, USA Jose Maria Sez + David Barragn Gramazio & Kohler
Sander Architects
60 Design Indaba 1010 100 Viikki Church
24 Factory Extension Housing Project Helsinki, Finland
New York, New York, USA 64 Hanil Visitors Center and TYIN Tegnestue Architects
142 Tampa Museum of Art 182 SelgasCano Architecture Office 224 Secondary School
Tampa, Florida, USA Madrid, Spain Dano, Burkina Faso
Stanley Saitowitz | Natoma Architects SelgasCano Arquitectos Dibdo Francis Kr
146 St. Andrews Beach House 184 El B Conference Hall and 228 Brandhorst Museum
Victoria, Australia Auditorium Munich, Germany
Sean Godsell Architects Cartagea, Spain Sauerbruch Hutton
SelgasCano Arquitectos
150 Prefabricated Nature 232 Padre Pio Pilgrimage Church
Cedeira, Spain 188 Novartis Entrance Pavilion Foggia, Italy
MYCC Architects Basel, Switzerland Renzo Piano Building Workshop
160 Kunst-Depot, Henze & Ketterer 198 Anansi Playground Building 240 Pope John Paul II Hall
Art Gallery Utrecht, The Netherlands Rijeka, Croatia
Gigon/Guyer Architekten
202 Miroiterie Retail Building 244 Chapel of St. Lawrence
164 Herstedlund Flleshus Lausanne, Switzerland Vantaa, Finland
B+W Architecture Avanto Architects
Community Centre
Albertslund, Denmark
Dorte Mandrup Arkitekter 206 International Committee of 248 Warehouse 8B Conversion
the Red Cross Logistics Complex Madrid, Spain
Arturo Franco Architecture Studio
168 Halftecture O Geneva, Switzerland
262 La Pallissa
Catalonia, Spain
Cubus
266 Index
270 Bibliography
Materials for Design 2 showcases projects that merge exemplified a new monolithic and clean-lined look
architects design intention with a material palette, of concrete. In the United States, Frank Lloyd Wright
a synthesis called materiality. Materiality was first was using unprecedented amounts of poured-in-
presented in the best-selling first volume, Materials place concrete, first for the Unity Temple in Oak Park,
for Design, and here sixty new case studies continue Illinois (1906), and which also appears in the noto-
to document this comprehensive approach to design. rious Fallingwater in Mill Run, Pennsylvania (1934).
As examples, they inspire and encourage the use of The modern master of concrete (and former pupil
materials as an integral part of the design process. of Perret) Le Corbusier used the material to achieve
Materials have been used to express architectural the monolithic and sculptural qualities he strove for.
statements for years, but it is only recently in our Through his villas and religious and civic buildings
history that how we use them has begun to advance erected around the world, Corb reached a new level
and revolutionize architecture. Additionally, there is of sculptural architecture aided by the properties of
an ever-increasing palette of material options avail- a material, when no other would have achieved the
able to designers. Prior to the twentieth century, desired effect.
materiality spoke more to place, to locale, and in a Ludwig Mies van der Rohe was similarly able to
way was more purely definitive as to what a building push the use of steel with glass to provide a level
should look like. Architects tended to use materials of purity in construction and a minimalist quality in
that were available and plentiful in their location space. As modernism became more and more refined,
and thus uniquely representative of that place, such materiality continued to support the design inten-
as the indigenous woods used for the saltboxes and tions of those willing to look at materials in innovative
meetinghouses of New England in the 1700s, or ways. One can think of Pierre Chareaus use of glass
Thomas Jeffersons use of the red clay of Virginia at Maison de Verre (1932), or more generally, of Alvar
to make the distinctive bricks that defined his Aaltos love of wood and Eero Saarinens obsession
buildings in the early 1800s. In the northeastern with concrete.
United States in the 1870s and 80s, Henry Hobson By the 1980s, postmodernists had begun to pro-
Richardson used stone to convey an idea of monu- mote an alternative approach to materiality: they
mentality and permanence. denied it as a part of architecture. Their use of faux
In Europe, bold statements of materiality were veneers and imitation materials expressed a style
also made during the mid-nineteenth century. Henri that showed little regard for an ethic of truth to mate-
Labrouste used iron, then a novel material in large rial. As these materials flooded the construction
public buildings, in his Bibliothque Sainte-Genevive market, the distinction between true and false became
in Paris (1850). Iron was a proclamation that this was harder than ever to identify. Architectures approach
a building of high technology. Joseph Paxtons Crystal to materiality had spun 180 degrees since that of the
Palace, built in London just one year later, was a early modernists.
modular cast-iron and glass exhibition hall. Paxtons Today, materiality is an exciting and quickly
large areas of glass and cast iron (a precursor to expanding concept in the construction process. Global
the glass curtain wall) were intentionally chosen corporations like DuPont and Weyerhauser are contin-
to express Great Britains industrial, technological, ually generating new materials and new uses for exist-
and economic superiority. ing materials. Industries that once serviced a small
Throughout the modernized world, the twentieth segment of products are now engaged in much more
century saw the rapidly increasing synergy between in-depth research and development of new materials
material and design intentions. The early purvey- that are more effective, more efficient, and more envi-
ors of modernism used materiality to support and ronmentally sensitive. Once merely a tool for archi-
promote their aesthetic, especially when it came to tects and largely confined to the realm of engineering,
concrete. A Frenchman, Auguste Perret, had begun materiality has now become an instrumental method-
using reinforced concrete throughout France in the ology for a clear and bold design statement.
early 1900s as a representation of a new architec- The wealth of innovations in this realm has
tural style, not just a new material to replace stone. made materials an enormous field of study in itself.
He designed a garage for Renault in 1905 and the Practicing architects are challenged to keep pace
Thtre des Champs-lyses in 1913, both in Paris, with rapid advances in materials science, manufac-
as well as many other public and industrial buildings. turing methods, and installation practices. The use
Erik Gunnar Asplunds Stockholm Library (1918) also of plastics, for instance, has exploded with every
9
technological advance, while traditional materials Human Rights Documentation Centre in New Delhi
have stayed in demand as well. The wide range of col- (Anagram Architects), where red brick is laid in a
ors and sizes of concrete block, for example, offers twisted, complex pattern to achieve visual engage-
an exponential increase in selection. Green materi- ment, ventilation, and shelter. The Anansi Playground
alsthose that are sustainable and sensitive to the Building in Utrecht (Mulders vandenBerk Architecten)
environmenthave also become more mainstream. uses a hardy plastic that has been around for decades
Materials have also entered into a new realm of yet is rarely used in exterior architectural applica-
distinction with this onset of advancement in engi- tions. There are also more modest projects where
neering and technology. We are at a point in history experimentation means creativity, and where doing the
when technology allows for the engineered design of unconventional has yielded surprising success.
materials to fit the unique needs of a building. Frank These projects make an expression not only with
Gehrys signature metal panels are a great example; the types of materials used but also in how they are
each is individually engineered for its precise posi- put together. The construction detail drawings for
tion in the building. Such technological capacity has all of these projects have been highlighted because
inducted a period of revelry in the glory of materials this is where we learn the most about the designers
and their qualities. Materiality has become a mature ideas in putting their buildings together, as well as
philosophy in the field of architecture: How are their unique philosophies regarding materials. This is
materials expressed in a buildingare they surface where we begin to understand how a material is con-
or structural, modern or vernacular? What kinds nected, how it needs to be treated, and how it relates
of materials are appropriate? How do the structural to the other materials in the building. The different
materials relate to those of the enclosure, or are styles and formats of drawings and construction
they same? This book is organized to serve as a details are important to note, as these are learning
basic reference and examination of six materials tools themselves in representation and how critical
that embody this philosophyglass, concrete, wood, specifics can be communicated in the design.
metal, plastic, and masonry. All of these materials When a material is used in new and unexpected
have properties and characteristics that are still ways, or where its characteristics are presented
being discovered, harnessed, or used in new ways. in an unconventional condition, the level of design
Each chapter begins with a basic material primer, a is raised. The Artists Studios in Aberystwyth, Wales
brief history, design considerations, and a summary (Heatherwick Studio) employ a stainless-steel foil
of the various types and/or production methods. so thin it would never normally be considered for
The content has been selected to give the reader architectural purposes. The designers used creative
a basic understanding of the material. ingenuity to not only meet their budgetary constraints
These introductions are followed by case study but also to fabricate a compelling structure by using
projects offering examples of some of the best and a material in a creative manner. Likewise, the use
most inspired uses made by architects from around of wood veneer resin-core panels in the Harry Parker
the world in recent years. The case studies have been Community Boathouse in Boston (Anmahian Winton
selected by a survey of contemporary practitioners Architects) not only shows a new material cladding
for whom design intention and materials have been system but also holds a metaphorical reference
successfully joined. Projects range from small to to the buildings function and meaning. In Lausanne,
moderate in scale, allowing a focus and clarity of Switzerland, the Miroiterie Retail Building (B+W
expression to yield an understanding of the building Architecture) was clad in translucent, air-inflated
in its entirety and provide a didactic prototype for the membrane cushions, presenting the advantages of
young designer. These architects love materials and new plastic fabric materials.
are not concerned about deviating from the norm. Most of the designers included here naturally think
There are examples of a material being pushed to outside of the box, but it is when they mesh together
new and experimental heights, such as the patented the creative technicality of materiality with the function
Apple Flagship Store resembling a glass lantern in and meaning of the design that they produce truly suc-
Shanghai (Bohlin Cywinski Jackson) and the ridged cessful projects. Materials for Design 2 aims to inspire
concrete Hanil Visitors Center and Guesthouse in designers to think of materials as a palette from which
Chungbuk, Korea (BCHO Architects). There are to imagine how an idea or concept can be realized.
examples of a conventional material being used in a This book is dedicated to all who love materials, and
new or unfamiliar way, such as the new South Asian to all who love design. The two belong together.
10 NAME OF PROJECT
Glass
11
blocks that could be placed into reinforced concrete Understanding the basic properties and terminology
structures, allowing for load-bearing capacity as well used in the vast glass industry will offer a designer a
as light transmission. In the 1930s the Owens Illinois useful palette from which to design.
Glass Corporation produced the hollow glass block, Glass is an inherently strong material and is
which is commonly used today. weakened only by surface imperfections. Tempered
Laminated glass was invented in 1910 by Edouard or heat-treated glass is stronger and more resistant
Benedictus, a French scientist who patented the to thermal stress and impact than annealed glass.
process of strengthening flat glass by inserting a Glass also possesses a hard surface, resisting
celluloid material layer between two sheets of scratches and abrasions. When stressed, it will
glass. It was marketed as a safety glass under the rebound to its original shape until it reaches
name Triplex. its breaking point, which is again much higher if
In the 1950s, British inventor Alastair Pilkington glass has been tempered. Glass is chemical- and
completely transformed the way in which glass was corrosion-resistant, and is impervious to most
used in architecture through his development of float industrial and food acids. It is also shock-resistant
glassthe process used to produce 90 percent and can withstand intense heat or cold as well as
of architectural glass today. In this process, molten sudden temperature changes.
glass floats on a bed of denser molten tin, mass- Thermal conductivity is the measure of a materi-
producing large sheets of flat, optically superior als ability to transmit heat through its body. Glass is
transparent glass at an affordable cost, thereby thermally a poor insulator. When two or more sheets
revolutionizing the way in which glass could be used of glass are combined together with an airspace,
in building design. Larger sheets of glassand hence however, heat loss can be reduced significantly. Two-
larger windowswere available with greater unifor- and three-paned windows that have hermetically
mity and fewer surface imperfections. Pilkingtons sealed airspaces between them are good insulating
invention, along with the developments of sealants, windows, especially for cold climates. Further, the
contributed to the onset of glazed office towers, as thermal insulating qualities of glass can be improved
the glass curtain wall was quickly regarded as a by using a low-emissivity (low-E) coating on the glass.
status symbol for buildings representing progress The transparency and translucency of glass has
and style. Ludwig Mies van der Rohes use of glass historically given architecture an aesthetic quality
and steel at the Illinois Institute of Technology (1940) like no other material. It gives a building the ability to
in Chicago represents an early example, as does change, to move, and to create certain environments.
his Seagram Building (1958) in New York. Other The way light pours through a piece of glass in a
landmarks of architectural glass include Skidmore, building can be a powerful design tool for an archi-
Owings & Merrills Lever House (1952) in New York tect. How light changes throughout the day and how
and Eero Saarinens General Motors Technical Center it appears within the space is a frequently overlooked
(1955) in Detroit. In the 1960s and 70s, advances factor. Designers often think about the quantitative
in reflective, tinted, coated, and insulating glass considerations of light entering a building rather than
exploded, giving designers the ability to control the the qualitative. The color or texture of a light beam
amount of heat and solar gain in curtain wall build- or how it hits a surface can all be controlled and
ings. The ensuing decades of the twentieth century manipulated with specific intent. Glass can reflect,
ushered further advancements of the glass industry bend, transmit, and absorb light, all with great
into three distinct areas: environmental control, accuracy. When light hits a piece of glass, some is
structural uses, and a vast array of surface and reflected from the surface, some passes through,
color treatments. and some is absorbed in the glass. The measurement
of these three properties are called reflectance (R),
transmittance (T), and absorbency (A). Each of these
Design Consider ations are expressed as a fraction of the total amount of
When selecting the type and use of glass in a project, light falling on a piece of glass, expressed by the
one looks for an optimal balance between aesthetics formula Light = R + T + A. Most architectural glass
and function. The wide variety of architectural glass is partially transparent with little reflectance and
commercially available coupled with the versatil- absorbency. This equation is important in under-
ity and creativity one can explore with the material standing the wide range of types of glass from which
makes the design process exciting and challenging. a designer has to choose, as certain types may better
GLASS 13
fit a project than others. There are hundreds of glass typically seen in the production of bottles, jars, and
compositions as well as different coatings, colors, common consumer items. Nearly all architectural
thicknesses, and laminates, all of which affect the glass is some type of soda-lime glass. It is usually
way light passes through the material. composed of 6075 percent silica, 1218 percent
When designing with glass, there are three types soda, and 512 percent lime. It is not resistant to
of forces to consider: tensile forces, which exert a sudden temperature changes or high temperatures.
pull on glass; compressive forces, which squeeze
glass; and shear forces, the combination of tension Lead glass
and compression, which pull glass in two directions. Lead glass is a relatively soft glass with a high per-
Tensile forces are the most critical to understand, centage of lead oxide, used for electrical applications
because glass is much weaker in tension than in as well as some art glass. It is slightly more expen-
compression. The strength of glass is highly depen- sive than soda-lime glass and also does not with-
dent on the condition of its surface rather than its stand sudden changes in temperature or very high
molecular composition. When it fails, it begins with temperatures.
a small fissure or crack that grows until breakage.
Glass can be strengthened through prestressing, Borosilicate glass
chemical coating, or lamination in order to help it Borosilicate glass is a silicate glass with at least 5
resist breakage. Prestressing is often done by a percent boron trioxide. It has a high resistance to
thermal tempering process in which glass is heated temperature changes and chemical corrosions,
to the point of malleability and then is quickly cooled, properties that lend well to its use in products such
creating a drastic clash in temperature between the as light bulbs, headlights, pipes, laboratory glass-
cooler surface and the hotter interior of the glass. ware, and bakeware.
This differential eventually dissipates but forces
the surface into a state of compression and the inte- Aluminosilicate glass
rior into a state of tension. Though it increases the Aluminosilicate glass, commonly used for electronic
strength of glass, when it does fail the stresses in circuitry, contains aluminum oxide and is similar to
the glass are released as it fractures favorably into borosilicate glass but has a greater resistance to high
many small pieces. temperatures and better chemical durability.
Glass can also be strengthened by a chemical
process in which it is immersed in a molten salt 96 percent silica glass
bath, coating the surface with large ions of salt and 96 percent silica glass is a borosilicate glass which
displacing smaller ions. This coating produces com- has been melted to remove almost all of the non-
pression on the surface, which strengthens the glass. silicate elements. It is very unyielding to heat,
The lamination process simply sandwiches sheets resisting heat shock up to 1,652F (900C). This
of glass together with heat with a transparent vinyl glass contains 715 percent boron trioxide and has
interlayer between the glass. When this occurs, a low coefficient of thermal expansion. Since its
the inner sheets of glass shrink more when cooled, thermal fatigue resistance is high, it is usually used
causing the outer sheets of glass to be put into where fire protection is needed.
compression. If laminated glass breaks, the vinyl
interlayer holds the glass shards in place, making Fused silica glass
it a good glass for skylights or safety applications. Fused silica glass is a pure silicon dioxide in a
non-crystalline (liquid-like) state. It is very rarely
used, as it is a very expensive and difficult glass
T ypes to fabricate. Its purposes are usually highly special-
There are six basic types of commercial glass ized, such as in specific components for medical
made today, which are differentiated by composition and chemical equipment.
and use:
The technological evolution of architectural glass
Soda-lime glass rapidly increased toward the end of the twentieth
Soda-lime glass is the least expensive type of glass century with the development of new coatings and
and, not surprisingly, is also the most common, different laminates. The glass industry is vast and
accounting for 90 percent of all glass made, most diverse, making it difficult to enumerate every type
14
and variation of glass available. Additionally, there and in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
are a number of ways to manufacture glass. For was considered inferior, to be used as windowpanes
architectural purposes, flat glass is the most com- in the homes of the lower class. Crown glass can be
mon type produced, of which there are three basic clear or artistically swirled with colors. It was per-
varieties: plate, sheet, and float, all of which are still fected during the Middle Ages, when many artisans
made today, though float glass is predominant. used crown glass for stained-glass windows. Today,
only artists who specialize in the craft of historic
Plate glass glass still use this process.
Plate glass was the first large-scale production
process for smooth, clear glass, devised in France Cast glass
in the late seventeenth century. Glass was cast on Cast glass is made by pouring molten or liquid glass
a flat surface and then rolled, ground, and polished in a mold to form a particular shape before it is
for a relatively undistorted, clear transparency. cooled and released. Cast glass is one of the oldest
Joseph Paxtons Crystal Palace in London in 1851 methods in glass history, with early vessels dating
used mostly plate glass. back to Egypt and Mesopotamia as early as the
fifteenth century BCE. The method of casting glass
Sheet glass is typically used today by artisans or for ornamental
Sheet glass, or drawn glass, was first developed in and design-specific purposes. Architecturally, cast
Belgium in the early twentieth century. Large sheets glass is used in the forms of channel glass products,
of transparent glass can be produced by drawing glass block, patterned (textured) glass, or in a
molten glass onto a flat surface, smoothing it out custom-designed glass system. The thickness,
with a roller, then grinding and polishing it on both shape, and surface texture can vary according to
sides. Sheet glass has inherent distortions, which the mold that is made to hold the glass.
increase as the size of the sheet increases. This was
a work-intensive process but was the only known The following are additional types of glass that
way to produce sheets of glass until the invention of are made with different qualities to enhance their
float glass a half-century later. Sheet glass is still performance. These are more specialized forms of
used today in small window lites. glass, each with highly developed capacities.
laminated glass can be used to diffract sunlight in a fire-resistant glazing in doors and windows, although
skylight, insulate sound in a recording studio, or be it is no stronger than glass without wire mesh.
used by security facilities in need of bulletproof or
fire-retardant windows. It is useful in skylights or in Spandrel glass
storefronts because the product remains in place Spandrel glass is used in curtain wall construction to
even if the surface glass is broken. Laminated glass hide or disguise the structural elements of the build-
can be used in structural conditions such as floors, ing. It is a glass that has been made opaque from
stairs, and transparent curtain wall mullions. Triple- the exterior to give an overall uniform appearance
laminated, heat-strengthened glass is often used for of glass. Spandrel glass often uses a ceramic frit
structural and load-bearing areas in a building. process to coat a piece of vision glass. The ceramic
coating is typically applied to the inner face of the
Glass blocks outermost piece of glass, leaving the sheen and dura-
Glass blocks are massive glass units that are avail- bility of the glass exterior surface unchanged.
able in a wide range of sizes, shapes, textures, and
colors. Installed like unit masonry, these blocks are Embossed glass
produced by melting glass and then casting it into Embossed glass is where a coating (often a ceramic
shells; two shells are fused together to make one coating) is applied to the glass panel and baked
block, sometimes with a void in the center. Some to bond to the glass for a permanent adherence.
glass-block walls can meet fire resistance codes. Ceramic frit patterns can be screen printed onto the
glass panels and baked in the same process as for
Channel glass spandrel glass. The frit patterns give designers a new
Channel glass is a self-supporting, U-shaped glass way to control light, color, and pattern on glass walls.
system with a textured, translucent surface. It is
produced by casting and is usually set vertically in
an aluminum framing system. This glass system
provides a wall that can support itself while also
providing large areas of light transmission. It can be
used for almost all applications, eliminating the need
for vertical and horizontal frame members and only
requiring a perimeter frame.
Insulating glass
Insulating glass is two or more sheets of glass sep-
arated by a hermetically sealed space for thermal
insulation and condensation control. The airspace
between the sheets of glass can be filled during
the manufacturing process with either dry air or a
low-conductivity gas, such as sulfur hexafluoride.
This gas can enhance thermal efficiency approxi-
mately 12 to 18 percent and can also help with sound
insulation. The thermal performance of double-
glazed or triple-glazed windows can be further
improved by the addition of a low-E coating on one
or all of the layers of glass.
Wire glass
Wire glass involves steel wires rolled into sheets of
glass. A wire mesh is inserted during the manufac-
turing of plate glass, allowing the glass to adhere
together when cracked. It can qualify as safety
glass for some applications and can be used as a
Basque Health Department Headquarters
Bilbao, Spain Coll-Barreu Arquitectos
Partially reflective glass, digital design and fabrication
01
01 Exterior
02 Ground-floor plan
03 Seventh-floor plan
02 03
18 Basque Health Department Headquarters
04 Balcony between
building wall and glass
facade
04
B
C
D
05
06
B D F plan
C E F section
GLASS 19
Reinforced concrete
Reinforced concrete waffle
waffleslab
slab
Frenchwindows
French windows of of anodized
anodizedaluminum
aluminum breaking thermal bridge
breaking of thermal bridge
Thermal
Thermalinsulation
insulation
Radiantceiling
Radiant ceiling conditioning
conditioning
Suspended
Suspendedceiling: plasterboard
ceiling: plasterboard sheets
sheets fixedfixed
to
togalvanized
galvanized steel profiles
steel profiles
Low-edouble
Low-E double glazing
glazingwith
withinterior
interior laminated security glass
security laminated glass
Handrail: stainless
Handrail: steel circular
stainless-steel tube tube
circular profile
profile
Raised floor
Raised floor
Reinforced concrete
Reinforced concrete slab
slab
Waterproof membranes
Waterproof membranes
Increased light
Increased lightmortar
mortarlayer
layer
Draincover
Drain cover canal
canal
1/2
IPEIPEstainless-steel
stainless steel profile
profile
Frontof
Front of structural
structural floor: wood
floor: andand
wood cement panel,
cement panel,
fortified layer of mortar special
mortar increased layer of waterproof
at waterproof center,
center,
galvanized steel
galvanized steel profiles,
profiles, and inside
and thermal
interior insulation
thermal
insulation
Throat: folded
Throat: folded aluminum
aluminumsheetssheets
Suspended ceiling:
Suspended ceiling: wood
woodand andcement panel,
cement mortar
panel,
increased
fortified layerofofmortar
layer special waterproof cement,
at waterproof center,
galvanized steel profiles, inside thermal insulation
galvanized steel profiles, and interior thermal
insulation
1/2
IPEIPEstainless-steel
stainless steel profile
profile
Extruded anodized
Extruded anodized aluminum
aluminum carpentry withwith breaking
carpentry
ofbreaking
thermalofbridge
thermaland
bridge and balcony
balcony windows
windows
Doublelow-E
Double low-e glazing
glazing with
withinterior security
interior laminated
laminated
security glass
glass
Encaustic cement
Encaustic cement floor
floortile
tile
Reinforced concrete
Reinforced concrete slab
slab
Waterproofmembranes
Waterproof membranes
07
Glass Townhouses
Venice, California, USA Sander Architects
Translucent glass
Design Intention The translucent outer glass panels diffuse the beams of
This building is divided in half vertically to create a pair of sunlight softly, but also convert some of the radiant energy into
three-story condominiums that incorporate many sustain- heat. The heat is then conducted through the glass panes to the
able design strategies and materials. The narrow corner site outside air on both sides, and carried away from the enclosed
has a broad public elevation with a challenging southwest spaces. By placing the glass pieces in a sawtooth configuration,
orientation. The homes slender mass is exploited to reduce the glass outer layer gains a 2" vertical vent every 28" of
their environmental impact in two ways: extensive glazing its length (50 mm every 710 mm). Air can naturally convect
on the long walls maximizes natural daylighting throughout, horizontally through these vents, and move vertically because
and operable windows facilitate natural cross ventilation and the bottom and top of this zone between layers are not airtight.
passive cooling. An earlier iteration of this elevation had a tightly packed
series of channel glass as the outer layer, which would have
Materiality diffused light similarly, but would not have dissipated heat
The primary elevation of the building is a double layer of trans- nearly as well.
lucent materials. The inner layer is a multiwall acrylic panel All materials in the outer layer are water resistant. Each
that provides waterproofing and some thermal resistance, plane of glass is held at the top and bottom in the saw-tooth
inside an outer layer of saw-toothed plates of glass. The effect configuration by a strip of wood-plastic composite, a material
from the interior is a double-height wall that fills the rooms that is normally used as an alternative to wood in residential
with light during the day and allows the interior lights to glow decks or similar applications. Here the product was adapted
toward the street at night. The use of glass continues through by simply cutting a groove at an angle to receive the glass.
the house with detailing accents in living spaces, kitchens, The composite strip is supported continuously by an aluminum
and baths. This project showcases the many uses of glass and angle. In these locations, the underside of the composite mate-
the different conditions that can be achieved in areas of the rial was saw-cut laterally at 12" (305 mm) intervals along its
domestic setting. length to create drips for water to drain toward the outside.
The 0.25" (6.3 mm) thick glass pieces were sandblasted to
Technical make them translucent. Although this coarsened the surface
Venice, California, has a hot, dry climate, with more than 260 and made it more difficult to clean, for this application that was
sunny days in a typical year. It is near enough to the ocean to not a concern. The outer layer of glass decreases the amount of
benefit from milder temperatures and fresher breezes than ultraviolet light that reaches the multiwall acrylic inner layer,
inland locations, but building design is dominated by a priority prolonging the life of the polymer.
on minimizing heat gain. The broad southwest elevation was
an obvious asset regarding daylighting, but was a potential
liability regarding heat and glare, because afternoon sun would
potentially shine into an already warm interior.
UP
DN
01 Second-floor plan
southwest
01
GLASS 21
02
22 Glass Townhouses
44 point curb
20'4" (120.4 m)
Threaded attachment rod, bolt to deck framing, stainless-steel decking for sizing
10'4.75"
ALUMINUM 'T'
0.75" smooth troweled stucco
with building paper
ALUMINUM 'T'
STL. TUBE STIFFNER
BEYOND, SSD
04 06 PLATE GLASS
PLATE GLASS
GLASS 23
ALUMINUM
STOREFRONT
0.75" smooth-troweled stucco with building paper
WINDOW FRAME
07
08
Factory Extension
Murcia, Spain Clavel Arquitectos
Channel glass, translucency
01 Nighttime view
02 Transverse section
03 Exterior detail
04 Exploded perspective of
construction assemblies
05 Construction sequence
01
02
GLASS 25
03
Composite floor
Facade interior
Composite floor
04 05
Diana Center at Barnard College
New York, New York, USA Weiss/Manfredi Architecture/Landscape/Urbanism
Ceramic frit, shadow box glass assemblies
Design Intention greater spatial connection to the exterior. The outermost layer
Barnard College is an intimate campus compressed into the is typically an aluminum curtain wall frame with a dominantly
dense urban environment of Manhattan. Composed of an vertical orientation, fully wrapped by various glass and aluminum
eclectic group of predominantly brick buildings, the campus cladding elements. Great care is evident in the details to provide
is focused around grassy Lehman Lawn. The Diana Center is a the necessary transitions between rough structure and refined
98,000 sq. ft. (9,100 sq. m) multiuse building that establishes finishes, but also between elements of low and high construction
a setting for campus life, bringing together spaces for art, tolerances, and between materials that may be incompatible,
architecture, theater, and art history, as well as faculty offices, such as aluminum and steel, or concrete and aluminum.
a dining room, and a cafe. From the historic entrance gate at The anodized aluminum curtain wall frame is bracketed
Broadway, the wedge-shaped building frames Lehman Lawn to the concrete or steel armature. Wall surfaces are typically
and unites landscape and architecture, presenting views to the wrapped with various glass products. Composite aluminum clad-
campus and the city. ding is set flush with the glass at transitions, such as at copings
A diagonal void cuts the building, establishing sightlines and transitions between glass types. The aluminum transitions
through the gallery, reading room, dining room, and cafe. were made of copper anodized extrusions, with some bar stock
Anchoring the lower levels, a 500-seat multipurpose space and and break metal pieces to match. Some aluminum panels were
100-seat black box theater house lectures, special events, made with a metallic Kynar finish rather than being anodized.
and theatrical productions. On the campus side of the building, Glass in this curtain wall is always insulated, using
an unfolded glazed staircase encourages informal encounters 5/16"5/8"5/16" (8168 mm) cavity glass panels consistently
at the heart of the project. to standardize details. At parapets and spandrels, where visibility
through the glass is not desired, a shadow box is used. The
Materiality shadow boxs dark backing surface makes the unit uniformly
The buildings enclosure establishes a reciprocal relationship opaque from the outside. Before the glass panel is fabricated, a
between the campus context and the internal programmatic ceramic coating is roller-applied to the surface of the inner layer
elements. Residing in a campus defined by brick and terra- of the outer plane of glass (the #2 surface). It is then baked on
cotta, the Diana Center translates the static opacity of masonry to permanently bond to the glass. Shadow box glass panels are
into a contemporary, luminous, and energy-efficient curtain never seen from the inside. The inner layer of glass in these units
wall. A total of 1,154 panels of varying widths calibrate gradi- is simply clear glass, and chiefly contributes to thermal control.
ents of color, opacity, and transparency to the Diana Centers An air space separates the inner glass surface from the backing,
diverse programs, allowing views into the buildings public assuring that no contaminants can migrate to the glass panel.
functions and limiting visibility where privacy is necessary. Vision glass in this project was made using a variety of
The translucent acid-etched fritted glass combines with ceramic frit patterns that were screen printed onto the glass.
colored metal panels to create constant shifts in hue and The ceramic frit is then baked onto the glass in the same manner
reflectivity under varied lighting and climate conditions. as for shadow box glass units. The frit pattern offers permanent
As a LEED Gold building, sustainability motivated many view and light controls to the envelope, and carries the hue of
design decisions, supporting Barnards efforts to both teach the shadow box glass units and metal cladding into the vision
and practice environmental principles. The Centers green glass panels. The ceramic frit on many of these vision glass
roof offers a 2,800 sq. ft. (260 sq. m) ecological learning center panels have a gradient of vertical colored stripes, making one
for biology and environmental science students as well as a edge of the glass panel nearly opaque, and the other edge clear.
valuable new social space. The building maximizes daylight The result is a complex elevation that appears to be composed
and views and incorporates operable windows, radiant flooring, of diagonal wall pieces, when actually they are coplanar.
and recycled materials. The lighting control system, occupancy It is particularly challenging to produce the same color in
sensors, automated shading, and high-performance MEP sys- both shadow box glass and screen-printed vision glass, because
tems help increase efficiency and enable daylight harvesting. the ceramic coating is applied differently, and because the tint
or reflectivity of the vision glass may differ from that of the
Technical shadow box glass units. A coordinated effort between architect
The Diana Center employs a variety of construction materials and glass fabricator was used at the Diana Center to achieve a
and assemblies to achieve a coherent whole. The primary seamless visual result.
structure of concrete on a steel frame is altered in varied ways. Most of the glass panels in this buildings curtain wall are
For instance, it accepts a stair that engages the outer wall, is fixed in place, but in some locations operable awning lights
modulated in section to provide varied interior volumes, and were custom-fabricated to permit local control over ventilation.
has an accessible vegetated roof deck. These operable sashes consist of a thin aluminum frame that
The buildings stout structure reaches out to the envelope is inside the insulated glass panel, and is not exposed to the
with members of diminishing mass and depth, permitting exterior.
GLASS 27
04 Installation of unitized
curtain wall
Extruded EXTRUDED
aluminum mullion
ALUM MULLION 05 Exterior view
Outswinging operable
OUTSWING vent
OPERABLE VENT
Operable window
OPERABLE WINDOW
Pocket slab
POCKET SLABat anchors
AT ANCHORS
Sill trim
SILL TRIM
Ceramic
CERAMIC frit border
FRIT BORDER
Metal trim
METAL TRIM
Metal panel
METAL PANEL
Adjustable curtain
ADJUSTABLE wall,
CURTAIN WALL
anchor beyond
ANCHOR BEYOND
MineralMINERAL
fiber FIBER
insulation
INSULATIONwith
W/
water-resistant facing
WATER-RESISTANT FACING
05
Insulated
INSULATEDglass unit
GLASS UNIT
Interior finish
INTERIOR FINISH
Metal
METALback pan
BACK PAN
01
WALL TYPE 1 STACK JOINT/ ANCHOR AT OPERABLE WINDOW
02
03 04 06
28 Diana Center at Barnard College
2
6
10
9
4
5
1
11
12
1 Curtain wall with 5/16"5/8"5/16" (8168 mm) 9 Solar shading comprising fixed aluminum
aluminum double-glazed units with opaque blades
13 glass, air space, 2.875" (75 mm) sheet aluminum
sandwich panel with insulation interlayer on 10 False ceiling formed by 0.375" (10 mm) gypsum
frame of aluminum profiles, 0.5" (14 mm) board, frame of aluminum C-profiles, and tie
waterproof plywood panel, double waterproofing rods suspended from supporting structure
14
membrane, sheet aluminum flashing, finish on 11 Floor with 2.625" (65 mm) honed concrete finish,
inner face of parapet consisting of 1" (25 mm) 5.5" (140 mm) reinforced concrete slab
sheet aluminum sandwich panel with insulation
interlayer on aluminum brackets 12 Roof formed by gravel layer, sheet aluminum,
waterproofing membrane, 0.625" (15 mm)
2 Coping consisting of sheet aluminum flashing, waterproof plywood panel, 3.125" (80 mm) board
0.875" (22 mm) board insulation, waterproofing insulation, waterproofing membrane, 5.125"
membrane, aluminum window frame 21.25" (130 540 mm) steel L-profile connecting
15 16 3 Parapet fixed by brackets to slab formed by facade to slab
2.625" 2.625" (65 65 mm) steel box profile 13 Internal staircase tread consisting of steel frame
uprights surmounted by 0.5" 3.125" (14 80 and 1.75" (45 mm) honed concrete
mm) steel plate
14 Staircase supporting structure in 9.625" 7.5"
17 4 Green roof comprising 8.5" (215 mm) topsoil, (245 190 mm) steel box profiles
root-repellent membrane, 5.875" (150 mm)
board insulation, waterproofing membrane, 15 8.625" x 8.625" (220 x 220 mm) steel L-profile
8.25" (210 mm) reinforced concrete slab (parallel to plane of section) connecting facade
to stairs
5 7.125" (180 mm) floating deck with 1.375" (35
mm) stone flags 16 Sheet aluminum exterior finish, 1.75" (45 mm)
board insulation, vapor barrier, double 0.75" (18
6 Full-height curtain wall with 5/16"5/8"5/16" mm) waterproof plywood panels, 4.125" (105
18 (8168 mm) aluminum double-glazed units mm) board insulation on structure of 1 4.125"
with low-E treatment (25 105 mm) aluminum C-profiles
7 Facade formed by 2.375" (60 mm) sheet 17 Opening 5/16"5/8"5/16" (8168 mm)
aluminum sandwich panel with rigid insulation aluminum double-glazed unit
interlayer and vapor barrier on interior face
18 Cladding consisting of shaped sheet aluminum
8 Roof formed by waterproofing membrane, and board insulation with average thickness
0.5" (14 mm) waterproof plywood panel, board of 1.75" (45 mm), 6.25" 6.25" (160 160 mm)
insulation of varying thicknesses forming steel L-profile (parallel to plain of section)
slope, waterproofing membrane, structure of connecting facade to slab, 2.875" (75 mm)
steel L-profiles, and steel plates embedded shaped sheet aluminum with insulation
in concrete connecting facade to supporting
structure, 5.875" (150 mm) reinforced concrete
slab
07
GLASS 29
5'0"
Metal panel
Metal panel
10 3/4"
type M1A
type M1A
(12'10" between 1st and 2nd floor)
Glass type GL1: Glass type GL1: Glass type GL1: Glass type GL1:
13'
50% fritted area 30% fritted area 65% fritted area 25% fritted area
Operable unit with Operable unit with Operable unit with Operable unit with
2'6"
glass type GL1: glass type GL1: glass type GL1: glass type GL1:
50% fritted area 30% fritted area 65% fritted area 25% fritted area
shadow box Vision Shadow box Vision Shadow box Vision Shadow box Vision
A1 B1 B2 C1
5'4.25"
Metal panel Metal panel
type M1A type M1A
9'7 1/4"
19'6"
Glass type GL1: Glass type GL1: Glass type GL1: Glass type GL2
50% fritted area 75% fritted area 40% fritted area
4'6 1/2"
50% fritted area 75% fritted area
Shadow box Vision Shadow box Vision Vision Shadow box Shadow box
C2 C3 D3 S1 S2
Metal panel
10.75"
type M1A
10'6"
13'
13'
2'6"
2'6"
Vision Vision
2 Studio 6 Toilet
02 Section along length of spiral
3 Office 7 Storage
03 Exterior
4 Mechanical room 8 Courtyard
04 Exterior from above gallery
05 Ground-floor plan
1 2 8 6 1
01
7 3 4 5 6 7
02
GLASS 31
03
7 2
7
3 6
8
4
5
1
04 05
32 Spiral Gallery
11
2
4
5 3
6 12
9 7 a@
b1
13
c2
d4
e1
f1
g3
8
hg
i3
j1
10 k3
l lig
14 m
nD
11
1 1525 mm white gravel 5 100 mm anticorrosive wood purlin at 400 mm 10 15 (low-E)+12A+15 hot bending tempered glass
2 1.5 mm modified asphalt polymer waterproof 6 15 mm anticorrosive and fire retardanttreated 11 3 mm aluminum veneer
coiled material wood sheathing
12 Light gray fair-faced concrete paint
3 20 mm anticorrosive wood and wooden purlin 7 300 mm high steel beam
13 Dressed stone
4 40 mm rigid foam polyurethane heat 8 Gypsum board ceiling
insulation layer 14 D80 downspout
9 3 mm corrugated perforated aluminum veneer
06
07 Gallery interior
08
The Crystal (Nykredit Bank)
Copenhagen, Denmark Schmidt Hammer Lassen Architects
Ventilated double-envelope glass system
01 02
GLASS 35
03
04
02 Longitudinal section
1 2
4
5
6
8
9
10
12
11
13
07
1 Roof construction/gutter
14 15 16
2 Glass roof
7 Horizontal profile
10 8 Blinds
9 Steel profile
13 Inner bracket
14 Steel panel
19 Steel substructure
23 Cladding
06
GLASS 37
07 Facade details
08 Site plan
10 Double-envelope facade
during construction
08
4. Ramp to basement parking
Ground Floor 1:750
2. Panorama Lifts
1. Main entrance
5. Harbour
3. Stairs
09 10
Cit du Design
Saint-tienne, France LIN Architects
Modularity
Design Intention the fenestration break from the standard triangular geometry.
The Cit du Design was designed to rejuvenate Saint-tiennes The walls steel structural members bear on the foundation
centrally located but underutilized factory district. The project only with the inner line of vertical supports, while the outer
includes a new facility to nurture the economic and social line of supports and the triangular skin overhang the founda-
properties of the existing factories and the citys International tion. At the perimeter of the building, the paved ground plane
Design Biennial, held there since 1998. The 656' long (200 m) slopes down to the foundation wall, leaving a reveal below the
building occupies the former site of the citys armory. The wall assembly. Operable panels below the floor plane can be
placement of the new building acts as a mediating filter in the opened to permit outside air to sweep into the reveals and up
urban space between the existing Place dArmes and the main through open floor panels into the interior spaces.
factory building. Adjoining the new structure is an existing The buildings envelope is composed of varying inter-
building for the cole Suprieure dArt et Design de Saint- changeable units that let the triangular modules perform the
tienne, a school that was renovated to house workshops and ideal function for any particular location. In addition to the
classrooms. Glass modular panels gave the architect a flexible normal range of exterior envelope concerns like light trans-
design palette that fittingly meshes with the overall materiality mission and thermal insulation, the modular envelope permits
and the programmatic features of the new building. such innovative systems as photosynthesis modules and
photovoltaic panels. The skin of the building reacts continu-
Materiality ously to changes in climate. In the future the panels may be
A steel space truss spans the entire 102.4' (31.2 m) width of replaced or modified according to changing needs or new areas
the building. Formed out of nominally equilateral triangles, of experimentation.
the steel structural geometry is able to receive any of eleven The triangular modules come in two sizes: those used on
interchangeable modules, each with varied visual and technical the long walls are 41.3" (1.05 m) and those on the end walls are
qualities, which can be arranged according to functional pur- 47.3" (1.2 m). For vision glass infill panels, the smaller panels
pose, research requirements, or even seasonal preferences. use 0.24" (6 mm) float glass, and the larger panels use 0.32"
These modular glass pieces fit neatly into the structural steel (8 mm). Most glazed modules use insulated glass, although an
system and can filter light, control the view, absorb or trans- uninsulated version is also available. In one unit, fixed louvers
form energy, and regulate air ventilation and temperature. reside in the cavity within the insulated glass assembly. In
Each module demonstrates the sophisticated applications and another unit, photovoltaic cells convert radiant energy into
level of flexibility glass can provide. Inside the long building, electricity, but the photovoltaic cells do not fill the triangular
each programmatic zone is separated by glazed walls that offer panel, permitting dappled light to pass through to the interior.
thermal and acoustic control. Where light transmission is not important, insulated anod-
ized aluminum panels are used. On the roof, thickly insulated
Technical hatches can be installed where appropriate.
The single-story building has a concrete floor elevated above Extensive analysis determined the distribution of the trian-
a service plenum. Hydronic heating is integrated into the floor gular modules to deliver optimum functionality to the interior
slabs. The steel spanning structure has a crowned sectional space. There are more than 4,300 triangular panels on the roof
profile, shedding water to the long edges of the plan. alone. These tiny movable pixels making up the envelope con-
The space truss spanning system is continuous with the stitute an infinite number of configurations for the researchers
space-trussed wall system and uses the same general kit of using the building. A research greenhouse occupies approxi-
parts. Only at building corners, entries, and bases of walls does mately 10 percent of the length of the building.
01 02
GLASS 39
03
40 Cit du Design
Opaque panel in
Opaque panels innatural
naturalanodized
anodizedaluminum
aluminum Photovoltaic panelsglazed panel in daylight
Insulated
Photovoltaic panels
Insulated
Insulating glass
glass panel
panelswith
with fixed louvers
fixed louvers
Experimental photosynthetic panels
Experimental photosynthetic panels
Glazed
Opaque panel
Glazed insulated
ininsulated glasspanels
natural anodized
glass panels allowing
aluminum
allowing light
light (two
(two sliding
sliding windows)
windows) Insulated glazed
Insulating panel in
glazed panels in daylight
daylight
04
05 06
GLASS 41
08 Partial plan
09 Transverse section
07
08
09
Ernst Koller Pavilion
Basel, Switzerland Berrel Berrel Krutler Architekten
Insulated glass panels, embossed glass
01
GLASS 43
02
01 Transverse section
03 Longitudinal section
03 04
44 Ernst Koller Pavilion
+4.593
1
2
4
5
+4.235
M8*20
+4.175 6
+4.000
+3.700 9
10
11
10
1 50 mm bed of gravel
4 Vapor barrier
14 25 mm plywood
17 15 100 mm polystyrene thermal insulation
16 60 60 mm wood strips
17 Reinforced concrete
05 5
10
15
20
GLASS 45
12
11
06
5 15
10 20
13
07
08 Gallery interior
09 Entry facade
08 09
Apple Flagship Store
Shanghai, China Bohlin Cywinski Jackson
Curved tempered laminated glass
01
Stair tread
02
03
02 Diagram of laminated
glass treads
structures were being built of reinforced concrete, color. Using smooth, nonporous materials such as
and engineering design methods were established metal to line the formwork helps, but there are many
for its use. In the 1920s, French engineer Eugene factors to consider to achieve a desired surface
Freyssinet created a scientific basis for prestressed texture. The concrete mix itself, the aggregate size
concrete, an invention that allowed concrete to be within the mix, admixtures, the casting and finishing
used in large-scale structures. Freyssinets research techniques, environmental conditions, and even the
and design led to roads, bridges, and large harbor scheduling of the concrete trucksall affect the
construction, as well as airplane hangars, such as materials ultimate appearance.
one at Orly Airport in Paris. Concrete surfaces can have an wide array of
As the twentieth century progressed, concretes textures or colors. Surfaces can be sandblasted
material qualities were employed in such remarkable to expose aggregates for a specific aesthetic; dyes
structures as Frank Lloyd Wrights Unity Temple and mineral pigments can be added to concrete to
(1905) in Oak Park, Illinois, the roof of Le Corbusiers achieve almost any color, as in many concrete floors;
Ronchamp Chapel (1955) in France, Eero Saarinens polishers and coatings can also be applied after
Dulles Airport Terminal (1962) in Virginia, and TWA curing to achieve a smooth or coated surface. When
Terminal at JFK Airport in New York (1962). In each still freshly mixed, concrete can be manipulated to
of these projects, the architect used the material to achieve a preferred texture, or objects can even be
achieve a very specific design goal by exploiting the cast into the concrete.
inherent properties of concrete. Concrete can fail as an architectural material if
any component of its mixing, placement, or curing
is incorrect. Other disadvantages include its weight
Design Consider ations and the complexities involved in the forming process.
The biggest advantage to using concrete for design- There are some recent advances in concrete tech-
ers is its range of possible forms and shapes, limited nology, however, in which admixtures can improve
only by its formwork. Concretes sculptural qualities these shortcomings. Recently developed admixtures
and variety of surface textures, in addition to its can lighten concretes weight without compromising
structural capabilities, makes it a versatile design its strength. For instance, high-performance concrete
tool. It can take on linear forms in the shape of beams is an ultra-light concrete containing fibers that make
and columns, just like steel and wood; it can mimic the material self-reinforcing, eliminating the need
the dense, wall-like forms of stone or masonry. for any steel components. This allows for thin con-
Uniquely, concrete can also take on a planar form, crete members to be manufactured without losing
such as a floor slab. It is a material that has such any structural capability. Self-consolidating concrete
vast possibilities that magnificent designs can has admixtures that allow the concrete to stay
resultthough magnificent failures are not uncom- extremely fluid during the pour without compromis-
mon. Craftsmanship and forethought are critical ing the strength of the material. It does not require
in concrete design in order to avoid the mundane vibration after pouring and enables pouring into
character of which the material is also capable. complicated molds or similarly constrained areas.
Executing a desired appearance takes a great Newly developed transparent concrete contains glass
deal of knowledge and foresight. Detailed specifica- fibers or resin that allow varying levels of light
tions, drawings, and discussions between the archi- transmission. These are just three of the many
tect and the contractor are necessary to achieve the advances and areas of research in concrete tech-
desired quality, and material mock-ups and site visits nology. The desired appearance of the material is
may be required for a very specific appearance and arguably limited only to the extent which a designer
outcome. For foundations and other purely functional is educated about the material and the limits of
purposes, where the concretes appearance does not that designers imagination.
matter, detailed specifications are still vital to ensure
the correct densities and ratios of concrete that will
perform its function in the building. T ypes
However sculptural and moldable concrete Reinforced concrete
is, minor imperfections in its surface are typical. Reinforcing concrete with prefabricated steel compo-
Though part of the materials inherent character, it is nents lends added strength to the material. This is an
difficult to get a perfectly smooth surface of uniform inspired marriage since the steel is protected from
CONCRETE 51
corrosion by the concrete and the concrete gains the cost consideration. It can be either specially con-
metals tensile strength, a quality it does not possess structed for each project or purchased as reusable,
on its own. Reinforced concrete is well-suited to sit- prefabricated units of standard lumber, plywood,
uations where both tensile and compressive strength metal, fiberboard, or reinforced synthetics. The key to
is needed. Most commonly, steel reinforcement typical formwork is that it be strong and stiff enough
bars, high-strength steel cables, or steel mesh are to support the large weight and fluid pressure of wet
placed in the concrete in areas where there will be concrete. Forms must also be tight to prevent loss
tension. Prestressed concrete is created by applying of liquid or cement paste. Generally, the higher the
a compressive stress to concrete by pre-tensioning quality of formwork, the better the resulting con-
it with steel strands. In prestressed concrete, the crete. Formwork is usually coated with a release
concrete is cast around stretched, high-strength agent or other suitable material before the concrete
steel strands, allowing it to cure, then the external is cast to prevent water absorption or unwanted
tensioning force on the strands is released. Stress is bonding between the form and the concrete. Form ties
then transferred to the concrete, taking advantage of are metal devices that are used to prevent the form-
its intrinsic strength in compression. Most precast work from spreading as the lateral load of plastic
concrete structural elements are prestressed. Post- concrete is imposed. When the formwork is removed,
tensioned concrete is made by stressing lubricated the wires or rods remain in place and are usually
steel strands after the concrete is cured. Site-cast twisted, broken, screwed, or pulled off, depending
concrete spanning systems such as beams and floor on the type of form tie. The configuration of the form
decks are often post-tensioned. Both prestressed panels and the location of the form ties are important
and post-tensioned concrete result in more slender, design considerations in wall appearance.
efficient assemblies than conventional reinforcement.
Reinforced concrete is most often used in struc- Precast concrete
tural beams, columns, wall panels, slabs, or any Precast concrete is generally made at a factory
other structural project, such as bridges and roads. before being moved to and installed at the site. It
Designers of reinforced concrete buildings must take uses an automated system of mixing and casting in a
care to design and construct them well, or the steel controlled environment, which yields consistency in
can corrode and rust, and cracking can occur. In wet craft and materials. It can be cast as panels, slabs,
and freezing conditions, some building codes require and beams, as well as complex shapes for struc-
epoxy-coated rebar and/or a sealer to keep water out tural or enclosure elements, or any other form in
and to prevent cracks and failure. the building construction. Precast building systems
are a booming industry; their use can accelerate the
Cast-in-place concrete construction process and can also be a timesaving
Cast-in-place concrete, also called poured-in-place and cost-effective method for projects that utilize a
and site-cast, is defined as concrete that is poured number of uniform or large-scale members, such as
directly on-site. An advantage to this site-specific airports, parking structures, or stadiums. Precast
method is that the concrete is cast specifically for one concrete cladding panels that are attractively finished
job, allowing for an unlimited sculptural quality with and contain insulation and some building services are
no restrictions on size or shape since it is cast exactly becoming more and more viable.
where it will remain. However, the construction pro- The formwork in which precast concrete is cast
cess can be slow, as more time is needed to build or is usually made of high-quality steel, coated plastic,
set the formwork at the site. Additionally, since the or wood and can be used many times, yielding a more
formwork is made on-site and in some cases is not consistent and controlled concrete member. Since
used again, the costs can be higher. This cost can the formwork is not made on-site (or used only once),
be defrayed if premade, reusable formwork is used. this reduces the unit cost of the concrete products.
Cast-in-place is not without risk, since environmental Time is also conserved since there is no formwork to
conditions will affect the pour, and controlling tem- fabricate or remove from the site. Precast units are
perature and moisture can add cost and difficulty. usually treated with steam to create the ideal amount
The formwork into which the concrete is cast acts of moisture and heat for the concrete to cure quickly.
as a mold that holds the shape of the concrete until it Precast concrete products can be cast, cured, and
has hardened and has developed sufficient strength removed from forms in twenty-four-hour cycles,
to support its own weight. Formwork can be a major with a high-quality result. On the construction site,
52
precast members can be erected very quickly, much economical way to build a load-bearing wall relatively
like steel. They can also be erected in poor weather quickly and easily. One can also achieve an insulated
conditions without having to wait for concrete to cure wall with CMUs when the hollow cores are filled or
properly, in contrast to cast-in-place concrete. when a cavity wall is constructed. Strength can be
Because precast concrete must be transported to increased by filling the CMU cells with concrete and
the site, there are a number of practical limitations to steel. CMUs are available in an almost endless array
consider. The concrete units can often be extremely of colors, textures, and sizes, giving a designer many
heavy and large, making transportation to the con- options. Their disadvantages include the weight of the
struction site difficult, as the size of the units are units and the dependence on skilled workmanship
prescribed by the legal highway or rail line capacities at the construction site. Unless a CMU wall is built
between the factory and the building site. The infinite well, it can be unattractive, leak, or have structural
sculptural qualities of concrete can similarly be con- problems.
strained by these transportation restrictions. Some
portions of a building cannot practically be precast Autoclaved aerated concrete
due to the size or shape of the piece, or the logistics Autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC), also called auto-
of transportation and erection. Foundations, slabs claved cellular concrete (ACC), is a lightweight, ther-
on grade, or other large elements cannot be precast. mally efficient, and structural concrete that has been
Repetitive, consistent, and manageably sized ele- in use in construction in Europe since the mid-
ments are the best choices for precasting. twentieth century. Its use in North America is still
Precast concrete can also be cast at the site and much less prevalent, primarily because the invest-
then moved with heavy machinery into its final loca- ment in manufacturing equipment and infrastructure
tion. One of the most common of these practices is is quite costly. It is a silica-rich material that contains
called tilt-up concrete. This method eliminates the sand or fly ash (a byproduct of coal combustion),
constraints of transporting precast members over lime, Portland cement, aluminum powder, and water.
roadways to the site, but climate considerations and AAC is often not made with fly ash due to availability
proper formwork need to be addressed, as with cast- and its quality control. The aluminum powder reacts
in-place concrete. chemically with the other materials and creates tiny
hydrogen bubbles, causing the concrete to expand
Concrete masonry units to approximately twice its original volume. The mix
Concrete masonry units (CMUs) are technically consid- is then moved into an autoclavean airtight chamber
ered a type of unit masonry, but are made using spe- filled with pressurized steamwhere the porous
cial concrete that is precast into formwork. CMUs are material gains strength, durability, and rigidity via
typically manufactured as hollow-core 8" 8" 16" chemical reactions over a twelve-hour period.
(200 200 400 mm) blocks. They are usually cast in AAC can be used in load-bearing walls for shorter
metal molds, released immediately, and then steam- buildings and as curtain walls in taller buildings. It
cured to a specific moisture content. The blocks can has a very high air content, causing it to weigh about
be made with different densities of concrete depen- two-thirds less than conventional concrete, and has
dent on their intended use. They are often employed nearly twice the thermal insulation values. It has
as back-up walls for brick or stone, but are increas- approximately 1/5 the density of standard concrete
ingly used alone as an economical structural wall and 1/10 the compressive strength. AAC can be man-
construction. Their hollow cores allow for reinforcing ufactured with different densities; higher densities
steel and grout to make the wall load-bearing. result in higher compressive strength but lower
The American Society for Testing and Materials insulation values. Unlike normal concrete, which
(ASTM), which establishes standards for materials of usually needs additional insulation, AAC can function
construction, governs CMU use for load-bearing con- as a structural insulating wall by itself. The overall
struction. C90 is the common, hollow load-bearing insulation value varies, depending on the climate,
unit, and is the most economical masonry wall one the R-value, and the thermal mass effect. It can be
can construct. Among others, the C129 is a hollow, formed into blocks, panels, lintels, or floor slabs, and
non-load-bearing unit, the C145 is a solid load-bear- has been utilized as an alternative to wood, as it can
ing unit, and the C55 is cast in a common brick be shaped by conventional carpentry tools, is rela-
dimension. The ASTM also specifies different grades, tively lightweight, does not rot or burn, has fairly good
types, and weights for each block. CMUs provide an sound absorbing qualities, and resists insects. One
CONCRETE 53
of the disadvantages of using AAC is that it has a high in much the same way as wood siding; however, its
embodied energy due to the high energy demands of higher weight makes it more unwieldy to manage rel-
the autoclave. It also might not perform as well as ative to a wood product. Fiber cement products are
more conventional types of construction in warmer usually available with a smooth face surface or an
climates. AAC needs to be protected from the envi- embossed texture that mimics actual wood.
ronment and surface abrasion with siding, plaster,
stucco, or other suitable finishes. Transparent concrete
Transparent concrete is concrete that allows partial
Rammed earth light transmission through resin or other optic fiber
Rammed earth construction is the forceful tamping to additives. Resin concrete, for example, can have
compact a mixture of earth and cement into a form- up to a 20 percent transparency and still retain its
work system to create a dense and structurally sta- strength. The concrete uses a dry ready-mix concrete
ble wall. Professionally constructed rammed earth product with a thermoplastic polymer resin that does
involves using heavy mechanized pneumatic equip- not crack or undermine the structure. This thermo-
ment with a rubber or steel tip to efficiently compact plastic polymer has a light transmission factor of 92
the soil. The mix is approximately 8 percent water, percent and has moderate resistance to UV rays and
3 percent cement, and 89 percent soil. Ideal soil chemicals. The mix also contains inorganic materials
contains both sand and clay, but should not contain such as alumina, which allows the material to cure
organic materials such as peat or loam, which would with out the use of water. The resins are very often
decompose. Formwork may be textured or smooth clear, but can also be different colors. Transparent
to give the final surface different qualities. It must be concrete can also be made with optic fibers, which
heavily reinforced to withstand the force of the com- often proves very costly. The advantage of transpar-
pactor. Walls are typically made at least 1' (305 mm) ent concrete is that it allows the filtering of light in a
thick to allow for the compacting equipment to reach structural and thermally resistant wall.
each lift of earth of 412" (100305 mm). Each lift
can be differentiated if a striated final appearance Ultra high performance concrete
is desired, or the appearance of each lift can be Ultra high performance concrete (UHPC) is high-
minimized for a monolithic effect. Rammed earth strength concrete, also called reactive powder con-
walls have a good thermal mass, and are energy effi- crete. This type of concrete does not require steel
cient, fire resistant, and considered environmentally reinforcement bars or mesh, nor does it require
friendly. They have their disadvantages: it is difficult vibration during the placement process. The mix
to ensure the correct earth mix, and the labor can flows readily and easily into formwork without air
be more intensive (and therefore costlier) than other voids. The reinforcement of the concrete is from
construction types. Considerations for utilities and high-carbon steel fibers (or polyvinyl alcohol fibers)
HVAC systems integrated into the walls must also be within the mix, making it inherently strong. This gives
taken into account. the concrete a high tensile and compressive strength
and allows for panels and wall thicknesses to be
Fiber cement reduced by 50 percent or more. It contains cement,
Fiber cement is a manufactured product increas- silica, sand, and water, as does most concrete, but
ingly used as a siding material. It is a combination it also contains the distinctive ingredients of ground
of cellulose fiber material, Portland cement, silica, quartz, wollastonite (a siliceous mineral fiber), and
sand, water, and other additives. This fiber material other fiber reinforcement. This type of concrete is
provides tensile strength and helps prevent crack- resistant to chemicals and water penetration and
ing. It is made in sheets and autoclaved (a process also has a high resistance to abrasion.
described above). The intense steaming actually gives
fiber cement a low moisture content, making it a sta- Graphic concrete
ble product that has little warping or movement. It is Graphic concrete is a new technology; its primary
a good product to use in place of wood where there feature is a custom-designed graphic that is inte-
is excessive moisture or a chance of termites. It can grally adhered to the surface of a precast concrete
be made into boards for a horizontal lap siding or element. This process is only possible in a controlled
in a panel sheet, much like the proportions of stan- manufactured precast setting. The process involves
dard plywood, for siding purposes. It can be applied applying an inhibitor on a special membrane to which
54
the designed patterns are printed. This membrane is environmental conditions. In addition to improving
then spread over the concrete mold where the con- the performance of concrete, admixtures can also
crete is cast. The membrane inhibits the chemical add color or change its final appearance.
curing process in the only the locations of the image.
After curing of the element, the slow-curing concrete Air-entraining admixtures increase concretes workability
in contact with the inhibitor is flushed away, revealing and are considered one of the most common and beneficial
the design chemically etched upon the surface of admixtures. They also protect concrete from freeze-thaw
the concrete. This design is permanently imparted to damage by having thermal insulating properties. In high
the concrete surface. In addition, the portion of the concentrations, concrete containing these admixtures is
panel surface that was in contact with the inhibitor is lightweight and non-structural, given its proportion of air
slightly recessed from the face of the panel. to mass. These admixtures reduce concretes strength, so
a consultation with engineers is important to ensure the
Fabric-formed concrete concrete will withstand the stresses of the application.
Fabric-formed concrete is a reinforced concrete con-
struction that uses flexible fabric membranes as Accelerating admixtures make concrete cure or harden more
formwork. The flexible, lightweight, and inexpensive quickly, reducing construction time and project costs.
qualities of the fabric membrane relative to tradi- These admixtures allow for formwork to be removed sooner
tional formwork makes this a newly attractive way and, in colder climates, may give the concrete much-
to cast concrete for use in cast-in-place or precast needed strength before the onset of freezing temperatures.
members. Beams, panels, columns, and slabs However, they can also cause shrinkage and discoloration
almost any shape can be cast using this method. The of the concrete as it cures. Calcium chloride, a common
flexibility of the membrane allows for easy curves ingredient in accelerating admixtures, can corrode any
and smooth surfaces. This process also may result embedded ferrous metals (such as steel) in the concrete.
in higher-strength concrete as a result of the filter- Therefore use of this chemical must be carefully monitored.
ing action that allows air and excess water to pass
through the fabric formwork. Because this formwork Retarding admixtures slow down the curing or hardening
is flexible, the form of the resulting piece is deter- process, allowing more time to place and finish the
mined by the interaction of the heavy concrete with concrete. Retarders are commonly used in massive
the fabric. Weight distribution of the freshly mixed engineering applications, especially in the construction
concrete must be carefully calculated and modeled of bridge decks, dams, and very large foundations. They
to achieve the intended form. The resulting appear- offset the normally high temperatures given off during
ance of fabric-formed concrete can take on endless the hydration process and avoid complications when
designs of forms, textures, and shapes. unavoidable delays between mixing and placing occur. Due
to the longer timeframe for setting, concrete containing
Self-consolidating concrete retarders may be vulnerable to environmental conditions
Self-consolidating concrete is a type of concrete that during the curing period. It may also be more vulnerable
optimizes the aggregates, admixtures, and cements to creep, a permanent deformation in a material caused by
in its mix to balance strength with workability. structural stress.
Superplasticizers (a type of admixture described
below) are especially useful to make the mix flow Superplasticizers are organic compound admixtures that
freely without compromising the concretes strength. transform a stiff concrete pour into a more fluid and
Because of its fluidity it can be poured into intri- workable mix. They also can permit a reduction of the water
cate formwork and produce a fine, smooth surface. content to increase the concretes strength. Slag cement,
The mix does not require vibration due to its fluid fly ash, and microsilica are some ingredients that can
consistency. plasticize the concrete to make it more workable and keep
the water content low without sacrificing the concretes
Admixtures compressive strength.
Admixturesmaterials other than water, aggregate,
and cement that are added before or during the Water-reducing admixtures allow for a 510 percent reduction
mixing processcan greatly improve the quality in the amount of mixing water needed while retaining
of concrete by increasing its strength, workability, the same amount of workability for the concrete. These
and durability, and can help it cure under adverse different chemicals can produce a higher-strength concrete
CONCRETE 55
and aid plasticity, but may slow the hydration process Movement Joints
and decrease the early strength of the concrete. Different Buildings move due to many factors, including ther-
types of chemicals added to concrete can be called water- mal change and environmental stress. Movement
reducing admixtures; their advantages and disadvantages is often accommodated by separating sections of a
vary depending on the particular chemical used. building to move independently within a prescribed
range. Building movement joints are the flexible
Fly ash admixtures are made from a powdered waste product connections between these sections. There are four
of coal-fired power plants and can increase concretes basic types of concrete joints:
strength and decrease its permeability. They can also
improve a mixs workability and reduce the required amount Control joints allow for controlled cracking along a formed,
of mixing water. tooled, or cut joint. They allow for shrinkage of the sections
of concrete.
Pozzolans admixtures are mineral admixtures that include
cementitious materials and natural pozzolans such as Construction joints occur when successive concrete pours
volcanic ash, fly ash, and silica fume. These admixtures abut one another. Seams between successive pours, called
improve the workability of the concrete and reduce the cold joints, are often a point of weakness; reinforcement
internal temperature during the curing process. If the bars and interlocking keys may be used to tie the two
internal temperature of curing concrete gets too hot, the concrete members together.
pour will not cure properly, possibly compromising its
structural integrity and causing shrinkage or cracking. Expansion joints are engineered joints that allow two adjacent
01
CONCRETE 57
Joint housing
Corner elements
Corner elements
03
Casa Pentimento
Quito, Ecuador Jos Mara Saez & David Barragn
Precast concrete modules
SECCION B
SECTION B
01 02
CONCRETE 59
01 Longitudinal section
04 05
Design Indaba 1010 Housing Project
Cape Town, South Africa Design Space Africa Architects (formerly MMA Architects)
Cement-based stucco
Design Intention cement. This frame became the armature that guide all subse-
The 1010 Low-Cost House was the entry of South African quent steps in the construction of the walls.
architectural firm Design Space Africa to an invited competition The wood frames were filled with sandbags stacked in an
hosted by Design Indaba, a multidisciplinary design platform overlapping pattern, like running bond in a masonry wall. Each
that supports creative spirit in a wide range of media. For the course of bags was tamped to consolidate the minerals and
competition, ten South African architects were paired with remove air pockets. Chicken wire covered the sandbag-filled
international firms to design low-cost housing solutions for frame to provide reinforcement for the subsequent stucco coat-
Cape Towns Freedom Park neighborhood. The project brief ings. Walls were covered with two-coat stucco, 0.8" thick (20
called for a dignified yet low-cost house of 450 sq. ft. (42 sq. mm) on the inside, and 1.2" (30 mm) thick on the outside. Paint
m), in either a detached or duplex configuration, arranged in was applied on both interior and exterior wall faces.
a grouping of ten such houses. The budget of approximately A 3.94" deep (100 mm) reinforced concrete ring beam
$6,480 (4,200) per house prompted the designers search increases the strength of the wall assembly immediately
for material innovation. This timber-framed structure filled below the joist and rafter bearing. It continues at that elevation
with sandbags and plastered with stucco was an award- around all of the perimeter walls as a unifying bond beam.
winning solution. Since sandbag construction had not been previously used in
The architects also wanted to demonstrate that green two-story applications, this concrete ring beam provides added
technologies need not be expensive, but can be easily structural integrity.
implemented and accessible to a wide market. The building The exterior walls are extraordinary hybrids of several
components and materials were simple, readily available off- conventional wall typologies. Some are more commonly found
the-shelf products, but even with low-tech assembly methods in masonry assemblies (the ring beam, bonded courses of
the actual cost of the house was approximately $9,725 (6,250). sandbags, and metal ties), while others (the prefabricated
The cost, however, was ultimately acceptable to the developer. wood frame, its modular dimensioning, and wood siding exte-
The other design teams failed to produce solutions that met rior finish) are more typical of traditional wood frames. The
such challenging objectives, so this design was adapted for use cement-stabilized sandbags and trowel-applied stucco supple-
for all ten housing units. ment masonry and wood features by contributing strength and
durable finishes.
Materiality The walls remain vulnerable to water, which could deterio-
The design emphasized local production of construction rate the wood frames in the walls, leach cement out of the min-
elements whenever possible. For example, the prefabricated eral mixes, or corrode the mesh reinforcement in the stucco.
wood-frame EcoBeam construction system was locally pro- To decrease water intrusion, the tops of walls were either
duced in Cape Town and the Freedom Park community helped covered with metal roofing, or if a parapet, capped with water-
to fill the sandbags and assisted in building assembly. By proofing. When water does manage to penetrate the walls,
involving unskilled community members in the construction, observation has shown that it passes through the stacked
the project both delivered affordable housing and economically sandbags downward to the ground, rather than laterally toward
empowered the local community, contributing to its sense of the interior space.
ownership of the houses. Cement-based stucco covers the
structure. It contains chemicals that combine with the water in
cement and waterproof the structure against hydrostatic pres-
sure, and it was painted on both sides. The thermal qualities of
the sand and the simplicity of the construction system, which is
from abundant sources and low in embodied energy, make it an
innovative and genuinely local design.
Technical
After the initial grading of the site, prefabricated EcoBeam
frames were set in place. The frames were prefabricated for
this specific project using a 35.4" (900 mm) module between
verticals, which was adapted to frame window and door
openings. The wood frames for the walls were 8.9" thick (225
mm), made using 1.5" 1.5" (38 38 mm) wood elements in
all three axes. It was erected on wooden sole plates, which
were secured to sandbag foundations stabilized with 2 percent
01
CONCRETE 61
02
01 Completed houses
03 Ground-floor plan
04 Upper-floor plan
03 04
62 Design Indaba Low-Cost Housing Project
Sandbag
Wire tie
Flashing fixed to EcoBeam wall Opaque polycarbonate sheeting Polyethylene polyclosure as per
and sheeting to match translucent roof sheeting manufacturers
sheet specification
05
07
Timber cladding
Plaster
06 08
CONCRETE 63
Foundation: sandbags in
double layer on compacted hardcore
to engineers specifications
09
Hanil Visitors Center and Guesthouse
Chungbuk, Korea BCHO Architects with CAST (Center for Architectural Structures and Technology)
Fabric-formed concrete
Design Intention steel mesh. The textures are attractive, and the surfaces will
The Hanil Visitors Center and neighboring Guesthouse are at weather and become moss-covered over time, which will fur-
the edge of a cement and concrete plant, on a site that adjoins ther enhance its appearance without detriment to the facility.
the beautiful Mt. Sobaek National Park. Damaged over the Material for the gabion wall came from the concrete slab upon
years by the passage of heavy trucks, the project reclaims the which the fabric-formed concrete elements had been cast.
quality of the site. It is estimated that many such dilapidated
reinforced concrete buildings in Korea will be replaced in the Technical
coming years, and the Center urges owners and designers to The flexible fabric-formed elements used tilt-up construction
utilize the residual value from the older buildings for future methods. On top of an unreinforced slab on grade, wood-
construction purposes. The structure is an advocate for, and framed partitions were set up to isolate each of the thirty ele-
demonstration of, the various ways concrete can be recycled. ments. Plastic tubes of two different diameters were positioned
The Center displays a wide range of formal expressions, and secured in place to give convex and concave profiles to the
including crisp planar, curving sculptural, and small-scale, fabric skin. Reinforced synthetic fabric was draped over the
fragmented concrete elements. tubes and on top of the slab, and the fabrics upper edges were
secured to the partitions. Conventional form-ply covered the
Materiality upper edges of fabric.
BCHO Architects asked the University of Manitobas Center for The two ends of the forms were enclosed with form-ply
Architectural Structures and Technology (CAST) to develop a that was scribed to meet the varied shapes of curved fabric.
formwork method for a unique facade for this building. After A grid of reinforcing bars was set in the concrete to provide
considering conventional methods, a design using flexible tensile strength, chiefly needed to lift the elements out of the
fabric molds was chosen for the entry elevation, where thirty formwork and move them to their final vertical position against
fabric-formed precast elements are intended to resemble the the cast-in-place concrete building wall. Steel embeds needed
tree trunks of the nearby forest. The elements were cast on to lift and secure the elements were also set in place. Workers
the site horizontally, allowed to cure, and then tilted up and carefully vacuumed the form cavity before casting concrete,
secured to the cast-in-place concrete building wall. since any residue left behind would be a permanent blemish
Unlike most precast concrete elements, these are not on the face of the concrete.
entirely repetitive. Repetition is normally associated with A permeable formwork fabric produced both improved
economical precast concrete fabrication, because engineering surface finishes and higher-strength concrete as a result of a
analysis of element configuration is expensive, as is form- filtering action that allowed air bubbles and excess mix water
work preparation. These elements support themselves but to bleed through the membrane. The fabric imprinted subtle
nothing else, thus their engineering design was less critical. features as the curved shapes morphed along the length
Flexible-fabric formwork uses substantially less material than of the concrete pieces. The unexpected juxtaposition of fabric
conventional formwork, making formwork preparation faster shapes and textures onto hard concrete reminds the viewer
and less expensive, and producing little landfill waste. The use that past experiences with these two materials were never
of flexible-fabric formwork also produces structurally efficient so integrated.
flowing shapes and complex curvatures with little expense. The concrete facade elements are generally 3.3' wide
Gabion walls were installed over the load-bearing cast- (1 m) and up to 23.8' tall (7.26 m), and are secured with metal
in-place concrete walls on the south side of the facility. They brackets at the footings, at roof level, and at the midpoint.
were made using irregular 3.947.87" (100200 mm) pieces of Variations in element width and length were not uncommon,
fractured recycled concrete, placed inside rectangular cages of taking advantage of the flexible formwork system.
01
CONCRETE 65
02
02 Exterior view
04 Longitudinal section
07 Ground-floor plan
THK9 manufactured
bracket
Precast
fabric-formed
concrete wall
05 06
CONCRETE 67
1 Dining room
2 Kitchen
3 Service
1 4 Hall
5 Vice-presidents room
2
1
2 3
07
08
09 10
Harmonia 57
So Paulo, Brazil Triptyque
Cement-based stucco
01
longitudinal view
CONCRETE 69
02
03
Hiroshi Senju Museum
Karuizawa, Nagano, Japan Ryue Nishizawa
Cast-in-place concrete
01
02 03
CONCRETE 71
04
308
58 250
385
/7 /744
72
court
/35
5.
14 14
Film-reinforced shatterproof
glass, t=15
High-permeability laminated
double-strength combination of
three types of high-transmittance
glass, t12+12, according to the
ceiling height
62 35 2 51
FL:GL+125
3
50
100
100
25
53
12 25
25 100
Sand
175
150 70 Underfloor
338
chamber wall
220
Stylo
200
SL:GL-350
25
Stone, t=60
60
60
05
Italian Pavilion at World Expo 2010
Shanghai, China Iodice Architetti
Light-transmitting precast concrete, photocatalytic concrete
Technical
The concrete mix contains proprietary cement and admixtures
to produce a concrete that bonds to the thermoplastic polymer,
and is strong enough to not crack along the plane of the aligned
resin pieces. Type I high early-strength cement was used to
accelerate the cure and strength. The aggregate was a graded
01
prospetti
CONCRETE 73
01 Site plan
02 South elevation
03 West elevation
02
03
04
74 Italian Pavilion at World Expo 2010
9 8
2 50 50 mm metal substructure
6
UPN 200 metal arm
9 Roof coverings
1
second floor 3 2
+14.00
35
sezioni 7
70
+20.00
80
80
+14,00
18
05
+11,74
+9,93
+8,00
+5,42
+2,52
SEZIONE A-A'
06
CONCRETE 75
05 Detailed section
06 Building section
9 10 11 12 13 14
08
5
15.0641
6
200
7
100
15 16
600
17 18 19 20
80
07 09
NkMip Desert Cultural Centre
Osoyoos, British Columbia, Canada DIALOG (formerly Hoston Bakker Boniface Haden)
Rammed earth
Design Intention its layers may be irregular, but its overall form is crisply
The NkMip Desert Cultural Centre is located in the South geometric. All of the walls faces have the same appearance
Okanagan Valley, adjacent to the Great Basin Desert, a 1,600- and texture and contain a record of the horizontal wooden
acre (650 hectare) preserve and conservation area. The build- formwork used in construction.
ing is an extension of the remarkable surrounding site, and Sustainability considerations included the involvement
reflects the native Osoyoos Indian Bands stewardship of the of the Osoyoos Indian Band in the main walls construction,
desert landscape. The fragility of the environment prompted which contributed to the long-term ecological sustainability
rigorous concern for sustainability, in line with the ancient of the area and the community, and provided an opportunity
values of the Osoyoos Indian Band. The desert landscape flows to advance an authentically South Okanagan building tech-
over the buildings green roof, and provided material for its nique. The project also created the opportunity for the Osoyoos
rammed earth walls. The partially submerged building creates Indian Band to develop artisanal construction skills as rammed
a layered view of the desert as it recedes into the adjacent earth contractors.
riparian landscape framed by mountains in the distance. The
land is dry year-round, and has cold winters and hot summers, Technical
with average temperatures ranging from 091F (-1833C), The earth-based wall system combines two 10" (250 mm)
often reaching 104F (40 C) on summer days. walls of compacted soil, sand, and cement with 4" (100 mm)
of rigid polyisocyanurate insulation sandwiched in the center,
Materiality for a total wall thickness of 24" (600 mm). Successive layers of
Two affiliated companies, SIREWALL and Terra Firma, col- differently tinted local soils were placed into the wide wooden
laborated with the architects to implement modern analytical formwork and compressed by a pneumatically powered tamper
design practices for the buildings rammed earth construction. to 50 percent of its untamped height, approximately 125 lbs./
The result was substantially improved performance, and at ft. (2,000 kg/m). The architect specified that the lift heights
262' long, 18' high, and 2' thick (80 m long, 5.5 m high, and 600 for each layer would be 57" (125170 mm), but was intention-
mm thick), the largest rammed earth wall in North America at ally vague about aesthetics, letting the builders achieve the
the time of construction. Rigid insulation occupies its center, desired natural appearance on their own.
providing an estimated effective thermal resistance of R33 Traditional rammed earth walls use clay to bind fine
(RSI 5.81) and stabilizing temperature variations. The walls mineral particles. In these walls, strength and durability are
are constructed from local soil mixed with cement and color enhanced by adding 610 percent Portland cement to the min-
additives. The building effectively retains warmth in the winter, eral mix by weight, less than half that of normal concrete.
while its substantial thermal mass moderates and offsets peak A small amount of water, 510 percent by volume, was added
temperatures in the summer. to the mix to fully evolve the hydration process. Bond beams
Rammed earth construction is an economical option in dry with higher concentrations of cement were used above and
regions where other materials are not readily available, and below windows, and as the parapet that ties the two wall
is a means to reduce embodied energy otherwise spent man- planes together.
ufacturing and transporting conventional materials. Exposed The wall is reinforced with #5 rebar at 16" on center verti-
rammed earth wall surfaces can resemble sedimentary soils, cally and horizontally (16 mm diameter, at 406 mm) in the cen-
but are compacted and often stabilized with cement to reduce ter of both planes of rammed earth that make up the thick wall.
abrasion and erosion. They are intrinsically strong in compres- Tamping around the rebar is especially critical. The rammed
sion, and durable if erosive forces are not extreme. Here they earth walls are constructed upon a reinforced concrete foun-
are reinforced throughout, and have additional reinforcement dation. The rammed earth is elevated above finish grade on
above windows and doors. the concrete foundation to avoid abrasion near the ground. The
The subtle layering of the rammed earth walls evokes concrete ground slab and roof slab below the vegetated roof
geological stratification, appearing natural and yet precise both contain a radiant heating and cooling hydronic system.
01
CONCRETE 77
02
03 Ground-floor plan
03 04
78 NkMip Desert Cultural Centre
Saw kerf reglet for continuous membrane flashing and pressure bar
300
300
331.35 Prefinished metal flashing
Top of wall
Slope
100
400 down
+/- 225
100 mm rigid insulation (RSI 3.5)
Cap sheet
Base sheet
Primer
Sloping suspended concrete coupled with in-slab radiant pipes
1900
INTERIOR
EXTERIOR
125
Puddled earth
125
329.05 Continuous clear-finish solid ash WD window stop and trim (top and bottom)
Top of window opening
600
Slope
down
Puddled earth
25
450
down
25
Caulk
326.00
Top of soil
300 400
150 245
05
CONCRETE 79
06 07
08
RATP Bus Center
Paris, France ECDM
Ultra high performance concrete, reactive powder concrete
02
03
82 RATP Bus Center
6 7
9 3
10
4
11
4 Vapor barrier
5 12 mm high joint
6 6 mm stainless-steel brace
8 Insert KEIL:
Cartridge O.C. 15 7 mm
Shank O.C. 6 40 mm
Nut O.C. 6 mm
Plaque 40 40 3 mm, hole O.C. 7 mm
2 EPDM 40 40 5 mm, hole O.C.
12 mm
9 3 mm stainless-steel brace
10 Insert KEIL:
Cartridge O.C. 15 7 mm
Shank O.C. 6 35 mm
Nut O.C. 6 mm
6 3 1 2
1 Bar wood
5 2 19 mm thermal insulation
4 6 mm stainless-steel brace
5 Insert KEIL:
Cartridge 15 7 mm
Shank 6 40 mm
Nut 6 mm
Plaque 40 40 3 mm, hole 7 mm
2 EPDM 40 40 5 mm, hole 12 mm
06 07 08
84 NAME OF PROJECT
Wood
85
such as bowing, cupping, twisting, and crooking. Wood construction can be traced to the begin-
Knowledgeable carpenters are able to judge a piece ning of civilization through archaeology in the crude
of wood to determine whether the level of defects in a structures of the pit dwellings, simple earth struc-
wood member is allowable for its intended use. tures covered with wood members for shelter. Other
The amount of moisture in a piece of wood affects early wood structures include yurts, teepees, and
many of its characteristics. Wood expands as its lean-tos. Early structures in Greece, India, Northern
moisture content rises and shrinks as it lowers. This Europe, and Japan were later typically constructed
must always be taken into account when designing of masonry walls with a timber roof. Vitruvius, the
and detailing any wood structure, since inevitably Roman architect and author of De Architectura
wood will shrink or swell depending on its moisture (27 BCE), talks about the primitive hut in his writings,
content. Dry lumber has increased strength and which perhaps is the first written historical record
resistance to decay, fungi, and insects. This can be of the use of wood in a structure. It was not until
done either through the relatively slow process of the Middle Ages that braced wood frames began
air-drying or through the use of kilns, as is typical to be used for walls. The hand-hewed practice of the
for most wood products today. cruck frame and the braced frame were two early
Many of todays advances in the wood industry, timber framing methods that evolved in Europe,
such as glue laminates, plywood, and other engi- which laid the foundation for the framing methods
neered wood products, were invented to compen- we still use today.
sate for some of the materials natural faults and For over 2,000 years timber framing was the
limitations. Wood is highly resistant to acids, bases, method of choice for building with wood. It began
and salts, and chemical treatments can increase its with the realization that timbers from the forest
resistance to fire, decay, and insect infestation. But could be hand-hewed into square log shapes and
connection materials that are often used in wood joined with mortise and tennon, dovetail, or pegged
buildings must also be considered, for they may react joints. In latitudes with thick forests, such as Europe,
to chemicals and should sufficiently resist corrosion. Japan, China, and India, the method of building with
There is also an ever-growing industry of plastics timber became a craft, with each geographic area
and synthetic wood products that attempt to mimic developing its own style and process. For example,
its aesthetic, such as products for flooring, trim, and during the Middle Ages in England, in order to con-
siding. These products have emerged as the ethical serve wood, shorter wood members were used with
and environmental issues surrounding the cutting in-filled masonry, a technique now identified with the
and clearing of trees are the subject of ongoing Tudor period of the sixteenth century. By the 1600s
debates concerning the preservation of many wood craft guilds developed, teaching the art of timber
species and other animals natural habitats. framing and wood joinery, with apprentices taking
great pride in their profession.
When British colonists arrived in North America
History in the seventeenth century, they brought with them
As an architectural material, wood is one of the most their various regional methods and traditions of
diverse and abundant in the history of construction. timber framing. The abundance of trees provided
It is also the only truly organic major architectural the early settlers with an almost limitless supply of
material. For thousands of years wood was the most construction materials, as forests covered an esti-
conventional building material along with stone and mated 46 percent of the continental United States in
clay. It has typically been plentiful and readily used the year 1600. (Today that number has dropped
by man for construction. Today wood is the primary to about 33 percent, due in large part to the clearing
source of energy for 40 percent of the worlds pop- of land initially for farming and later even more so
ulation, particularly in the developing world. For for the development of growing suburban communi-
decades wood has played a key role in the construc- ties.) By the mid-1800s large timber framing began
tion of road systems, bridges, railroads, and the to disappear due to the invention of the wire nail and
construction process of most buildings. In the United circular saw, and the existence of sawmills that could
States almost all of the 1.25 million houses built each inexpensively produce smaller pieces of lumber. In
year are constructed of light wood framing, accord- the 1830s in Chicago, a new method of building called
ing to a recent study conducted by the Society of balloon framing evolved, which required less skill to
American Foresters. construct and less time to build than timber framing.
WOOD 87
It also utilized smaller trees that are more common. pine, and spruce are most often used for structural
With the quickly growing population and the need members, while more refined woods such as cherry
for faster construction, balloon framing gained in or birch, which are richer in appearance, are used for
popularity. It has been argued that this method also furniture and finish carpentry. Still other woods, such
evolved due to the easy construction methods for as California redwood, cypress, and red or white
barns and outbuildings. Eventually balloon framing cedar, are more decay-resistant and therefore are
evolved into stud framing, more commonly known often used for exterior exposures, such as roofing
as platform framing, which we use today, and which and wall cladding.
allows for even smaller trees with a modular system Wood construction is often categorized into
of dimensions. Compared to traditional timber fram- four methods:
ing methods, this construction method was seen as
fast, efficient, and economical. Log construction is one of the oldest building construction
In recent decades, the use of wood has given rise methods in history and was used not only for dwellings but
to ecological debate. On the one hand, it is a renew- also for other structures such as churches, towers, and
able resource; on the other, awareness of clearing bridges. Today it is rarely used unless there is a desire to
forests and how we harvest wood can be cause for obtain the distinct aesthetic of a log structure. Log walls
concern. The growing sensitivity to environmental are either stacked with solid logs or spaced and filled with
responsibility, as well as the ever-rising palette other insulating materials such as mud or plaster chinking.
of material alternatives, has contributed to a waning The log itself can either be left as a round shape or can
dominance of wood. Plywood, particleboards, and be edge-sawed for a more solid stacking connection. Log
wood-simulating plastics are now a large segment construction is characterized by its corner joints, which
of the wood industry. interlock with either a dovetail or cross-lap connection.
Despite such competition, wood remains the most These joints were historically carved by hand, though in
popular building material for many reasons. It is log house kits today they are precisely cut by machinery to
completely natural, recyclable, endlessly replenish- achieve uniformity and economy.
able, and if harvested responsibly does not disturb
the ecological balance of the environment. Its use Timber-frame construction is built story-by-story with sills,
can also lend a sense of connectivity to the landscape posts, beams, and struts erected at each level. This method
through its warmth and naturalness. This tactile historically consisted of oversized handmade mortise and
material can appeal to the psyche and senses and tennon joints in which a large portion of the interacting
also fulfills the sustainability requirements of those wood members is subtracted to fit one inside of the other.
who seek to address environmental concerns in Today most of these connections are computer processed,
construction. making them more accurate and economical. Today steel
connectors are oftentimes used in place of the traditional
mortise and tennon and pegged connections.
Design Consider ations Timber-framed buildings cannot span the same
There is a wide range of choices and issues that can distance with the same amount of material as steel, nor
inform designing with wood. These can include the give a smooth continuity of material as concrete can, but
particular construction method, structural criteria, they can give a unique aesthetic, a natural fragrance,
and load requirements. Choices of the type of wood and a general environmental connotation unlike any
species or products and their grades and ratings other material by leaving a natural material exposed in a
also affect a designs outcome. The range of wood recognizable state. It is more exceptional today to see a
species available is seemingly great, with choices heavy timber-framed building because heavy timber must
that determine the grain, color, size, sustainability, compete economically with a wider range of structural
cost, and availability of the wood itself, which varies materials. Additionally, the environmental implications
significantly over different geographic locations. of destroying our older growth forests have given the
Different species have colors that can range from timber industry limited supply of raw material. Recently
black to tan to red to pale cream, and no individual there has been a rejuvenation of the timber-framing craft
member ever has the same exact appearance as the where centuries-old methods of joinery and the art of
next. However, there are, of course, some wood types historical construction methods have been revived and put
that are typically used for specific purposesfir, to practice. Building codes have a classification for heavy
88
timber (type IV) that allows greater height and area than is in the wood that act as preservatives. Most wood-
the case for light wood frame (type V). attacking organisms need both oxygen and moisture
to survive. To reduce the problems caused by these
Balloon framing involves using wood members that continue organisms, wood must be kept away from the ground,
through two or more stories in height. The roof and floor crawlspaces and attics should be ventilated, and
members attach to continuous members or studs running wood should be kept clear from any water near drain-
from sill to roof. The length of these studs makes them age areas and areas where there could be possible
difficult to erect efficiently, and the spacing between them moisture from leaking pipes.
can act as multiple unintended fire and smoke flues, For decay and insect resistance, areas that are
increasing the risk of more rapidly spreading a fire to upper close to the ground, or outdoor structures such
floors. This method is often found in older structures and as fences, decks, docks, or porches, wood can be
is not commonly used today. impregnated with preservatives through a high-
pressure injection process. To protect against mois-
Platform framing is a floor-by-floor process traditionally ture, a pressure treatment is the most effective
used for buildings no higher than three stories, and is means. There are also preservative treatments that
the most common method of wood construction in North can be applied without pressure to the surface of a
America today, accounting for almost 95 percent of wood piece of wood to protect it from decay and insects.
construction. The wall frame is formed with story-height There are three types of preservatives that can be
studs that are joined together with a sole plate at the bottom applied to wood:
and double wall plates above, and then covered on both
sides with plywood or another wood sheathing product to Water-based preservatives leave the wood odorless and
stiffen the frame. The walls are then most often covered on ready to be painted and also do not leach out or leak into
both sides with finishing materials. One of the advantages the environment.
of platform framing is the use of shorter, standardized
pieces of lumber, such as 8' (2.4 m) studs, which are more Oil-based preservatives , which are highly toxic, may alter
available, less expensive, and easier to handle. Another the color of wood, but can be painted to offset this.
advantage is that each floor is constructed one at a time,
allowing for the floor below to act as a framing platform Creosote preservatives are usually used in marine and
for the next. Other advantages are that it uses simple saltwater applications. They give the wood a dark-colored,
nailing connections. Today the majority of homes are built oily surface, and a strong odor that remains for a long
with a platform framing, though there is a huge range of period of time. Environmental restrictions greatly limit use
new products available in the wood industry, including the of this method today.
panelized construction industry, which includes structural
insulated panels (SIPs) and other types of wood panel For a fire-retardant treatment, lumber is placed
products. in a pressure vessel and impregnated with chemical
salts, which reduce its flammability. Fire-retardant
Wood has its disadvantages. Wood structures lumber is usually not used in detached single-family
are susceptible to damage by fungi, insects, and home construction but is used most often in non-
especially fire. The threat of insects and fungi both structural partitions and other interior locations of
increase due to the level of moisture content of wood constructions needing fire resistance.
and duration of time in which the wood is exposed to
moisture. The best protection against both of these
damaging elements is to use dry wood products and T ypes
ensure that the wood is kept dry during construction Wood as a material is classified into two major cat-
and thereafter. In a living tree, the sapwood contains egories: softwoods and hardwoods, which actually
approximately 30 percent or more moisture. Certain do not refer to the materials relative hardness or
species of wood, such as redwood, cedar, bald strength. Most softwoods have spiky leaves or nee-
cypress, black walnut, and black locust, are naturally dles and are usually evergreens, although there are
resistant to decay and fungi because they have chem- exceptions to the rule, such as western larch, which
ical extractions that combat biological attack. Others, loses its needles every year. Softwoods are usually
such as redwood, red cedar, and bald cypress, are also coniferous, which means that their seeds (coni-
also naturally resistant to insects due to natural oils fers) are enclosed in cones. They generally grow
WOOD 89
much quicker, are softer, and are easier to work with Boards are pieces of lumber that are less than 2" in nominal
than hardwoods. Some common softwoods include thickness. They are usually graded for appearance rather
fir, pine, cedar, Douglas fir, redwood, hemlock, and than their strength and are used for trim, siding, and sub-
spruce. Hardwoods generally have flat, broad leaves flooring purposes.
and seeds that are enclosed in fruit or nuts, such as
acorns. Hardwoods are typically deciduous, and lose Dimensional lumber ranges from 24" (50100 mm) of
their leaves each season (although there are a few nominal thickness. These are usually available in 2' (610
exceptions such as the Pacific madrone and tanoak, mm) increments in length, with common lengths ranging
both found in the northwestern United States). from 816' (2.44.9 m). This lumber is usually graded for
Another distinction between the hardwoods and strength rather than appearance and is used for general
softwoods is that the former contain a more complex construction needs.
system of pores or vessels while the latter have a
simple structure of large cells. Both hardwoods and Timber is wood members that are nominally 5" 5" (127 mm)
softwoods have examples of strong and durable spe- or larger in thickness. These are typically graded for their
cies, but hardwoods are generally more durable as a strength.
reflection of their slower rates of growth and tighter
annual ring patterns. Some common hardwoods Structural solid wood is a load-bearing wood that is
include beech, oak, ash, elm, sycamore, birch, balsa rigorously graded with capacity requirements. Spruce, fir,
and walnut. pine, and larch are some of the common wood species used
Softwoods are typically used for general con- for structural wood members.
struction purposes while hardwoods are usually used
for flooring, paneling, trim pieces, and other finishing Laminated wood
elements. Hardwoods are sometimes sliced into Laminated wood is a structural type consisting of
thin veneers and joined to lesser expensive woods built-up layers of wood that have been glued together
for cost savings. to form an engineered and stress-rated member.
Laminated wood is often preferred to solid wood
Lumber members due to its consistent appearance, avail-
Lumber in the United States is sized in inches by ability in different sizes, and water resistance. Glue-
nominal dimensions rather than actual dimensions; laminated wood (or glulam) is composed of many small
nominal dimensions are not written with inch marks chips of wood glued together in different directions
while actual dimensions are. For instance, a 24 to create a girder or other structural members. The
is approximately 1.5" 3.5" (38 90 mm), although different orientations of these wood pieces provide
slight variation is standard. Those in the construction greater strength than a single piece of wood of the
profession simply refer to the nominal dimension, same size and also allow for sizes and lengths
with the understanding that they are not actual unlimited by log sizes. The wood is fully seasoned
measurements. In fact, because there are so many (dried) before being laminated to ensure a high-
variables affecting the condition of wood, such as quality member. Glulams are specified by their qual-
moisture and manufacturing techniques, it is never ity and size much like typical timber. High-quality
wise to assume that even the actual dimensions are glulams will use a specific type of wood and have a
to be taken literally. The best detailing specifies a greater strength or size. The development of glulams
wood detail with a tolerance, or allowed deviation, so was a significant advancement in the twentieth-
that the wood members can have slight variation in century wood construction industry, allowing for
dimensions. When a designer specifies wood for a longer spans and for shapes that the natural material
construction project they must designate the species, cannot provide.
the grade, the seasoning (moisture content percent-
age), the surfacing (how a piece of wood should be Panel products
finished on its surface), the nominal size, and if there Panel products are an efficient use of wood and are
are any treatments to the wood. The construction easy to install. They are also less vulnerable to swell-
manager or contractor will then order the wood from ing and shrinkage due to moisture and temperature
a lumber resource by specifying the lengths and the changes. There are three general groups of wood
number of pieces of wood for each length. The follow- panel products: plywood, composite panels, and
ing are some common terms for wood members: non-veneer panels. These categories are classified
90
as structural wood panels, which are specified either material, such as aluminum, attached to one side to
by their thickness or a span rating, both indicated construct an all-inclusive wall panel.
on a stamp that is placed on each wood panel. The
span rating is an indication of a structural panels There are three basic non-veneered wood panels available,
load-bearing capacity and gives a common industry each having different classes or grades: Oriented Strand
marker for the many different types of panels made Board (OSB) is made up of long strands of wood particles
of different wood species. that are glued and compressed together in a resin into
three to five layers; waferboard is made up of large
Plywood is made up of multiple wood veneers glued together, flakes of wood, also glued and compressed together; and
alternating grain direction ninety degrees for each adjacent particleboard is made up of smaller wood particles than
veneer. There are always an odd number of veneers, with OSB and waferboard and has a finer appearance.
the grain of the front and back always parallel to the longer
dimension of the sheet. Plywood is generally made from Manufactured wood components
wood veneer sheets that were rotary sliced from logs and Manufactured wood components combine dimensional
then kiln-dried to an approximate moisture content of 5 lumber, structural panel products, wood connectors,
percent. These sheets are then glued and pressed together and other wood products to create a more efficient
under elevated temperatures and high pressures to create a building component that is a complete wood member.
solid board. The plywood sheets are then trimmed, sanded,
graded, and stamped. Plywood grades are rated by the Trusses are structural roof and floor components that usually
American Plywood Association with the letters N, A, B, C, combine 24s or 26s with toothed plate connectors (see p.
or D, with N being a smooth, natural finish; A, a smooth, 92). An advantage of using a truss structural system is that
paint-grade finish; B, a smooth finish with knots and plugs; it uses less wood than a conventional rafters-and-joists
C, a sheathing grade, unsanded; and D, a grade limited to structural system. Additionally, they are usually engineered
interior panel use. The standard plywood sheet is 4' 8' by the manufacturer after a designer submits the span,
(1.2 2.4 m) and can range in thickness from 0.251.125" roof pitch, and the desired overhang detail. A disadvantage
(6.428.6 mm). of using trusses is that their struts can make attic spaces
One of the main advantages of plywood is its high unusable.
uniform strength in relation to its weight. Its unique cross-
layered structure in addition to the adhesives used give Plywood I-beams and box beams can be used in place of
it a high strength. It is also less susceptible to shrinkage, traditional rafters or joists for long-span framing. These
swelling, and warping than a solid wood member. Plywood manufactured components can be custom designed and use
is readily available and is an economical way to frame a timber resources more efficiently than conventional wood
building. It also affords a way to create curved shapes to be components.
framed in a project. Disadvantages include its weight and
unwieldiness, and unless a high grade is selected plywood Panel and box components have become more and more
can have voids or inconsistencies in its structure. It is an prevalent in the construction industry as entire walls,
environmentally friendly material in that it puts waste and floors, and roofs can be prefabricated off-site. Some panel
wood scraps from mills to good use. It is also an attractive components can also be prefabricated to include insulation,
material because it is 100 percent biodegradable and has an windows, wiring, and exterior or interior finish material. The
environmentally friendly manufacturing process. Chemicals panel industry has expanded rapidly, making a wide range
used to treat and glue in the products are of concern of options and variations of panel components available for
because they may give off unwanted gases inside a building different construction types. This customization of panels
and may have other adverse effects on the environment. not only addresses a buildings more particular needs but
also allows a designer more affordable yet varied options
Composite panels have two or more parallel veneer sheets in the prefabrication industry. Panelization places more
that are bonded together with a core of reconstituted of the work in a factory than at the construction site.
wood fibers through a synthetic adhesive using heat Designers need to adjust their approach toward materials
and pressure. Composite panels are available in a vast and construction details accordingly.
range of different types. Panels can differ by the type of
wood used to construct them, their thickness, and their
structural capability. Some composite panels are available
with insulation inserted into the sheet or with a different
WOOD 91
Thermally modified wood Nails are available in a wide range of sizes, materials, and
Thermally modified wood (or torrefied wood) comes shapes, geared to a particular use or purpose. Fastening
from the process of taking kiln-dried wood and heat- with nails is the fastest and easiest way to connect wood
ing it in a kiln to chemically and physically change members, requiring no pre-drilling or preparation, as
the wood. The wood is dried slowly and then baked they are driven into wood members with a hammer or a
again in an air-tight kiln at a higher temperature pneumatic gun. Nails are most often made of mild steel, but
that makes the sugars and tannins in the wood unat- are available in a variety of other metals such as aluminum,
tractive to insects. The wood becomes a darker color copper, zinc, brass, or stainless steel. While the rest of the
with a very low moisture content. The wood also world measures a nails diameter and length in millimeters,
hardens and has improved dimensional stability after in the U.S. they are measured in a term called pennies
the baking. The wood is steamed and cooled slowly and designated as d. A 2d nail is 1" (25 mm) long, a 6d nail
again under close control to minimize stress within is 2" (51 mm) long, and a 10d nail is 3" (76 mm) long. The
the wood as it returns it to ambient temperature and three types most often used in construction are common,
humidity levels. The resulting wood is resistant to galvanized, and finish nails. Common nails have flat heads,
biological decay. The advantages of thermally modi- are used in most construction framing, and are not intended
fied wood are is that no paint or stain is needed and it to be exposed to the environment. Galvanized nails have a
requires almost no maintenance. Another advantage protective zinc coating on them to inhibit rust and corrosion.
is the resistance to biological attack. Depending on Finish nails are not meant to be seen; they have a tiny head
the wood species, the dark color of the torrefied wood and are used in finish woodwork such as casework and
will lighten to a gray and will become more brittle interior detailing. Other types of nails are box nails, casing
comparable to regular wood. nails, brad nails, roofing nails, cut nails, and concrete nails,
each shaped differently in terms of its head, shaft, and
Bamboo point, to suit their particular use.
From China to India, bamboo has been a prime mate-
rial for wood construction for centuries. Bamboo can Screws generally yield a stronger and tighter connection than
be harvested in three to six years, a relatively short nails due to their threaded shaft, which is placed directly
time period comparable to traditional wood, which into wood or into pre-drilled holes and then screwed
usually can take ten to twenty years to mature. One into place. Wood screws take longer to install than nails,
of the fastest growing bamboos can grow up to one but because they have threads they have more holding
meter a day and reach its full mature state in two strength and are somewhat easier and less damaging to
months. Bamboo is very rigid and dense, making it remove. The more threads they have, the stronger they
a strong material with a high tensile strength, which are. They are typically used for light framing, finish work,
increases as the material ages. Bamboo has its lim- cabinetry, furniture, or drywall. Drywall screws, which
itations in construction: The material shrinks with are typically used for connecting drywall to wood or light
temperature and moisture changes, and like many steel members, are small in size but can be inserted with
other wood products, bamboo is attractive to insects a power screwdriver without pre-drilling. Screws should
and is vulnerable to fungal rot if not treated. The be approximately 0.125" (3.175 mm) less in length than
material is economical and efficiently renewable. the combined thickness of the two elements being joined.
Screws are classified by use (wood, metal, drywall, set
screws, machine), type of head (flat, round, oval, slotted,
Connectors Phillips, pan, hex socket), finish (steel, aluminum, stainless
Nails, screws, bolts, toothed plates, and adhesives steel, brass, bronze), lengths (0.56" [13153 mm]), and
are used to connect wood. Wood fasteners are often diameter (up to 24 gauge).
noted as the weakest component of wood construc-
tion, rarely being as strong as a monolithic material Bolts are threaded connectors that have round heads on
or the wood member itself. Historically, pegged or one end and receive a threaded nut on the other. Nuts are
mortise and tennon connections were used to con- threaded to receive the end of the bolt. Bolts are typically
nect wood, both of which compromised the strength used for major structural connections when screws and
of a wood member due to the removal of material nails are insufficient. They vary in length from 0.530"
from each member. (13762 mm), with diameters up to 1.25" (32 mm), and can
have flat, round, square, or hexagonal heads. Different
types of nuts include cap, wing, square, or hexagon nuts.
92
SUPPORTING STRUCTURE
SUPPORTING
01
WOOD 95
02 Building section
05 Entryway
06 Interior
02
CROSS SECTION
03 04
05 06
Private Residence in Riedikon
Uster, Switzerland Gramazio & Kohler
Pine slats, CNC fabrication
Design intention The CNC mill was used to bore holes into the center of the
With a wooden slat system covering its elevations, this three- edge of each fin, through which the fins were screwed into
level house is a modern update of the gable-roofed houses the face of the building wall by hand. Horizontal battens, made
and barns surrounding the site. The client offered two condi- of 3.15 in. square (80 mm square) wood, had been installed
tions: maintain their neighbors view of Lake Greifen to at prescribed elevations inside the fiber-cement cladding to
the west and restrict parking to the east of the house. The receive the screws. Bushings were used to hold fins at least
local building codes required that all windows be vertical 1.57" (40 mm) off the face of the building wall, where they are
rectilinear openings. consistently spaced 5.9" (150 mm) on center, equal to the fins
The solution is a wedge-shaped house, similar to a trun- depth before being milled. Manipulation of the fin profiles was
cated gable in plan and form. The architects used pine fins required the most when crossing windows.
to conceal and cover the house elevations to achieve desired
levels of transparency. Subtle adjustments made to the slats
optimize oblique views to and from the windows of the house,
controlling daylight penetration into the spaces as well.
Materiality
The house is wrapped with 315 CNC-milled pine slats, created
using a specially developed program to control the mass-
customization fabrication process. These slender wood fins
articulate the surface of the house as a counterpoint to its basic
mass. Their cross-sections modulate in relation to the windows
to control sunlight and view. Where there is no cladding, sliding
glass doors open to a terrace with open, unrestricted views of
the lake. The undulating shapes of the machined slats embody
the gentle curves of the wood grain, which is left unfinished to
expose the warm hue of the natural wood. The structural
system of reinforced concrete is fully enveloped by the well-
insulated timber-framed walls. Fiber-reinforced cement pan-
els clad the building walls, and the concrete-reinforced floor
contains the buildings radiant heating system.
Technical
The 1.2" 5.9" (30 150 mm) pine slats were CNC-milled to
produce highly varied viewing and lighting conditions using
the simple fin-like system. Using CNC technology a modest
material like pine could be precisely manipulated to achieve
results not possible with traditional methods, allowing the
profile of was each fin to be changed along its length as it was
being created at the fabrication shop. Many of the elements
were milled at an angle, increasing the space for light to pass
through. The slats are all continuous, so there are some splice
joints within a given member. The roof overhangs the tops of
the slats, protecting the vulnerable pine end-grain from the
weather. The bottoms are elevated above the ground to reduce
contact with water from below.
02
98 Private Residence in Riedikon
05 Ground-floor plan
03
WOOD 99
04
05 06
Viikki Church
Helsinki, Finland JKMM Architects
Prefabrication, wood shakes
Design Intention The spruce trunks used for the cladding were selected
Evoking the sanctity of the ancient Finnish forests, the Viikki while still standing in the forest. The logs were radially sawn
Church is the result of an invited competition to design new into planks before the lumber was dried in a kiln to reduce the
worship and parish halls, offices, and meeting rooms. With moisture content to roughly 8 or 9 percent of its dry weight.
a town square planned nearby, the church also connects the While cutting the lumber to size and milling the tongues and
eastern and western parts of Helsinkis Latokartano neighbor- grooves, the carpenters simultaneously graded the wooden
hood. The building can accommodate five hundred people, of slats. It was specified that the radial-sawn lumber was to be
whom four hundred fit in the worship space. With only sixteen cut to size and glued together with the laminated veneer ply-
months allotted for construction, a collaborative team of archi- wood panels on the same day. The panels then were wrapped
tects, engineers, wood industry representatives, and academic so that they would not be exposed to any moisture during the
researchers relied on prefabricated components to address trip to the construction site.
the tight schedule. The objective was to integrate prefabricated As aspen ages the cellular structure hardens and its
components into an architectural whole, so architectural surface begins to glisten. A sample wall was built on the site
objectives were sometimes placed ahead of structural effi- to monitor the aging of aspen shake cladding. The wall turned
ciency to achieve the highest-quality wood construction. a desired shade of gray over the eighteen-month construction
period, confirming the choice of this species. The cellular
Materiality structure of the shakes was preserved by splitting rather than
The sanctuary facades are covered with mechanically split sawing, because fewer pores are exposed on the surface. These
aspen shakes, the office facilities with horizontally spaced aspen shakes were split radially to minimize bending and cracking,
boards, and the belfry with vertical aspen battens. Natural because their annual rings are oriented perpendicular to the
weathering has patinated the unpainted cladding of the facades surfaces. The shakes are between 2.755.5" wide (70140 mm),
to a fine silver. To ensure quality the design team paid special and are approximately 1" thick (25 mm) on the exposed edge,
attention to the origin, correct felling, drying, and working of which was cut at a 60-degree bevel. The hidden edge is only
the wood, as well as its transport, storage, and installation. 0.20" (5 mm) thick. The shakes taper along their 15.7" (400
The exterior surfaces of the windows and doors are oak mm) length, less than half of which is exposed to the weather,
and the interior walls and floor are whitewashed spruce. to ensure that there are at least two courses of shakes between
Custom machine-pressed wood veneer ceiling elements serve the inside and the outside at any point on the wall surface.
as air diffusers and acoustic control elements. The spruce Stainless-steel nails secure the covered upper end of each
flooring was radially sawn for increased durability, which also shake to their batten/counter-batten substrate. Only one nail
exposed a more subtle grain pattern. The goal was to create per shake secures it in place, allowing some degree of move-
a harmonious and unified appearance, despite the different ment according to climate conditions. No surface treatments
surface orientations. In terms of upkeep, it is easy to restore were used on any of the exterior aspen or oak facades.
these treated surfaces with lye, even years later. Solutions to protect the underlying wood elements
included a factory-applied waterproofing treatment. These pro-
Technical tective layers later served either as permanent vapor barriers
Glue-laminated beams form the primary girders for the church or as the final waterproofing material. Thermal insulation was
hall and the parish hall. Ten beams span 28.5' (8.7 m) in the also installed in the exterior wall elements at the factory.
main parish hall. The beams were reinforced with a tension In this way, the prefabrication process addressed many of
rod for the longer 43.3' (13.2 m) spans in the worship hall. The the final assembly needs.
spacing between the girders in all three halls is 3.94' (1.2 m).
The mechanical strength-grading of the spruce lumber was
augmented by visual inspection out of concern for its appear-
ance. Finger joints were developed that were unnoticeable on
both sides of the joint, preserving the aesthetic features of the
wood. During design, moisture modeling of the wall panels was
performed to ensure that the surface plies of the laminated
veneer plywood panels did not buckle as the wood became wet,
or that gaps between elements did not become too great as
they dried. Regular moisture, humidity, and temperature mea-
surements were made at the building site to maintain optimal
construction conditions. Radial cutting of the wood minimized
movement and distortion as the moisture content changed.
01
WOOD 101
Cluster column
Binding of column
VERTICAL SECTION
Butt
For curved
shakes
03
102 Viikki Church
140
70
140 140
70
140
70
80 840 80 65
30 40 40 30 30 40 40 30 A A
324
324
236
123
68
60
28
38 18
56 188 188 56
599 25 10
04
3 3
3 3 3 3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
05
+1 .
+1 . 4
1
1
1.
+1 .
4
06
4
4
07
+1 .
1
+14.41
1
+14. 4
1
1
+14.1 4
+14.
141 1
08 09
Soe Ker Tie House
Noh Bo, Thailand TYIN Tegnestue Architects
Bamboo
01
WOOD 105
02
03 04
106 Soe Ker Tie House
05 Transverse section
05
TYIN tegnestue, Soe Ker Tie House
r ingsection
s e
1:50
e
r A4
06 07
WOOD 107
08
Harry Parker Community Boathouse
Boston, Massachusetts, USA Anmahian Winton Architects
Composite resin-core wood panels
03 04
Conditioned space
Unconditioned boat
storage space
05
110 Harry Parker Community Boathouse
1'-3"
06 Section detail at edge of elevated floor;
2 3/4" 6 1/2" 11" TO E.O. SLAB
fixed louvers installed over solid wall
and over exhaust grilles
CL
STL.
07 Section detail at edge of elevated floor;
wood veneer resin-core panels shown
in closed and open position (dashed)
1'-6"
CL
2"
Wood blocking
11" F.O. FRAMING
11" F.O. FRAM'G CL Wood veneer resin-core panel (shown dashed beyond)
STL.
2 3/4" insulated metal panel
5/8" gypsum wall board
TS beyond shown dashed
CL
Panel clips 3 5/8" metal framing
BUTYL
10 3/4"
SEALANT
2 1/2"
Break-metal A/V barrier and insulation stop
11" E.O. SLAB
Flashing
Steel
outrigger Welded steel angle; located between outriggers
07
08 09
EcoWoodBox Kindergarten
Hanover, Germany Despang Architekten
Thermally modified wood
Design Intention slats march repetitively along the length of the project, looking
The project brief called for the facility to be didactic and to more like a fence than a building facade. The wood framing
create a sensual union of space, form, and nature, but module sets a cadence for window and door openings, as well
childrens activities determined the spatial arrangement of this as for the important spaces inside the building. The battens and
community kindergarten. All of the service spaces run along counterbattens on the upper portion of the wall are 2.3" 2.3"
the buildings northern edge and are connected by a linear (58 58 mm). On the lower portion of the wall they are 1.2" 2"
circulation space, which is also wide enough to serve as a play- (30 50 mm).
street, leading to the living rooms to the south. The vertically oriented torrefied wood slats extend from
This internal hierarchy responds to thermal logic, tran- the torrefied plywood above the window 7.5' (2.3 m) downward
sitioning from closed in the north to open in the sun-exposed toward the concrete plinth. They create a lattice over the
south. The exterior walls on the north side are solid, largely windows and continue down in front of a solid wall, despite not
opaque, and juxtaposed against an undulating glass skin to the being anchored to a firm substrate along this length. With at
south that creates intimate alcoves inside and outside for small least five years of weathering thus far, this project has demon-
group activities. The classrooms and outdoor activity areas strated that torrefied wood is uniquely capable to span this far
merge with the open landscape to the south, whose deciduous without distortion.
trees shade the glass during summer months. East and west Fasteners securing the slats to the plywood substrate were
walls are constructed with wood much like the north elevation, installed from the building side of the plywood before the rain-
but with larger window openings. In addition to accommodating screen panels were installed on the building. This minimized
learning space for children, the building also provides a setting harmful corrosion of the fasteners and staining of the exterior
for occasional community dinners and social functions. finishes. The project used thermal mass and very high levels
of thermal resistance in the walls and roof, in addition to its
Materiality orientation and configuration, to earn the first Passive House
The walls are made of prefabricated panels framed with more designation for a kindergarten in Hanover.
economical Trus-Joist TJI wood trusses, rather than conven-
tional wood studs, to produce very thick wall cavities. The thick
walls are filled with 16" (400 mm) of cellulose insulation
made from recycled newspapers. The roof is insulated with 16"
(400 mm) of rigid insulation.
Thermally modified, or torrefied, pine wood slats were
secured to thermally modified plywood panels to form a lattice
on the outside of the solid walls, recalling the surrounding
neighborhoods weathered pine fences. These special wood
elements were manufactured nearby and then fabricated into
panels to be installed as a rainscreen over a batten/counter-
batten frame. A well-ventilated rainscreen is essential to
keep the moisture content of the wood acceptably low in this
climate zone.
The torrefied wood offers many advantages in exposed
applications outdoors. Though it is usually made from inexpen-
sive species, this process enhances its color and texture, and
afterward it requires very little upkeep to stay presentable. floor plan
1:50
Technical
The batten/counterbatten frame provides sufficient space
between the rainscreen and the outer face of the sheathing to
conceal the gutter at both the eave and its leader. The vertical
02 cross-section
1:50
WOOD 113
03
01 Ground-floor plan
02 Transverse section
+ .0
3 0
35 3
5
05
+0.365
0.0
0
0.
0.3
0.
0. 6
06
WOOD 115
4
+ .5
used as a contextual reference
2
09 Section through north wall, with
thermally modified wood slats and
2
plywood rainscreen assembly
2
+2.9
4 4
+2.55
+2.495
+ .
07
25 424 2 5
+ .
.25 .
.9
. .
.2
2
.
4
.
9
.9 .9
08 09
Nature Boardwalk at Lincoln Park Zoo
Chicago, Illinois, USA Studio Gang Architects
Laminated wood
Design intention the other side of the plate. The lattice is constructed of 144 of
The design intention of this project was to create an outdoor these identical pieces, which made fabrication more efficient.
classroom for the Lincoln Park Zoo. The project consists of a When assembled, they form a barrel-vault-shaped lattice that
new boardwalk that circumscribes a pond and passes through is 43' long, 33' wide, and 17.5' tall (13.1 10 5.3 m).
educational zones where visitors may study different animals, The exterior surfaces fiberglass pods are screwed in
plants, and natural habitats. This pavilion was integrated place from the top into the wooden structure. A weatherproof
into the boardwalk to act as a shelter for open-air classes. gasket seals the joints between the wood and the fiberglass
When not in use for educational purposes, it is used for yoga shells. The pavilion is open on the ends and near the base of
classes and other park activities. The laminated structure is the vaulted shape.
constructed of prefabricated, bent-wood members topped by a
series of interconnected fiberglass pods, which give the surface
an organic curvature that was inspired by the tortoises shell.
Materiality
Douglas fir, the primary material for the pavilions technical
and aesthetic features, was chosen for its abundance near the
fabricator, located in the Pacific Northwest. Among American
softwoods, Douglas fir is the strongest per pound; it is also
straight-grained. Both of these assets are important in this
application. The design demonstrates the inherent pliability of
thin wood elements. Curved and assembled in an open lattice,
the small, light elements can form a strong structure. The
regions environmental regulations strictly manage forests and
01
natural habitats, also making their wood well matched with the
clients land stewardship objectives.
Douglas fir has some natural resistance to mold and
decay. While the structure was not painted, a lightly pigmented
stain was applied to further protect the elements. Fiberglass
pods cover the lattice elements, significantly reducing their
exposure to precipitation. The pavilions curved wooden
MEMBRANE
lattice elements are bolted together with steel plates at their
Fiberglass panels
milled connections.
Technical
Similar to laminated veneer lumber (LVL), the pavilions struc-
tural elements are made of multiple thin plies of wood adhered
under pressure. But unlike LVL, each 15" (380 mm) ribbon of 5 1/ 2 3/ 4
R=
during fabrication; they also curve three-dimensionally into a
15-
3
ASSEMBLY
structure with a 15.25' (4.6 m) radius. Hand-operated jigs held
Shingled lap joints
the veneer sheets in the desired shape during fabrication. The TOP
This is the resultant stock first lamination beam. This creates strong, thin laminates that can be This is the resultant basic structural beam-unit . . . . . . which,
when joined with other, identical beams,
bent in the weak axis for the second lamination. creates the barrel-vaulted pavilion structure.
Step A beam . . .
5 1/ 2 3/ 4
R = 2- 7 1/2
Laminate bent boards into
a single bow-beam
R=
R
=
15
. . . and laminated into a
-
3
double-bowed (curved) beam.
TOP
TOP
R = 2- 7 1/2
LONGITUDINAL
END
BOTTOM
LONGITUDINAL END
R = 15- 3
BOTTOM
03
04
05 Completed pavilion
05
Dairy House Annex
Hadspen Estate, Somerset, England Skene Catling de la Pea
Oak timber
Design intention high on the wall where the wood slabs are thinner. The span is
This project renovated and converted a historic dairy and reduced to approximately 3.9' (1.2 m) by inserting oak blocks
cheese-making building into a five-bedroom house and retreat. into the spaces between continuous slabs in lieu of glass. Like
The intention was to create a natural interpretation of the orig- the corners, these also appear to be columns because of their
inal dairy building that preserved the structures significance precise alignment, but are actually stacked pieces of wood.
on the bucolic 850-acre estate. The house is approximately By using this method, the designer assures that cross-grain
2,000 sq. ft. (186 sq. m) with a new adjacent pool and garden shrinkage of the wood assemblies will be equalized across
that overlook the landscape. The dairys original interior walls the whole building. In addition to thoroughly drying the wood
were all removed during the renovation, leaving a stone shell. pre-construction, this detailing strategy accommodates the
An oak and glass annex containing a study and baths was added materials tendency to shrink and swell slightly as its moisture
to the rear, inspired by the character of a nearby wood barn on content changes. The corner detail originally called for holes
the estate. to be bored in the intersecting oak slabs to receive a vertical
threaded rod that would limit warping of the wood pieces and
Materiality finely tune the compressive stresses on them. The rod was ulti-
The architect (and owner) gave priority to the use of local mately not needed because the seasoned oak was very stable.
materials wherever possible. Oak timber was harvested, A manufacturer generously donated float glass plates
planked, and patiently seasoned in storage barns on-site. After to the project. The plates were stacked and laminated by a
the wood was sufficiently dried over several years, it was cut nearby specialist using interlayers of polyvinyl butyral to
and finished by a local cabinetmaker, whose shop is located make them into strong and watertight blocks. The blocks not
very near the estate. only act as the buildings skin, but also can carry compressive
The construction alternates the stacked layers of oak loads if needed, since they were laid horizontally instead of on
slabs and laminated glass plates. Both the wood and glass the more typical vertical axis. Placed on rubber gaskets, the
blocks were left unfinished on the exterior but were carefully blocks then sit directly on the oak planks. Foam seals at the
aligned on the inside. The oak was milled on the two horizon- top provide weatherproof movement joints on the facade; clear
tal faces and on the inner face, but not on the outer. By not silicone is added to form a final weather seal.
cutting the outer surface, the natural wane of the log makes Wood trim pieces such as fascia are also made of oak
each piece unique, while protecting the woods natural pores and secured in place with brass screws to minimize staining.
from the weather. The laminated glass blocks act like a prism, Fastener locations align with the structural rhythms of
projecting multicolored sunlight over the floors and walls. the elevations.
Inside the house the walls seem lightweight because so much
daylight passes through, while from the outside it appears
much more heavy and rustic. The opposite is true at night, as
artificial lighting makes the house glow from the inside. The
height of the wood and glass layers increases toward the base
45
D19
Technical
This project combines ancient principles of log construction
45
02
B 1 C 1
2
2
3
3 4
4 5
6
7
8
A 1
2
D E 1
2
40
3
4
7
8
9
1
10
11
12
05
12 Oak fascia
06
WOOD 121
A B
1
2
3 8 9 7 3 2 12 1
4
5
6 10 6
11 7
12 8
13 9
14 10
15 11
5
13
4
C D
1
2
3 3 2 1
4
5 8
6 9
6
7
10
11 8
12 9
13 10
14 11
15 12
07
05 AC: Transverse section through wall DETAIL A: Bath DETAIL B: Shower DETAIL C: Bath DETAIL D: Bath
and roof; section through wall and roof 1 Waney board 1 12.5 mm plasterboard, 1 Waney board 1 20 mm oak flooring
at rake end skimmed and painted
2 Illmod 600 10/37 2 Illmod 600 10/37 2 90 150 mm steel channel
DE: Elevations of side and end compriband 2 89 152 mm steel beam compriband
3 Rubber pad
3 Laminated glass block 3 Rubber pad 3 Laminated glass block
06 Oak timbers lapping at corner, 4 100 mm blockwork
supported by stacked wood blocks 4 GSP02 gasket by Euroseal 4 100 mm blockwork 4 GSP02 gasket by Euroseal
5 Dry stone wall
5 Timber packer 5 18 mm painted MDF 5 Timber packer
07 Detail sections where oak timber walls shelves 6 18 mm formed ply trench
meet foundation in bath 6 ACO channel filled with 6 ACO channel filled with and bath
pebbles 6 Concrete/slate slabs pebbles
7 Concrete/slate slabs
7 18 mm formed ply trench 7 Fiberglass 7 18 mm formed ply trench
and shower and bath 8 Fiberglass
8 SW furring pieces
8 Code 6 lead covering to 8 Code 6 lead covering to 9 SW furring pieces
trench 9 65 mm screed with trench
underfloor heating 10 65 mm screed with
9 Light extrusion 9 Light extrusion underfloor heating
10 65 mm rigid insulation
10 Concrete/slate slabs 10 Concrete/slate slabs 11 65 mm rigid insulation
11 Concrete pit
11 Fiberglass 11 Fiberglass 12 Concrete pit
12 25 mm ply support to slab
12 SW furring pieces 12 SW furring pieces
13 30 mm thermaboard
13 65 mm screed with 13 65 mm screed with
underfloor heating underfloor heating
01
WOOD 123
02
05
WOOD 125
06
07 08
Skating Shelters
Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada Patkau Architects
Bendable plywood, integrated design and fabrication
Design intention inner layer is oriented perpendicular to the outer layers and
Winnipeg is located on the Canadian prairie, and is the coldest is only 0.04" (1 mm) thick. The material allowed curvatures of
city of its size outside of Siberia. There, where winter can last less than 16.7" (425 mm) radius to be achieved. Bending the
for six months, it is important to learn to take advantage of cold flexible plywood in plane (its weak axis) makes it stable. Unlike
weathers recreational opportunities. One way is river skating, rubber-core plywood, this product has a more durable, crisp
where the Red and Assiniboine meet in the center of the city. edge where cut or drilled, and fasteners will not compress its
When frozen and plowed of snow, the rivers become incredible thickness. The product was used for all of the plywood sur-
skating trails many miles long, but when the wind chill makes faces, assuring consistent appearance.
it feel like -50F (-46C), these temporary shelters provide safe Bendable plywood was not available in exterior- or
harbor during the winter skating season. marine-grade products, so the architect specified interior-
The installation consisted of a cluster of six intimate grade plywood, intending to encapsulate it in two coats of
shelters, each of which accommodates only a few people at a polyurethane. During fabrication the finish was changed to an
time. They are grouped in a small village with their backs to oil-based stain, since the shelters were temporary and would
the prevailing wind, seeming to have life and purpose as they not be exposed to liquid water. Some plywood surfaces were
huddle together, shielding each other and their occupants from CNC-milled with 0.2" holes at 1" on center (5 mm holes at 25
the elements. mm) in a staggered pattern. The strategy permitted ventilation,
The six shelters have a total area of only 108 sq. ft. (10 and gives occupants a veiled glimpse to the outside.
sq. m.), but have a significant presence on such a featureless Care was taken when joining the thin, post-tensioned
white landscape. They were grouped into a cluster to optimize plywood elements to spread the stress of their connections
their entrance access in a practical way. This apparently casual over a large area of plywood using multiple small fasteners.
arrangement is actually a precise 120-degree rotation between When the plywood sheets were joined in the same plane, they
pods, some of which went through a secondary 90-degree were typically lapped approximately 4" (100 mm), adhered, and
rotation to define a sort of interior space within the larger fastened with aluminum dome-head rivets and washers. At
grouping. the sharp upright corners opposite the entry of each pod, the
The shelters set forth varied relationships to the changing plywood skin elements were screwed to a wedge-shaped spine
sun and wind directions, giving skaters choices that can be of wood, and faced with plywood that is scribed to the curved
matched with environmental circumstances. faces of the skin. A similar element joined the plywood at the
ridge. Galvanized steel 25-gauge sheet metal gussets were
Materiality used to reinforce some connections.
Thin skins of 0.2" (5 mm) thick flexible plywood were cut into The floor of each pod was a cross-laminated board assem-
patterns and attached to a timber frame with a triangular base bly, durable under the wear of skaters walking and standing on
and wedge-shaped spine. Each plywood sheet was bent to give it wearing sharp skates. The bulbous equilateral triangle shape
each shelter its structure and spatial character. The archi- of the floor set forth the curves of the walls. The floor edge
tects built full-scale prototypes in their workshop to fine-tune was notched to precisely receive the lapped joints between
the curved shapes to plywoods properties. The shape is only sheets of plywood with no gaps, assuring full contact between
stable when the flexible planes are curved and stressed, then the fragile skin and the sturdy base.
secured. Stress points were relieved by a series of cuts and The pod floors rested directly on the frozen surface of the
openings. The project illustrates the benefits of direct experi- river. To anchor them, augers were used to bore 7" (180 mm)
mentation and seamless integration of design and fabrication. holes into the thick ice below the three corners of each pod. An
These structures are delicate and alive. They move gently anchor bolt attached to the floor extended down into the hole
in the wind, creaking and swaying at various frequencies, with a plywood disk on the end. Water was poured into the hole
floating precariously on the surface of the frozen river, shaking to fill it, which promptly froze solidly until spring.
off any snow that might momentarily adhere to their surfaces.
Their fragile and responsive nature makes those sheltered by
them more aware of the ferocity and beauty of winter on the
Canadian prairies.
01 Elevation views of bendable plywood
panel layout
Technical
02 Aggregation plan of six pods
The architects drawings identify the skin material as 0.2"
03 Pods on frozen river alongside skating
(5 mm) mahogany rubber ply, but these are actually made
trail
of three layers of mahogany, assembled to be flexible in one
04 Bendable plywood pods are anchored
direction. The two outer plies are each 0.08" (2 mm) thick; the firmly to the ice and deflect cold wind
01
scale: 1:40
WOOD 127
7 5 7 7 7
1
5
2 2
6 3
5 5
02
scale: 1:40
Key notes Additional notes
1 Rubber ply panels: 5 mm mahogany Fasten and adhere base with 10 2.5
rubber ply from 1,219 2,438 (4' 8') stainless-steel flat socket head wood screw
long-grain sheets and #10 countersunk finishing washer
2 Direction of face grain Fasten and adhere wood corner post and
ridge with 8 1.5 stainless-steel flat socket
3 Lap joint: fasten and adhere as indicated head wood screw and #8 countersunk
4 Butt joint: fasten with 5 mm aluminum finishing washer
dome-head rivets and 5 mm stainless- 5mm diameter aluminum dome head rivets
steel fender washers with 5 mm aluminum washers
5 Galvanized steel sheet metal strapping as Base plate assembly: 38 286 (2 12)
required, minimum thickness 25 gauge lumber, lap and adhere and fasten with
6 Round staggered perforation pattern with 8 2.5 socket head wood screws
5 mm diameter holes at 25 mm offsets. Ice hole: drill with ice auger and flood with
Offset pattern 20 mm from edge and water after installing round plywood plate
align as indicated.
Notch base assembly to suit rubber ply
7 8 0.75 stainless-steel flat socket-head panels
wood screw and #10 countersunk
finishing washer Taper base to suit rubber ply panels
03 04
128 NAME OF PROJECT
Metals
129
Zinc was first used by the Romans in 200 BCE as blast furnace with 2 to 4 percent carbon is called cast
a copper alloy to make brass, but was not commer- iron. The Chinese discovered cast iron in the sixth
cially produced as an architectural metal until the century BCE, but the process of production did not
1650s. It is a blue-white-colored metal that is rela- fully evolve until the twelfth century in Europe. Cast
tively brittle and will oxidize to a self-protecting gray iron is much more brittle, difficult to work, and has a
surface. The first production method for zinc was lower melting point than wrought iron. A malleable,
in a sheet form, but the result was extremely brittle low-carbon iron alloy was sometimes produced in a
and cracked easily. The hot-rolling process reduced blast furnace. This metal, which was approximately
zincs brittleness and increased its strength as an 1 percent carbon, was historically the closest metal-
architectural metal. It was first used architecturally workers came to producing what we know today as
in Europe during the Industrial Revolution, primarily steel. In the early 1800s cast iron structural mem-
in roofing and details. Brass, developed in the seven- bers became a viable alternative to load-bearing
teenth century, contains up to 40 percent zinc and is masonry walls, but iron remained an expensive alter-
most often used for finishes, fixtures, and ornamen- native until the late eighteenth century, when cheaper
tal objects. It was most commonly seen in the form of manufacturing processes emerged. Whether these
roof tile or ornamentation. The United States, where advances spurred the Industrial Revolution or vice
copper was much more widely used, did not develop versa is debatable.
zinc sheet production until 1838, relying on imports to In the mid-1800s steel was only used for very
meet modest demand for this metal. specific non-architectural applications, such as
It can be argued that the development of steel swords or scissors. Early production of steel was
was one of the most pivotal moments in the history unpredictable, not very homogeneous, and thought
of architecture, giving a freedom of design and space of as a very demanding process. Only in certain geo-
and opening up structural possibilities in countless graphic areas such as some parts of Asia were these
new ways. With the construction of Joseph Paxtons select batches of steel produced with any success.
Crystal Palace in London in 1851, cast iron and In 1855 Englishman Henry Bessemer designed the
wrought iron, later refined to what we know today as first converter for processing steel, which by todays
steel, was shown to be a new construction material classifications was really cast iron. Steel began to be
with capabilities like no other. produced in large quantities after Bessemer discov-
Iron, which is not abundant in pure form in the ered how to add and control the amount of carbon. It
earths crust, was historically a metal used only for was first produced by either adding carbon to molten
tools. The largest source of pure iron, in fact, can wrought iron or by preventing carbon from oxidizing
be found in meteoritesnot a particularly reliable in the pig iron. In the United States, Andrew Carnegie
source. The most common way to obtain iron was the of U.S. Steel and Edgar Thompson of Bethlehem Steel
smelting of iron ore, which is very common all over both helped feed the Industrial Revolution by produc-
the world. In the Middle Ages, most of the refined iron ing large quantities of steel in the 1800s. Steel began
was extracted in a contraption that acted somewhat to be used in railroad tracks, bridges, shipbuilding,
like a blast furnace. A mix of crushed iron ore and and eventually skyscrapers.
charcoal were placed in a stone vault and molten Aluminum is refined from bauxite, one of the
iron (also called pig iron) would sink to the bottom most abundant metallic ores in the earths crust,
and release into molds. The charcoal added traces and was unknown to the ancient world. It was first
of carbon to the iron, which altered its workability. sold in 1845 as a precious metal, but did not become
Interestingly, the use of wood to produce charcoal for widely used in construction until the past century.
iron smelting was one of the main causes of world Prior to the twentieth century, purifying aluminum,
deforestation during the Industrial Revolution. Late which is not naturally available in a usable state,
in the nineteenth century, charcoal was replaced was a very expensive and lengthy process. Today, it
by coke, a residue of coal used for fuel. The iron is second only to iron as the most commonly used
produced at this time was almost a pure ironit metal in construction.
was very malleable since it had little carbon. It was William Gregor, an English chemist and mineral-
called wrought iron and was used mainly for tools and ogist, first discovered titanium in 1791. His discovery
weapons for centuries. Large amounts of wrought was not widely known until 1795, however, when it
iron were produced in Europe after the 1300s. While was rediscovered by Martin Klaproth, a German
wrought iron is almost pure iron, metal produced in a chemist. Klaproth named the metal titanium after
METALS 131
the Titans, the family of giants that was overthrown The qualities of reflectivity, weathering, and finish
by the gods in Greek mythology. Interestingly, he can create a wildly diverse amount of design possi-
named it so because of the difficulty in removing the bilities. Weathering and aging are important consid-
impurities and oxygen to reduce titanium to a pure erations, because as metals mature, they develop a
state, not because of the high strength with which we patina, which is often seen as an inherently beautiful
associate it today. Initially, titanium was only used in quality of the material. The familiar image of the
paints as a pigment supplement. The metal has many vernacular barn and its rusted, colorful metal roof is
tiny impurities that made it a brittle material and dif- a common architectural expression of the venerable
ficult to work. It first became commercially available and of a particular material culture. Architectural
in 1951 and was developed into a product four times appreciation is often linked to a building materials
harder than steel. Mass production of titanium began expression of maturity and aesthetic age. In other
in World War II by Dr. William Kroll, a German who circumstances, retaining a metals original luster
fled Nazi Germany and came to the United States. In and finish and suppressing any declaration of age is
the early 1950s titanium was considered purely an a clear design intention.
aerospace material, given its light weight and high The process of bimetallic corrosion (weather-
strength. It was not until the 1990s that titanium ing) is complex and can be affected by a number of
was considered a realistic architectural material, factors, including the surrounding environment,
when its price dropped and its production techniques variations in composition, any coatings and finishes,
were refined. and contact with other materials, the principle being
that different metals expand at different rates as they
warm. Galvanic action, which is the corrosion process
Design Consider ations that occurs when two unlike metals and moisture
In architecture, metals have developed and grown are present, is an electric current flowing from the
into a huge industry that produces materials for an anode, which corrodes, to the cathode, which gives
unprecedented range of applications. It is too general the ions to the atmosphere. When two metals are in
to speak about metal as if it were one simple mate- contact, the one that is higher in the galvanic series
rial, given its enormously wide range of types, colors, will become the anode and will corrode. The current
qualities, and properties. In architectural applica- flows from the positive (high end of the table) to the
tions, metals are relatively lightweight and mallea- negative (low end of the table). For instance, when
ble, in addition to being strong. They can be used iron and copper are in contact, iron will become the
sculpturally, allowing for free-form designs. Metals anode and will quickly corrode (see Table 1, p. 140).
are available in a variety of surface finishesthe Metals, like other materials, expand and contract
range of color, texture, and luster allows architects due to changes in temperatures. These changes are
an immense degree of design flexibility. With todays quantified and are represented numerically as coef-
variety of finishes and coatings, a designer can ficients of thermal expansion. These are ratios that
almost prescribe exactly how a metal should appear give the amount of change per length of material per
on a building, then find the product that will yield degree of change in temperature. The coefficient of
that appearance. thermal expansion for structural steel is 0.0000065
Beyond aesthetics, however, there is a long list of in./in./F (0.000017 mm/mm/C), and for stainless
functional considerations when choosing a metal for a steel is 0.0000099 in./in./F (0.0000173 mm/mm/C).
building. Despite the many product options and tech- The greater the difference in thermal coefficient
nological advances in applying metals in architecture, of materials being joined, the greater the need for
designers must be mindful of limitations associated details that accommodate thermal movement
with each material. How will it perform as a structural (see Table 2, p. 140). If not relieved, these stresses
component? How will it react to different tempera- may cause a loss of integrity of the enclosure or
tures or to adjacent materials? How will it weather? structural system.
How will its color, luster, and reflectivity endure? Oil
canning, the waviness that, sometimes occurs in large
stretches of metal and can be an inherent character- T ypes
istic of metal products, should also be considered in The metal industry is a mammoth enterprise that
the design process, or measures must be taken to continues to grow and evolve. Research yields new
prevent it. alloys and uses for metals constantly, and prices and
132
manufacturing processes are always changing though it does tend to stain materials adjacent to it
all critical factors when architects make selections with reddish-brown ferrous residue as the rusty sur-
of materials. Whether the choice is as banal as an face is eroded slightly by precipitation.
aluminum window frame or as expressive as the Wrought iron has a low carbon content (0.02 per-
patina of a copper wall panel, metals are potent cent) and is almost a pure iron. It is a ductile material
design tools. and is easily worked and forged when red-hot. It is
highly resistant to corrosion, yet cannot be welded or
Iron and Steel cast. Wrought iron is made when iron ore is heated on
Steel, one of the strongest and most affordable a charcoal fire until it turns into a soft spongy state,
materials, is a ferrous metal, meaning it contains not entirely melted. The spongelike iron can then
iron. It is used in all types of buildings and in all be worked or wrought into a form in what is called
aspects of construction. Compared to other building a white heat state. Wrought iron is most commonly
materials, steel has a favorable strength-to-weight used for ornamental work such as grilles, hardware,
ratio, and it offers the greatest strength per volume. gates, and railings. A small amount of wrought iron
It combines optimum strength with elasticity and is still made today in the traditional fashion, but most
is most often used for light and heavy structural metal called wrought iron is really mild steel
framing, in addition to other building elements with a low carbon content that can be formed into
such as windows, doors, and hardware. It is easily shapes by machineputting many blacksmiths and
drilled, tapped, welded, fastened, and shaped. Its their trade to rest.
most important architectural characteristics are The most commonly used steel is called mild
its strength, stiffness, and fire and corrosion resis- steel and has a carbon content of 0.150.25 percent.
tance, all properties that can be further influenced A common strength-grade of steel as determined
by alloying and coatings. by the American Society for Testing and Materials
Most steels today are produced and categorized is ASTM A36, with a yield pointthe point at which a
as standard steel, which is then categorized further material begins to permanently deformof 36,000 psi
as carbon or alloy steel. The more carbon content (248.2 MPa). A typical higher-strength steel, ASTM
a steel has, the greater its strength and hardness, A572, which is a low-alloy, has a yield point of 50,000
though the more difficult it is to cold-work or weld. psi (344.7 MPa).
Alloy steel contains more than 1 percent carbon or Cast iron has a higher carbon content (approx-
other elements than the standards set for carbon imately 1.8 to 4.5 percent), making the metal more
steel. Construction steel is a combination of carbon brittle and difficult to work or forge when hot. Cast
and iron (98 to 99 percent iron and 0.16 to 1.7 percent iron is an alloy of iron and iron carbide and is consid-
carbon). More common and more affordable, car- ered corrosion resistant and strong in compression.
bon steels are used for structural and mechanical Due to its high amounts of carbon, cast iron is very
applications, while alloy steels are most often used easily cast, allowing for intricate molds. However,
for fixtures and finishing parts such as door han- once it has solidified it cannot be worked. It is very
dles, pulls, or countertops. The most common alloy hard and has good compressive strength but inferior
steel is stainless steel, which is harder, stronger, and elasticity; it also provides a tough surface that is
more corrosion-resistant than others. High-strength, less prone to rust than steel, despite its brittleness
low-alloy steel (HSLA), more commonly known by the and low tensile strength. Originally, cast iron was
trade name COR-TEN, is also a common alloy steel. made for both structural and decorative purposes,
It is not only extremely strong but also has a high but its low melting point and lack of elasticity make it
resistance to progressive corrosion due to a layer of undesirable as a structural material. It is still made
dense red/orange-colored oxide that develops on its and used often today, more often for architectural
surface. COR-TEN steel is an alloy metal in which a decorative details, piping, plumbing fixtures, grates,
small amount of copper (0.250.55 percent) and other street furniture, and rainwater fixtures.
elements are added to steel. The yield strength of Stainless steel is an alloy steel that contains
COR-TEN steel is greater than that of mild steel. It is between 12 and 20 percent chromium and other
considered a weathering steel because the exposed elements such as nickel, copper, molybdenum, and
surface quickly oxidizes in the atmosphere, forming a aluminum. It may be cast into slabs; hot-rolled into
dense, shallow, passive barrier against further corro- plates, bars, or sheets; cold-rolled into thin sections;
sion. It does not require painting or other treatment, welded; and otherwise readily formed. Because of its
METALS 133
strength and low maintenance requirements, stain- most common architectural metal, is a product of the
less steel is often used for curtain walls, sanitary hot-rolling process. After being hot rolled, the steel
fixtures, sinks, hardware, flashing, and trim. Its high is run through cold rollers, stretching the grains,
corrosion resistance makes it suitable for masonry smoothing the surface, and making the metal more
accessories as well. Since the cost of stainless steel dimensionally accurate.
usually precludes its use structurally, it is more often There are a number of ways of working steel to
used in smaller or visible applications such as fas- increase its hardness and strength. One is by a pro-
teners, hardware, and building products like kitchen cess called cold-hardening, which is the method of
appliances and limited areas of cladding. hammering or compressing steel to make it harder.
Another frequently employed method, quenching,
Manufacturing Steel heats the steel and then quickly cools it in water, oil,
The raw materials for producing steel are iron ore, or air, creating a very thin layer of metal crystals on
coke, and limestone. There are two standard pro- the steels surface that is harder and more brittle
cesses for manufacturing steel: the basic oxygen pro- than the rest of the metal, thereby increasing its
cess, used to make the bulk of standard-grade steel, strength. Tempering is another way to increase the
uses an oxygen point to blow pressurized oxygen hardness, ductility, or strength of steel by a heating
into a furnace containing pig iron and scrap metal; and controlled-cooling process. Annealing is the
and the electric arc furnace process, which produces process of heating steel and cooling it very slowly
high-quality special steels like stainless steel, uses to make a hard steel soft, usually to improve cold-
carbon electrodes to create a powerful electric working, cutting, and forming methods. Steel can
arc that melts the metal. Both processes allow for also be cast, forged, extruded, drawn, and rolled.
the removal of unwanted elements and the addition Galvanization is the application of a zinc coating
of desired elements, carbon being the most common onto steel or iron to prevent rusting. There are two
additive. Steel usually contains trace elements of methods of galvanization. Hot-dipped galvanizing
other byproducts from refinement, such as sulfur involves a coating that is applied by immersing the
and silicon. metal in a bath of molten zinc, forming a protective
Steel can be heat-treated to form alloys with other layer of zinc on the outside and zinc/iron alloys bond-
metals to change its quality. Metals that are alloyed ing to the steel. Repeated dipping produces a thicker
with steel and their added qualities include: coating, increasing durability. Zinc is a brittle metal,
dictating that complex shapes such as corrugations
Aluminum , which improves surface hardening should be formed before being galvanized. The sur-
face of the zinc coating freezes into a crystalline or
Chromium , which increases corrosion resistance and hardness spangled pattern that oxidizes to a self-protecting
matte gray color. If this coating is scratched or
Copper , which increases corrosion resistance and strength marred to the steel beneath, zinc compounds form
in the scratch and heal the discontinuity, preventing
Manganese , which increases corrosion resistance and oxidation. Cold-dipping, or electro-galvanizing, is a
hardness less durable process in which a thin coating of zinc is
electrically created on the steel member, resulting in
Molybdenum , which increases corrosion resistance and a shiny surface finish that is less durably bonded to
strength the iron or steel core.
Nickel , which increases tensile strength and corrosion Appearance
resistance In its most common and inexpensive form, new steel
has a plain gray appearance that will quickly react
Tungsten , which increases strength at higher temperatures with oxygen and then scale and rust. To improve its
appearance and to prevent corrosion, steel can be
After being manufactured, steel can be shaped finished in many different ways. It can be painted,
in many different ways. Architecturally, this is clas- galvanized, or chemically treated to prevent oxidation
sified under two main categories: hot rolled or cold and corrosion. Although it is not combustible, it will
rolled. Hot-rolled steel is rolled out of the casting lose strength and become ductile under high heat
area to a specific thickness. Cold-rolled steel, the conditions. Building codes therefore require most
134
roofing and flashing. Depending on the alloy it is chemical solutions. There are three purposes for using a
married with, aluminum can be extruded through a chemical finish on aluminum: to create a clean surface for a
die, allowing for a wider and more complex range of future finish; to provide a uniform electrochemical reactive
shapes and forms. surface for an anodonic coating; or to etch the surface to
Aluminum is further classified for its tempering achieve a specific reflectivity. Because chemical finishes
designation. Temper is the strength and hardness are applied in a batch, it is one of the least expensive
produced by thermal treatment and mechanical processes. The Aluminum Association has labeled a
working. It is directly related to an alloys overall chemical treatments designation into two classifications,
strength. The temper designation is based on heat non-etched and cleaned-and-etched chemical treatment.
treatment, aging, and the annealing of the alloy.
Aluminum is available in a large range of alloys, each Coatings are subdivided into five categories: anodic coatings,
created for specific purposes. These alloys are des- resinous and other organic coatings, vitreous coatings,
ignated from 1,000 to 7,000 in seven categories. The electroplated and other metal coatings, and laminated
number is followed by a letter that indicates the tem- coatings. The most common in architectural applications
pering designationthe most common stable series are described here. When aluminum is exposed to air and
being T and usually designated from T1 through has no chemical finish, a thin, protective oxide film forms
T10. The most common aluminum we see is 6061-T6, on its surface, which over time becomes chalky and thick.
which contains trace elements of silicon and magne- Anodizing aluminum is a controlled process that makes this
sium and is suitable for casting and fabrication. oxide film thicker and harder, thus increasing its corrosion
and abrasion resistance. Most exterior applications using
Appearance aluminum alloys are anodized surfaces. Anodizing is
Aluminum is naturally a clean silver/white color, an oxidizing process in which the metal is immersed in
but there are also an abundant variety of finishes, sulfuric acid and electrolytically made anodic by converting
such as anodized, surface texture, plastic-coated, or the surface to an oxide film. It is then sealed by boiling
painted, that can result in a transparent or colored the metal in water. This process increases the metals
appearance. These various finishes can be mechani- durability, traps dyes, and adheres to other finishes. The
cally or chemically applied and are not only meant finish appearance can range from clear to a wide variety
for aesthetic purposes but also for protection from of colors, but most important is the aluminums increased
the environment. hardness and durability after anodization.
The Aluminum Association created a broad
designation system for aluminum finishing pro- Clear-coat anodizing is the most common and economical
cesses. The labeling system recognizes that almost process of anodizing. Todays technology has allowed for
all finishes used on aluminum can be subdivided computerized monitoring equipment to help the anodizing
into three major categories: mechanical finishes, process.
chemical finishes, and coatings. Coatings are further
divided into five subcategories: Plastic coatings , which are usually polyesters and fall
under the laminated coating category, are applied
Mechanical finishes can be produced at the mill during the electrostatically as a powder and then heat-cured to a self-
initial rolling or extruding processes, or by subsequent cleaning finish. This is done for glazing systems, cladding
finishing techniques that include polishing, grinding, panels, and rainwater components in buildings. Plastic
136
coatings can give aluminum a range of colors, as can other steel. It can also be bonded with a strong adhesive on
finishes such as enamel or lacquer finishes. These finishes a prepared surface.
give a durable protection layer and a color to the metal,
and often disguise the metal with the appearance of a more Copper
uniform, flat color and texture. When aluminum is painted, Copper is usually used as an alloy combined with zinc
it should have an appropriate primer, and no lead-based when used in building construction. Its important
paint should be used to avoid a galvanic reaction. advantage over ferric metals (those with iron) is its
resistance to corrosion, making it a wise choice for
Weathering areas in which the metal is in consistent contact with
Aluminum is generally resistant to corrosion due to a water or severe atmospheric conditions. Today, cop-
thin, invisible film of oxide on its surface, which forms per is primarily seen in sheet form in roof systems
immediately and continuously. In normal atmospheric and cladding. It is also used for finish details, gutters,
conditions, the metal ages well, becoming a darker and downspouts. Both brass and bronze are copper
gray over time. Anodizing its surface or applying alloys, but there is an imprecise distinction between
another protective coating may further improve it. the two based on the concentrations of each element.
While aluminum can resist harsh weather con- The copper-zinc alloys that yield a more yellow sur-
ditions, corrosion can occur through contact with face are usually brass, while the more red and brown
other materials such as plasters, mortars, uncured alloys are bronze. Brass and bronze are harder than
cements and, most significantly, copper. Aluminum copper and not as easy to form, yet are far softer than
can corrode any adjacent zinc- or iron-based materi- steel. These alloys are most commonly used exter-
als. Aluminum therefore needs to be separated nally on doorframes, balustrades, window surrounds,
from other metals to prevent a galvanic reaction. fasteners, and other fittings. In addition to their high
Timber that contains preservatives like water- corrosion resistance, copper alloys are also able to
soluble copper or mercury can also aggressively take on oxidized patinas, which can create a wide
react to aluminum. Water can stain its surface, variety of surface colors.
causing it to oxidize and create dark stains that do Copper is a soft and easily machined metal, yet is
not damage the material structurally but are also strong. It is relatively dense, with high electrical
extremely difficult to remove. When designing with conductivity. However, coppers strength-to-weight
aluminum, it is wise to think about how rainwater ratio is low, making it a poor structural metal. Its
flows over a building and whether it flows over malleability makes it easy to fold and seam edges on
an affecting material (especially copper) before thin sheets, allowing for a clean and fitted cladding
running over aluminum. skin. It is ideal for outdoor use given its corrosion
resistance, but attention should be given to water
Joining that runs over the material. Runoff from copper roofs
Aluminum is difficult to solder because of oxide for- or siding can prevent the growth of plants (though it
mation and heat dissipation. Aluminum alloys can be does not affect animals); additionally, copper nails or
welded using metal inert gas (MIG) or tungsten inert fasteners drilled into tree trunks or branches can kill
gas (TIG) techniques, which are welding processes in the trees. Copper runoff, in the form of green copper
which electricity is used to generate heat necessary sulfate, will stain adjacent porous materials such as
to melt and attach separate metal parts. MIG weld- limestone, stucco, concrete, and other light-colored
ing, also called gas metal arc welding (GMAW), is done materials. This problem can be prevented by careful
by sparking an electric arc between the welded parts consideration of how details are designed.
and a consumable electrode. It uses an aluminum Despite an overall decrease in the use of copper
alloy wire as a combined electrode and filler mate- through the years, it is used more than ever today
rial. TIG welding, also called gas tungsten arc welding in electric power transmission, lighting, and wire
(GTAW), uses a tungsten electrode and separate circuitry; next to silver, copper is the most conduc-
filler rods, making the process more flexible. Unlike tive metal. Since copper is a heavy material and is
MIG, the electrode is not the filler material and is a relatively expensive, it is usually used in thin sheets.
stationary rod. It is also possible to weld without a Copper cannot carry its own weight and is usually
filler material with TIG. Aluminum is often mechan- supported by other materials such as a wood or
ically fastened with, for instance, aluminum alloy masonry backing.
(A-1) bolts and rivets, or with non-magnetic stainless
METALS 137
prohibitively expensive for most building projects. It the European architecture market, frequently as cast
is telling to note, however, that this was also the case hardware, grilles, details, and surface panels.
for aluminum just over a century ago. As production
increases, the cost will likely decrease, allowing for Manufacturing
more architectural applications. Refining zinc is much like refining copper. Zinc ore
is crushed into particles and then concentrated by
Manufacturing flotation, which separates the waste from the min-
Titanium is produced by mixing the primary ore, erals. Zinc is cast on a continuously rotating cylinder
rutile, with coke and then charging it with hot chlo- and then rolled through pressure rolls to a specified
rine gas. The ore then goes through further purifica- thickness. When in a pure state, zinc has a very low
tion to create a metallic sponge of titanium. It is then tensile strength, but after being pushed through
converted into an electrode, melted, and formed into rolls, which develops a directionality to the material,
a slab. (Alloying the metal would occur at this stage, its strength increases considerably. It is usually
once it is melted.) The slab is then reduced to desired alloyed with copper and titanium in furnaces for
sheets or coils varying in thickness from 0.0150.25" added strength.
(0.3816.35 mm). While titanium can be cast and
extruded, for architectural purposes it usually is not. Appearance
Pure zinc tarnishes quickly to a light blue-gray color
Appearance due to the formation of a patina of basic zinc car-
Titanium is typically a light gray color and retains its bonate upon exposure to the atmosphere. Natural
tone for years without changing. When exposed to zinc has a semi-matte, light gray color that can be
oxygen, a very thin film forms on its surface, preserv- pre-weathered to a darker gray, while zinc alloys will
ing the surface color. One unique quality of titanium tarnish to a darker gray. Zinc can also be lacquered
is that it can be developed into shades of silver, gold, with a polyester lacquer in the furnace to create dif-
blue, or purple through an electric charge. By chang- ferent colors.
ing the voltage, a different shade or tone of color is
created on its surface. Different tones can also be Weathering
achieved through an electrolyte bath. When zinc is exposed to the atmosphere, the surface
film of basic zinc carbonate develops, which protects
Weathering the underlying metal and checks further corrosion.
Titanium has the highest corrosion resistance of any Zincs corrosion resistance is due to this protective
architectural metal. It is a durable material with a layer that develops and limits the amount of oxygen
low coefficient of thermal expansion, causing it to be contact to the surface. Depending on the atmospheric
very weatherproof and resilient. Even in marine and conditions, a darker gray patina may develop within
coastal uses, titanium is unaffected by all of the more six months to two years.
typical weathering conditions affecting other metals. In unpolluted areas, this protective film ensures
that zinc building components will have a long,
Joining maintenance-free life. In industrial environments
As in typical sheet-metal techniques, titanium can be and areas with high levels of pollution, however, the
formed and joined. It can also be welded, much like corrosion rate increases dramatically. Sulfurous and
any other architectural metal. Because titanium will sulfuric acids react with the zinc carbonate film to
corrode steel, aluminum, galvanized steel, and other form zinc sulfate, which is soluble and washes off
metals, stainless-steel fasteners must be used when in rain. When employed in industrial areas, zinc is
making connections. therefore most often used as vertical cladding or on
pitched roofs.
Zinc Zinc should not be used in contact with copper or
Zinc is a very dense and corrosion-resistant architec- with acidic woods such as cedar and oak. It has good
tural material. It is non-ferrous, and thus not subject compatibility with other building materials, although
to rusting. In the U.S. market today, zinc is most com- mortars and any moist cements can increase its level
monly used as a coating on steel and as an alloy with of corrosion.
copper and titanium. It is used much more widely in
METALS 139
Joining
Because zinc has a low melting point, it makes for
easy resistance welding and soldering. When fasten-
ing zinc mechanically, galvanized or stainless-steel
nails, screws, rivets, and clips are recommended.
One should never use copper or brass fasteners or
bimetallic corrosion will occur.
Lead
Lead is a dense, soft, toxic metal of low strength.
It is one of the most weather-resistant materials,
even exceeding stainless steel and zinc in corrosion
resistance. It is a dull-gray colored metal that is soft
yet dense. Once the main material used in plumb-
ing, and often used as a roofing surface, the use of
lead in construction has declined notably since the
early 1900s. Use of lead is strictly controlled in water
supplies and is no longer used in building interiors,
including as pigment in interior paints. Lead for clad-
ding applications is referred to as desilverized lead,
which is a minimum of 99.85 percent lead and a maxi-
mum of 0.002 percent silver. Todays lead is relatively
expensive and is usually only used for waste pipes,
coatings, and flashing. Leads toxicity makes many
of its other possible uses unsuitable. Lead sheet,
used for flashing, for example, is now often made
from an alloy containing 6 percent antimony, which
increases its stiffness and strength. When lead is
used in applications such as roofing, it must always
be fully supported by another material beneath. It is
not a self-supporting metal due to its weight and low
stiffness. Lead can also be used in ceiling or wall
panels for sound insulation and vibration absorp-
tion. It can be produced in rolled sheets, shot, or bar
forms. Its softness makes many metal fabrication
processes impossible. Lead is frequently used in
non-architectural applications, such as shields from
X-rays and radiation and for automobile batteries.
Lead can be easily worked, is corrosion resistant,
and is relatively impenetrable to radiation. Although
it is a heavy metal, its malleability and durability may
make it an appealing cladding material. It is tradition-
ally used in construction for roofing, flashing, sound
isolation, acid and radiation resistance, and in some
hardware items. Lead dust and vapor are toxic to
humans and must be strongly considered when used.
140
Table 1 G a lva n i c R e l at i o n s h i p b e t w e e n M e ta l s
Stainless steel
Steel and iron
Aluminum
Cast iron
Titanium
Copper
Bronze
Anodic Cat h o d i c
Nickel
Monel
Brass
Lead
Gold
Tin
Least noble Most noble
Table 2 C o m pa r i s o n o f M e ta l P r o p e r t i e s
Iron and steel 7.90 2,780F 39.8272.0 ksi 26.9109 ksi 6.6 11.7
1,530C 2761,882 MPa 186758 MPa
Stainless steel 7.90 2,640F 74.4119 ksi 3.079.7 ksi 9.8 17.8
1,450C 515827 MPa 207552 MPa
METAL COLOR WHEN NEW REFLECTIVITY WHEN NEW TEN-YEAR AGING RESULT
Aluminum 2 1 2
Lead 2 1 3
Copper 3 1 1
Zinc 3 1 3
Tin 4 1 2
Steel 1 1 1
Iron 1 2 1
Stainless steel 2 2 1
Titanium 5 2 2
Bronze 3 5 3
Design intention of perforated aluminum is secured over the curtain wall glass
This museum was designed to be a contemporary jewel box to aluminum tubes that themselves align with vertical mullions
filled with all types of art. Its interior spaces, on the other but are not secured to them, permitting service access to glass
hand, are neutral frames for display. Along its waterfront side, panels and curtain wall frames.
the building is cantilevered 40' (12.2 m) above the first floor to In soffit applications, a single layer of perforated aluminum
provide a generous urban porch. On the second floor, the build- is secured 1" (25 mm) below the opaque substrate, using stain-
ing mass is bisected into public galleries and support spaces. less-steel clips similar to those used in the walls. An extruded
These volumes are further subsected to form large balconies aluminum liner panel with a black Kynar finish protects the
on two faces, as well as a top-lit atrium. sheathing and thermal insulation inside, but it also provides a
At night the museums exterior becomes a metallic canvas dark backdrop for the LED light displays at night.
for a light show. The museums cladding strategy is integrated The adjoining Hillsborough River has a relatively high
with a computer-controlled LED display, commissioned from salt content, so all aluminum on the exterior was anodized
artist Leo Villareal. Lights on the facade turn the museum into with a clear coating to combat oxidization; this also produced
a landmark even after it is closed for the night. a desirable satin finish. All metals on the exterior are either
aluminum or stainless steel to avoid corrosion.
Materiality
A single type of perforated aluminum panel is used over both
glazed and unglazed exterior walls, on soffits, and in between
interior spaces. Over the majority of exterior walls, the archi-
tects decided to use a double layer of identically perforated
aluminum panels, creating a moir pattern that appears to
change with movement around the large volume. At night,
when the perforations can be suppressed, a computerized LED
lighting system generates either a monochromatic or a poly-
chromatic display. During the day, the museums double-layer
aluminum screens reflect sunlight and shade the glass from
excessive amounts of glare and radiant heat while also allow-
ing air to flow between the layers, releasing unwanted heat. In
some locations, fresh air is brought in through operable sash
windows to aid building operations during the warm seasons.
01
Technical
G ROUND F LOOR 0 10 50
The double-layer screen is constructed of 3,798 aluminum pan-
els, all custom-fabricated with the same perforation pattern. 1. LOBBY AND RECEPTION 12. SECURITY
2. TICKET DESK 13. GALLERY
The 0.125"-thick (3 mm) aluminum sheets have 3" (76 mm) 3. MUSEUM STORE
4. MUSEUM CAFE
14. BALCONY
15. ATRIUM
5. CONFERENCE ROOM 16. WORKSHOP
6. CLASSROOM 17. STAGING
diameter holes arranged 4" (102 mm) on center vertically and 7. RESTROOM
8. CATERING KITCHEN
18. REGISTRAR
19. RECEPTION
9. STORAGE 20. OFFICE
01 Ground-floor plan
03 04
144 Tampa Museum of Art
Face of concrete
Edge of mullion
CL POST
8" 5" 1" 8" 8 21 " Mullion spacing / 2
Align
Self-adhering flashing
Structural silicone-glazed
Aluminum liner panel curtain wall
Perforated metal layers
0.25" reveal
Sheathing W-section
Self-adhering sheet
underlayment
Hat channel
Stainless-steel clip
05
07 Section detail at
parapet
06
METALS 145
Flashing membrane
Sealant
Sheathing
Sloped insulation
Perforated metal
Sheathing
Weep hole
Hat channel
Perforated metal
07
St. Andrews Beach House
Victoria, Australia Sean Godsell Architects
Oxidized steel
Materiality
01 Transverse section
The primary building materials are recyclable steel and glass.
02 Exterior view from southwest
The house has a protective outer layer made from industrial
steel floor gratings, which hinge open to form brise-soleil
shutters. The shutters reduce glare and radiant heat gain on
the homes glass exterior walls. The same grating material
covers the roof assembly, and is used as the soffit on the
underside of elevated spaces. Inside, it is used on the ceiling to
veil the overhead structure and services while permitting ready
access. Both the finished flooring and exterior decking are
made of recycled wood decking and supported by conventional
lumber, a renewable resource.
The structural frame is highly rationalized, to the point
that only essential elements are present. The building is raised
on columns with parking and storage underneath. Like the
gratings over the glassy walls of this house, the buildings
elevated position creates a more useful condition below, simply
by filtering some portion of environmental exposure.
01
METALS 147
02
148 St. Andrews Beach House
4 1
2
5
6 3
10 5
11
12
13
14
15
16
17 18
1 150 mm diameter 6 mm oxidized mild-
steel disc
19
2 12 mm diameter threaded galvanized
rod
3 40 40 5 mm mild-steel angle
12 50 50 5 mm continuous oxidized 24
mild-steel bracket
04
6 2 3 1 4 5
4
9
10
11
1 Wood particles and cement
12
board, t=12 mm 03
13 2 Omega steel profile strip
3 Double waterproof
membrane
14 4 Mineral wool, t=46 mm
5 Roof anchorage
9 Cavity
10 Sandwich panel:
aluminum/polyurethane
foam core, t=80 mm
11 Double plasterboard, 13 + 13
mm
13 Steel channel
14 Steel lintel 04
15 COR-TEN steel shutter
02 05
OMS Stage
Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada 5468796 Architecture
Extruded aluminum, flexible connections
01
METALS 153
02
154 OMS Stage
03
04 05
METALS 155
06
07
08
Lady Bird Lake Hiking Trail Restrooms
Austin, Texas, USA Mir Rivera Architects
COR-TEN steel
01
01 Plan
03
04
158 Lady Bird Lake Hiking Trail Restrooms
Varies
Slope as required
0.25"
4"
8"
1'4" 6"
max.
Varies
Waterproof membrane
adhered to steel plate with
mastic
3" clearance
3" clearance
05
METALS 159
06 Restroom interior
06
07
Kunst-Depot, Henze & Ketterer Art Gallery
Wichtrach, Switzerland Gigon/Guyer Architekten
Perforated steel
01 Ground-floor plan
02 03
04
05
06 07
METALS 163
6
B2 07 Perforated steel sunscreen,
rainscreen, and wall
6
6
+6.77 +6.77
08 Section detail of exterior wall and roof
assemblies
6
0
1 0
1 1
+ .77
+ .6
1 1
1 0 10
0
1
08
Herstedlund Flleshus Community Centre
Albertslund, Denmark Dorte Mandrup Arkitekter
Anodized aluminum, composite panels
Design Intention are both fireproof and high in thermal resistance, with almost
The Herstedlund Flleshus Community Centre supports no heat train between the two faces. The interior of these
activities for a residential area of approximately six hundred composite panels is covered with an additional 3.75" (95 mm)
families. The project program and spaces had to adapt to varied of mineral wool insulation, and two layers of 0.5" (13 mm)
uses, be able to accommodate visitors of different ages and gypsum board.
interests, and perform multiple independent functions simul- A portion of the buildings west facade is a climbing wall
taneously. The building provides space for a wide range of where 0.07" (1.8 mm) aluminum facings are adhered to 0.6"
functions such as meetings, teaching, dancing, sports, theater, (15 mm) waterproof plywood, and then secured to the compos-
aerobics, barbecues, bridge tournaments, community meals, ite panel substrate. A grid of embeds consisting of T-nuts in
and weddings. the back of the plywood receive the climbing grips and other
The building was conceived as a metaphorical tree house accessories in many possible course configurations.
within its parkland setting. To maximize the possibility of Windows with sunny exposures are sometimes covered
mixed concurrent use, the building can be entered either with perforated panels to moderate glare and radiant energy.
through the ground floor or by direct access to the first ele- In addition to these environmental functions, the perforated
vated floor via an outdoor staircase. Common park areas also metal also softens the transition from the open to the closed
surround the Community Centre. A skateboard ramp merges parts of the skin. Panels over windows are hinged on a vertical
with the wall on one elevation and a rock-climbing wall on edge to easily swing open for cleaning. The frames for both the
another. An indoor kitchen is connected directly to an outdoor windows and doors are made of anodized aluminum, matching
eating space, giving more programmatic function to the sur- the finish of cladding panels.
rounding landscape. Direct access from outside to the wash-
rooms is also provided. A rooftop terrace offers 1,560 sq. ft.
(145 sq. m.) under the sun. It has a small semi-enclosed court
for outdoor events and athletics. Solar panels
Materiality
The community center is constructed of concrete columns and Roof terrace /outside bar
Trash
Technical
In most locations, the aluminum panels are 0.07" (1.8 mm) 01
thick rainscreens, supported by stainless-steel hat channels
over a composite panel substrate. The hat channels assure
alignment between adjoining panels, which have a 0.4" (10 mm)
reveal at each edge. Stainless-steel dome head screws secure
the panels to the channels, and the channels to the substrate.
The composite panels below the facings are 9.6" (243 mm)
thick interlocking Paroc waterproof panelstwo layers of
aluminum glued to a core of rigid mineral wool. These panels
03
166 Herstedlund Flleshus Community Centre
1 Glass facade
2 Wooden mullion
3
3 Anodized aluminum covering
4 Steel support
3
5 Concrete
05 06
METALS 167
1 Glass facade
2 Wooden mullion
4 Steel support
5 Concrete
9 Rubber granulate
10 Steel fence
07
1) GLASS FACADE
) DE LL
)AL C E A
G D SED
) S EELS
)C C E E
) FACADE CLADD GA D SEDAL
) FACADE CLADD G E FA ED A D SEDAL
) F S LA F A GLASS AS AL F G
) E G A LA E
1 ) S EELFE CE
08 09
Halftecture O
Ch-ku, Osaka, Japan Shuhei Endo
COR-TEN steel
Materiality
01 West elevation
The primary structure, roof, and walls of this building are con-
02 Entry to open-air washrooms
structed of weathering steel plates, the rusted surface of which
03 COR-TEN steel plate roof suspended
blends into the surrounding environment. The steel alloy above washroom
will oxidize, becoming a passive barrier against further corro- 04 Details of continuous partial-
sion. Welded connections between the steel plates exploit penetration welded connections
where roof meets supports
the materials unique potential to form connections using
05 COR-TEN steel plates form
the very material being connected. The result is a monolithic triangular supports for curved roof
structural system, with very few fasteners. To add a level of plane
01
West Elevation
South Elevation
02 03
METALS 169
Partial-penetration weld
EDGE
16
29.36
16
25
25
Partial-penetration weld
25 25
04
05
Cantonal School Canteen
Wettingen, Switzerland :mlzd
Stamped aluminum sheets
Design Intention space, including concealed gutters and leaders that remove
The designers converted a former barn known in the town of stormwater from the roof. All materials used for the screen
Wettingen, Switzerland, as the Lwenscheune, or lion barn, assembly were chosen to meet the thermal and moisture chal-
into the dining hall for the cantonal school of Aargau. The lenges of the environment. The screens can be removed from
facility is located on campus, midway between a monastery the outside if necessary to service the underlying elements.
and a spinning mill. As the old barn was extensively renovated, The design of the facade is the result of collaboration
a new addition was built onto its southern end. The design is between the architects, facade planners, building physicists,
respectful of the existing barn typology but features a new and a local artist.
architectural language that offers an emphatic statement of
the Lwenscheunes new function. The additions simple,
abstract mass fits proportionally with its historic neighbors,
but the perforated metal skin is a clear departure from the
past. A new floor was added to the existing barn, dividing
the volume horizontally and creating space for the cafeteria 01 West elevation with renovated portion 04 Sunlight enters circulation space
in the center and addition to the right through stamped aluminum screens
on the ground floor and a dining hall upstairs, connected by a
02 The addition at right is informed by 05 View through stamped aluminum
lateral opening with a generous staircase. The addition houses
the massing of the adjoining existing screen toward exterior
a kitchen and food-serving spaces. structures
06 Wall section showing stamped
03 Exterior view of addition from south aluminum screens installed over
glazed openings and over insulated
Materiality
opaque walls
The new facade is made of stamped, anodized aluminum sheets
that run across the roof and the windows, abstracting the vol-
ume. The buildings formal reductivist strategy and dark facade
surface express restraint.
The use of metal (once a precious resource) and the
ornamental flower and leaf stamping refer to the historic
monastery and its natural surroundings. The voids in the dark
metal permit filtered views outside, and allow precise natural
patterns to be projected by sunlight into the shadows of the
various interior surfaces. In this way, the buildings skin orna-
mentation extends into its interior spaces. 01
Technical
The stamped aluminum sheets are formed from 0.08" (2 mm)
sheet metal with a dark bronze anodized finish on both faces.
They are cut into rectangular flanged trays with fasteners at
two points on each horizontal edge. Each panel is approxi-
mately 3' 8' (0.9 2.4 m), with exceptions where this other-
wise regular grid is adjusted at vertical corners or the sloping
roof edge, which require special screen elements that are
continuous from one plane to the other.
The distribution of the screens, which were stamped by
a number of different dies, makes it difficult to identify any
repetition on the entire surface of the building, mimicking the
irregularity of tree canopies in forests. The more thoroughly
stamped screens are secured over glazed windows and doors,
where views and daylight are desired. Despite their operation,
swinging door and window panels do not disrupt the consis-
tency of the screens grid on the mass. In this project the mass
and the ornamented surfaces dominate.
Secured to vertical aluminum frames, the aluminum
screens create a 6.3" (160 mm) space over the underlying
opaque wall and roof assemblies. Drainage occurs in this
02
METALS 171
Roof construction
38
h
2 mm stamped aluminum sheet p i tc
of
25 mm ventilation space Ro
Ventilation / 25 mm battens
Channel:
folded sheet, 2 mm
03
+9.86 FB +9.86 RB
Building facade
Concrete wall
+8.97 FD
04
+6.22 FB
+6.09 RB
+5.83 FD +5.83 RD
05 06
Artists Studios in Aberystwyth
Aberystwyth, Wales, UK Heatherwick Studio
Stainless steel, crumpled foil
Design intention metal. The cladding was installed like giant pieces of metal
The Artists Studios in Aberystwyth were intended to provide siding, starting at the lowest part of the wall, then overlapping
low-cost facilities for sixteen start-up arts organizations for each new layer over the upper edge of the preceding layer. This
the Aberystwyth Arts Centre, part of the University of Wales, made the seams watertight, and efficiently used the doubled
Aberystwyth. In an effort to respect the character of the battens to firmly pinch the edges of the metal.
wooded site, the program was broken down into eight smaller Rigid thermosetting polyurethane foam was sprayed onto
studios and placed among the trees. The shed-like studio the claddings inner face, which bonds it to the face of the metal
buildings have simple timber frames that are conceptually as well as insulates. In the thicknesses used here, the walls
split down the middle and pulled apart to bring light and and roof are minimum values of R-23 (164 mK/W), much more
ventilation to the centerline, and then organized around a in some locations. The reflective, polished metal exterior is
common entryway. also an excellent radiant energy barrier. The studio walls tre-
mendously reduce all forms of heat transmission: conduction,
Materiality convection, and radiation. The polyurethane expands dramati-
Heatherwick Studio wanted a cladding material that was thin cally in its first few moments, then it hardens. The inner shape
yet durable and resistant to weather. Stainless steel was an of the foam is naturally irregular and hard to control, but in
obvious choice, but its high cost was problematic. By keeping this design a cavity conceals this irregularity behind a vertical
the steel sheets thickness to a minimum, costs were kept plane of interior gypsum and wood studs.
within reason, as weight drives metal costs. Typically stainless
steel is rolled to thicknesses measuring no less than 0.04"
(1 mm), but a rolling mill in Finland was able to achieve 0.005"
(0.127 mm) thickness specifically for this project. At this point,
the sheet metal is the thickness of a soft drink canso thin
that it dents easily and offers little structural integrity. The
designers employed this weakness to their advantage, inten-
tionally crinkling the thin foil prior to installation. To achieve
the rigidity needed for durable cladding, a spray foam was
applied to the inner face of the foil after it was installed. Due
to the reflective qualities of the crinkled steel foil, the colors
and patterns of the surrounding forest scintillate upon the
facade surface.
01 02
This project shows the innovative results the designers
were able to accomplish in their desire to use stainless steel in
a new and more accessible manner. Even though stainless steel
has never been used for a cladding material at this thickness,
the designers used the creative program of the studios as the
inspiration for their creativity in the material.
Technical
Each of the eight buildings is elevated off the sloping site by
fifteen concrete piers, which bear the steel frame of the floor
deck. The superstructure of the studios consists of simple, light
wood-frame construction joined with nails. A band of windows
was created by omitting one ribbon of the stainless steel along
the side elevations and inserting a sash in its place.
The stainless-steel cladding is brightly annealed marine-
grade 316L (1.4404), chosen because it optimizes strength and
cold-forming capabilities. The thickness is only 5 mil (0.005"
or 0.127 mm). The seams of the stainless-steel ribbons were
joined to 1.4" 2" (35 50 mm) framing battens at all edges.
The fragile edges of the sheet metal would likely have torn
at fasteners, so the foil was wrapped around the battens,
spreading the load transfer over a large portion of the sheet
03
METALS 173
1
2
1 Continuous bead of
proprietary silicon-based
sealant between stainless-
5 7 4
steel flashing and cladding
2 Stainless-steel flashing
3
3 HFC blown polyurethane
rigid foam insulation
4 Bright-annealed stainless-
6 steel grade 1.4404 (316L),
0.127 mm thick
6 Continuous bead of
proprietary silicon-based
sealant between stainless-
steel cladding sheets
04
05 06
174 NAME OF PROJECT
Plastics
175
in the building industry, still commonly used today to meet building codes they will continue to be seen
for components such as pipes, flooring, and siding, more frequently in construction.
among others. But despite their usefulness and growing poten-
In 1933 two organic chemists stumbled upon tial, designers should not disregard the fact that
perhaps the most significant plastic invention. E. W. petroleum-based plastic products are in some cases
Fawcett and R. O. Gibson, working for the Imperial detrimental to the environment. The desirable per-
Chemical Industries Research Laboratory, acci- manence of plastics is also what makes them not
dentally discovered polyethylene, a product that biodegradable. On the other hand, some argue that
subsequently came to play a key role in World War II glass manufacture and transport is more
for insulating radar and other military applications. energy-intensive, and others who say lumber-in-
Polyethylene was the first plastic in the U.S. to sell spired plastic products can lessen demand for trees
over a billion pounds per year, and continues to be the and reduce future deforestation.
highest selling plastic in the world today. It is most There are clear advantages and disadvantages
commonly seen in soda bottles, milk jugs, plastic to using plastic. Meanwhile considerable plastics
food storage containers, grocery bags, and many research continues for new advances in the con-
other common objects, but it is also widely used in struction industry as well as for how to produce
construction in the form of films and sheets. plastic products with alternative fuels and use more
Another common plastic, nylon, became widely recycled materials. Reducing embodied energy and
used in the 1940s, in everything from womens CO2 emissions are concerns with any industrially
stockings to military materiel. In 1957 a Swiss engi- produced products. With plastics we must also be
neer named George de Maestral took nylon hooks concerned with safety and environmental emissions
and loops and invented Velcro, revolutionizing many associated with their manufacture, as well as outgas-
common products. The 1950s brought additional sing during their service life.
plastics to the clothing industry, notably Lycra and
polyester. Laminates such as Formica and molded
melamine formaldehyde resin were becoming widely Design Consider ations
used in furniture and dishware. Tupperware, a poly- Plastic is a generic term used to describe several
ethylene, was first introduced in 1948 and quickly chemical compounds. The most common are poly-
became a household name. ethylene, polyurethane, polystyrene, polycarbonate,
By 1956 polyester and fiberglass were being polyvinyl, and polypropylene. As a group, these share
used for automobile and boat body parts, and in the many characteristics, such as their ability to achieve
1960s, plastics played a critical role in spacecraft different levels of transparency and color. Plastics
parts and computer equipment. The 1970s brought typically have a high coefficient of thermal expansion,
more plastics to the consumer with more selections so construction details must allow for a substantial
in housing interiors, clothing, household products, amount of expansion and contraction due to tem-
furniture, and electronic products. As computer tech- perature changes. Plastics are easily cut, formed,
nology grew, plastics became even more significant, and bent, and some are fire-resistant or classified as
becoming commonplace as the growth of fiber-optic slow burning.
cables and telephone cables were made. Indeed, The building and construction industry is the
each decade since the 1950s has brought new and second largest consumer of plastics, closely behind
unheralded advances to the plastics industry, making the packaging industry. Plastics play an integral role
it one of the most ubiquitous materials in the world. in construction due to their durability, high perfor-
Relative to other architectural materials, plastics are mance, easy handling, and low cost. They continue to
still very much in the early stages. proliferate in the construction of all building types,
There is plenty of remaining potential for plas- but most particularly residential buildings. We com-
tic in architectural applications. Customization in monly see plastics in construction today in plumbing
molds, forming, and the free range of shapes that fixtures, siding, flooring, insulation, doors, windows,
can be created open an endless world of potential railings, lighting, and glazing, and the list continues
for designers using plastics. Manufacturers and to grow. They are also used to modify the properties
suppliers are eager to enter new markets and find of other, more traditional construction materials,
new applications and materials to satisfy designers but recently they have replaced traditional materials
and architects. As more products become fire-rated altogether in many conditions, largely due to their
PLASTICS 177
commercially available even in remote locations and its life span. Its strength can be enhanced by the use of an
can easily be installed by unskilled workers using additive during its formative chemical reaction, yielding a
commonly available tools and fasteners such as nails high-impact acrylic. PMMAs unique chemical structure
and screws. Polycarbonate panels are also easily makes its clear visibility and hardness an ideal choice
cleaned, making them a good choice for an urban for some architectural applications, such as skylights,
environment. windows, or signage.
Polycarbonate has a thermal expansion coeffi-
cient that is eight times higher than that of glass. This Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is a thermoplastic
movement must be compensated for in detailing and polymer that can be semi-rigid to rigid depending on
sheet size selection. If polycarbonate is not treated the thickness. The material is also very lightweight,
with a UV-protective layer on one or both sides, it will inexpensive, mildew resistant, and can be a good gas
discolor. Polycarbonate panels, such as Lexan and and moisture barrier. It is naturally colorless but can be
Polygal, come in a wide range of thicknesses, shapes, colored. Like all polymers, ultraviolet degradation and low
colors, and specific solar and thermal resistance fire resistance are two of PETs disadvantages. It can be
features. They offer the designer choices because of used as a film, cast, or extruded.
their varied light transmission, from opaque to trans-
lucent to virtually transparent. They also provide Polyurethane foam (PUR) is a low-density, rigid foam used
inexpensive moderate thermal insulation with the use primarily for thermal insulation. It has a low thermal
of the multi-walled sheets. They are lightweight, easy conductivity, low water absorption, and has a very high
to install, and are 100 percent recyclable. However, strength-to-weight ratio. PUR foam has excellent adhesion
they are vulnerable to alkalis and aromatic hydro- properties. It can be manufactured in rigid boards and can
carbon. Polycarbonate maintains its properties over be spray-applied in place. However, being a thermosetting
a wide range of temperatures, from -40 to 280 F plastic, it cannot be recycled.
(-40138 C).
Glass-fiber-reinforced plastic (GFRP) is a composite
and when heated can be formed into different shapes. combine the best properties of wood fibers and plastic.
It has good resistance to weather, heat, and chemi- It is manufactured primarily from recycled cellulose
cals; however it is combustible. Acrylic sheet is light- fibers and plasticsmainly recycled paperand can be
weightusually less than half the weight of a piece completely recycled. Polyethylene and polypropylene
of glassand has moderate resistance to shrinkage are the thermoplastics used most often to manufacture
and dimensional instability. wood plastic composites, which is often used in decking
and siding. The material does not need finishing. It is not
polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA, or Plexiglas) is an acrylic intended for structural use due to its vulnerability to creep
plastic that can be used in enclosure conditions as a under long-term stress.
substitute for glass. It is lightweight, transparent, and
shatter resistant. Originally sold under the trade name Corian acrylic polymer is a DuPont material that has been
Plexiglas, today plexiglass has entered the lexicon to popular for more than forty years for interior applications
identify this type of plastic. At room temperature, PMMA is such as counters, tabletops, and lab environments. It is
solid and glasslike, but at very low temperatures it becomes considered a solid surface material made up of acrylic
brittle and is easily shattered. Ultraviolet light-inhibiting polymer and alumina trihydrate that is thermoformed in
coatings can be applied during manufacturing to increase 300F (150C). It is not often seen in exterior architectural
PLASTICS 179
applications, but when used as exterior wall panels, a Plasticizers are organic compounds that are added to reduce
uniform and smooth appearance can be achieved. Corian brittleness and provide flexibility and softness.
has a high-performance durability, excellent UV and
weather resistance, easy maintenance, and a fairly good Stabilizers are organic compounds added to reduce
fire rating. It can be thermoformed or bent to a customized deterioration from the effects of sunlight, weathering,
shape or form, and can also be engraved, colored and heat, and other volatile conditions.
finished with no sealants or treatments. It is fairly easy to
install and join with inconspicuous seams. Corian can be Fillers are non-reacting materials usually added to reduce
cut and finished easily for an array of different interior or costs or to improve hardness or resistance to heat
exterior wall applications, and using oven and pressure or electrical current. Talc and marble dust are two
molds, a wide range of forms can be created. common fillers.
Fluoropolymer films , specifically polytetrafluoroethylene Extenders are waxes or oils added to give bulk and
(PTFE) and ethylene tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE) reduce costs.
membranes, can be used to create lightweight, air-inflated
cushions for wall, roof, or enclosure applications. ETFE, Reinforcing fibers glass, metal, carbon, or any other
a modified co-polymer, has a tensile strength that is material fiberscan be added to increase strength,
about twice that of PTFE. With approximately 1 percent hardness, stiffness, resistance, and other improvements for
of the weight of glass, lower costs, and excellent light a given condition.
transmission, both materials offer significant advantages
compared to a glass curtain wall. Both can produce a wide Flame retarders are chemical additives usually added to
range of colors, prints, patterns, translucency, and density, plastics used in interior spaces or areas near electrical
and thus can control the amount of UV light transmitted. appliances in buildings.
ETFE was first developed for space applications and thus
has high insulation properties and a low level of embodied
energy. These fabrics and films can withstand a wide range Processing Methods
of temperature changes and can have a tensile strength of There are many ways to process plastics. Below are
up to 500,000 psi. five of the main methods:
Polyester fabric can be used for tensile structures with Injection molding allows for a wide range of opportunities in
great flexibility, translucency and elasticity. The fabric designing and creating any plastic form. Polymer pellets
permits 50 percent of the available visible light to pass are placed into a hopper and then heated to form a liquid
through, but blocks approximately 80 percent of the resin, which is then injected into a mold and cooled. Co-
incident ultraviolet light. Tensile structures can perform injection is when two colors or materials are injected into a
under tension or compression but the members cannot mold for a two-color or two-finish product. Although initial
resist bending stresses. production expenses can be high, this process results in
a high volume of products at a relatively fast rate, yielding
Coated polyester fabrics such as polyvinylidene fluoride low unit costs. Examples of injection-molded products are
(PVDF) have a good resistance to UV light, weathering, electrical boxes, exit signs, computer casings, foam plastic,
environmental stresses, and are relatively inexpensive. LEGO toys, and plastic cutlery.
This type of fabric can be sewn or electrically welded, and is
100 percent recyclable. PVDF fabric is often used to wrap a Casting begins with a liquid form rather than a granule or
steel frame for a quick construction. It can come in different pellet. It is not normally used in mass production, but
fade-resistant colors but is most often used in white for rather to produce a higher-quality plastic product. It is
optimum interior daylighting without chromatic distortion. however one of the simplest and most accessible means of
producing a custom-designed plastic form. A casting mold
is first made from either soft or rigid materials, and then
Modifiers and Additives the plastic is placed and set. Typical casting plastics include
More than any other construction material, plastics epoxy, polyester, synthetic resins, and acrylics. If a mold
are formulated to yield specific physical properties. can be created, the casting process allows for an almost
Modifiers and fillers are added to base plastics to endless range of shapes to be produced.
produce optimum properties in the finished product.
180
Design Intention shadows of the tree canopies are visible through translucent
When SelgasCano Arquitectos decided to move their studio into plastic layers. The sound of rain on the skin also pleasantly
the woods, they wanted to keep the space as transparent as reverberates through the interior.
possible while protecting their workspace from excessive solar The subterranean portion of the walls uses cast-in-place
gain. Their new office is a long, tubular structure, partially bur- concrete formed by horizontal tongue-and-groove boards
ied in the wooded site to literally integrate it into the landscape and protected on the exterior by a waterproofing layer and a
and provide favorable thermal mass. SelgasCanos solution geo-textile drainage membrane. The floor is pine boarding laid
explores the use of very thin plastic sheets instead of glass. On on top of steel square hollow sections secured to a concrete
the northern side of the studio, they used a single transparent slab. It is painted yellow and white, but the rhythms of the
layer, while on the sunny southern side, they designed panels boards are still apparent, and recognizably similar to the
composed of reinforcing steel structure and translucent ther- adjoining painted board-formed concrete walls. The operable
mal insulation sandwiched between two plastic sheets. cable-and-pulley shutters at the ends of the tube allow for
The innovative design of these panels created the varying levels of natural ventilation.
challenge of finding a contractor who was willing to take on
such a small, yet complex project. Some of the more intricate Technical
plastic pieces had to be ordered from Deutsche Bahn, the While the tubular shape of the plastic sheets gives them some
German national railway, which uses the same materials in intrinsic structural rigidity, it is primarily the T-profiled steel
its carriages. The architects had to wait until a larger order frame that contributes the most to structurally support the
was placed, since their material order for this project did not pressed plastic sandwich assemblies. Additional white-painted
warrant putting the factories into operation. galvanized steel angles and rectangular tubes detail the
assembly of the plastic sheets.
Materiality Acrylic is a thermoplastic, so it can be softened and
Few materials can simultaneously function as structure, reformed repeatedly using heat. The acrylic panels on the
enclosure, and light transmitters on their own. Even fewer can north side were initially produced as flat planes and were
be efficiently manipulated to form a curved shape and enable, then heated and curved into their final shapes. The fiberglass
for example, a roof to seamlessly become a wall. The outer panels on the south side were manufactured using a pultrusion
envelope of the office consists of two such resin products, both process in which fiberglass mesh was pulled through a bath
of which share all of these qualities. of polyester, and then formed into the desired curve while the
The northern side is a 0.8" (20 mm) PMMA acrylic skin plastic hardened. The fiberglass sandwiched between the pan-
made up of ten standardized units that are cross-tongued at els is composed of a thermosetting polyester resin, itself the
the abutting edges and sealed with silicone, creating the uni- result of an irreversible one-time chemical reaction that occurs
formly transparent result. A translucent 0.4" (10 mm) sheet of during production. The biggest concern with the use of these
Perspex acrylic was used to create the two cable-and-pulley- polymers is the eventual degradation caused by exposure to
operated gates at either end of the tube. The southern side is UV rays. A polymer UV-inhibitor was added to the resin during
4" (100 mm) thick, and composed of translucent white polyeth- manufacture of the transparent and translucent plastic sheets
ylene insulation pressed between two 0.4" (10 mm) fiberglass as a preventative measure.
sheets. The result creates a protective shade for the workspace
that lines the southern wall and obscures the structural steel
members inside the sandwiched sheets. The translucent skin
nonetheless allows for some level of site presence, as the
06 Preparation of polyethylene/fiberglass
composite panels
07 Panel installation
01
PLASTICS 183
03
02 04
05 06 07
El B Conference Hall and Auditorium
Cartagea, Spain SelgasCano Arquitectos
Acrylic, polycarbonate
02
PLASTICS 185
03
04 05
186 El B Conference Hall and Auditorium
de 21,82.cm deSoporte
anchuraextruido
y e: 6mm con
de aluminio para la de metacrilato tipo A
3. Lama translcida
de 21,8 cm de anchura y e: 6mm con
lineas de colores
fijacinparalelas
de las lamas tipo B lineas de colores paralelas
2. Soporte3.extruido
Lamadetranslcida
aluminio para la 4. Soporte
de metacrilato tipo A tipo A
extruido de aluminio para la
fijacin de las lamas
fijacin de lasdelamas
21,8 cmtipodeB anchura y5.e: 6mm
Grapa de con
acero inoxidable estandar
para todos los tipos de soportes
3. Lama translcidalineasdedemetacrilato tipo A atornillada al montante vertical
colores paralelas
de 21,84.cm deSoporte
anchuraextruido
y e: 6mmdecon
6. Montante de acero tubular 40x25x4mm
aluminio para la
lineas de colores paralelas
fijacin de las lamas tipo A
4. Soporte5.extruido
Grapa dede
aluminio para la estandar
acero inoxidable
fijacin de las
paralamas tipolos
todos A tipos de soportes
5. Grapa de acero inoxidable
atornillada estandar vertical
al montante
para todos
6. los tipos dede
Montante soportes
acero tubular 40x25x4mm
atornillada al montante vertical
6. Montante de acero tubular 40x25x4mm
A1
06
B1
A1
A1
A2
B2
B1
B1
E 1:50 E 1:5
A2
A2
B2 B2
07 08 09
PLASTICS 187
A1tn B1tn
piece position
Nomenclature: A 1 t n
n = orange lines
t = transparent
v = green lines
n = orange lines
A a = blue
v = green lines
n = orange lines
n = orange
v = green lines
10
E 1:5 E 1:50
E 1:50
B2
07 Lapped polymer cladding over inner 09 Section detail at base of exterior wall
and outer faces of custom steel
10 Architects drawing of polymer profiles
trusses
with specification of integral colors
and locations A2
Novartis Entrance Pavilion
Basel, Switzerland Architect Marco Serra
Polyurethane foam, glass-fiber-reinforced plastic
Design Intention the neutral axis by the PUR foam, and results in a very high
The Entrance Pavilion to the Novartis campus makes a dra- moment of inertia.
matic architectural and structural statement while providing The roof is constructed of a checkerboard pattern of 460
functional security and reception areas. The pavilion marks PUR foam blocks of varying density. Each of these blocks was
the arrival point for visitors emerging from the parking deck initially 35.4" 35.4" (900 900 mm) but CATIA modeling and
below, as well as for those approaching the campus at ground CNC-controlled machines cut them into the desired shape,
level. The visually striking form is based upon remarkable yet including all necessary recesses. Upper and lower surfaces
understated structural concepts for its roof and walls, cre- of the foam blocks curve to radii that change continuously.
atively adapting materials and processes to new expressions. The blocks were assembled into four large pieces measuring
The roof rests directly on the facades structural glazing, 18.4' 60.7' (5.6 18.5 m) and hand-wrapped longitudinally
without the use of any beams or columns, giving the illusion with multiple layers of GFRP to bind the individual blocks
that it floats above the glass cube beneath. At night, recessed into a structural unit. These four modules were transported
lights in the ground plane create the impression that the roof is to the construction site and carefully assembled on elevated
a floating, glowing volume. scaffolding. They were epoxy-bonded on the abutting faces and
hand-laminated once more on the faces to create a seamless,
Materiality monolithic body. A top coat of polyester gel contained modifiers
In order to keep the floor plan as open as possible, the mono- to assure waterproofing and resistance to UV light.
lithic roof element had to be fabricated out of a lightweight Approximately 100 small-scale tests were done to assist
yet structurally sound material. Polyurethane (PUR) foam and the dimensioning and detailing of the GFRP laminates, includ-
glass-fiber-reinforced plastic (GFRP) offered the solution, ing tensile tests on the laminate strips and shear tests on
not only as the form and the structure, but also as a waterproof overlapping joints. Four large-scale tests were performed on
and thermally insulating skin. The roof covers an impressive prototypical beams to verify various aspects of dimensioning,
4,300 sq. ft. (400 sq. m). It spans 38.4' (11.7 m), and cantile- including large-scale tensile strength of face sheets, buckling
vers 16.2' (4.9 m), or 42 percent of the simple span. It is worth resistance of face sheets and webs, tensile strength in thick-
noting that cantilevers do not normally exceed 30 percent of ness direction at face sheet deviations, creep behavior, and
the simple span. shear lag in face sheets. During fabrication of the final pieces,
The cross-section of the roof tapers from 24.4" (620 mm) in quality control of the laminate structure was assured by cutting
the middle to a slender 2.7" (70 mm) at the edges. The varying 1.6" (40 mm) diameter specimens out of the face sheets. The
thicknesses of the PUR foam correspond to the structural laminate thickness was measured and the configuration of the
requirements to support the roof. It is deepest where bending glass fibers was checked after burning off the polyester matrix.
stresses are greatest at midspan, then tapers to the edge of In addition to being an excellent insulator in this
the overhangs where stresses are least. To achieve the clean sometimes-cold climate, the roofs extensive overhangs shade
silhouette and slim forms of the projects design goals, this the tall glass walls at the south and west from the sun.
roof material was an ideal match. The structural glass walls use pairs of laminated glass fins
perpendicular to the primary insulated glass facade elements.
Technical Vertical steel tension rods anchored to steel embeds within the
Individual glass fibers, while strong under tension and roof are located between the glass fins to resist potential uplift
compression, are relatively weak when subjected to bending of the roof assembly.
or shear loads. GFRP is a composite of thermosetting plastic
resin (most often polyester) reinforced by fine glass fibers.
Embedding the fibers in plastic resin creates a composite that
is easily manipulated during fabrication, and which quickly
hardens into a product that is strong in tension, compression,
and shear.
PUR foam is a low-density, rigid foam used primarily for
thermal insulation. It has low thermal conductivity, low water
absorption, and most importantly, a very high strength-to-
weight ratio. The excellent adhesion properties of PUR foam
and its chemical compatibility with GFRP allows it to be
directly bonded together to form a stressed-skin assembly.
For the Novartis Entrance Pavilion most of the structural
stress is borne by the fiberglass skin, which is held far from
01
PLASTICS 189
02
01 Ground-floor plan
02 Tapered GFRP-laminated
roof assembly cantilevers
beyond the structural
glazing that supports it,
providing shade for interior
spaces
04
Fiberglass
05 06
WestEast PLASTICS 191
Water maze
07
Deck laminate (fiberglass) Foam block (PUR) Glass wall (Isolierglas) Non-structural laminates (fiberglass)
Design Intention The clear acrylic rods average 24.6' (7.5 m) in total
The theme of the 2010 Shanghai World Expo was Better City, length, and extend approximately 16.4' (5 m) outside the
Better Life, which focused on sustainability. Heatherwick wood armature. The rods are 0.8" 0.8" (20 20 mm), and are
Studio won the competition to design the UKs pavilion. centered approximately 4" (100 mm) apart. Two-thirds of the
Nicknamed the Seed Cathedral, the pavilion contains over rods length is encased in a 1" 1" 0.08" (25 25 2 mm)
200,000 seeds, collected from all over the world and encased wall-thickness extruded aluminum sleeve as it passes through
in over 60,000 acrylic rods that gently sway in the breeze. the wood box, simultaneously securing each rod in place.
The pavilions architecture is a manifestation of its exhi- The sleeve leaves only the outermost 5.25' (1.6 m) of the rod
bition contents. It also provided sizable public open space at exposed without cover. A bright red bead of high-density poly-
the Expo, and managed to find a simple idea that was strong ethylene sealant prevents water from entering the sleeve. It
enough to stand out amid the many other high-energy pavil- also protects the acrylic from scratches where it makes contact
ions, all competing for attention. Heatherwick intentionally with the end of the metal sleeve, which would affect a rods
designed an understated, simple building to house a rich idea. ability to optimally transmit light along its length. Engineered
Its purity is intended to make it memorable. wood elements were positioned inside the box to not interfere
with the passage of the rods.
Materiality The acrylic rods were made in two sections: the long
Over 60,000 slender transparent acrylic rods pierce a CNC- extruded portion that extends outside the structure, and
routed steel and wood composite box to create the Seed the portion that was cast and holds the seeds. The two parts
Cathedrals unique pixelated texture. The seeds, many acquired are bonded chemically so that light transmission is not
from Kew Gardens, near London, were incorporated into cast halted at the seam. Larger clusters of seeds were cast in
acrylic nodes at the end of each acrylic rod, creating a trans- larger cast nodes.
parent showcase for each tiny cluster of seeds. The rods draw From the exterior, the clear acrylic resembles a glowing
light into the structure during the day, illuminating the seeds halo around the metallic silhouette of the aluminum spikes.
inside. At night, precisely placed LED lighting fixtures direct While the aluminum prevents the acrylic from drooping or
light into each individual rod, backlighting the seeds and mak- snapping off, the rods may deform over time due to creep (the
ing the pavilion glow. Both extruded and cast acrylic elements materials response to a sustained load). The rods are thin
were used in this project; each material contributed its own enough to sway in a breeze, but the assembly was designed
unique properties to the finished product. to withstand significant winds.
Technical
The little-seen armature that holds the acrylic rods is a large
rectangular box, framed with laminated veneer lumber and
faced with plywood on the inside and outside surfaces. Holes
for the rods were carefully calculated using digital tools,
then CNC-routed into the plywood to hold them at the desired
position and angle.
02 Exterior view
03 Site plan
01
PLASTICS 193
02
03 04
194 UK Pavilion at World Expo 2010
05 06
07
PLASTICS 195
A-A
09 A-A
15
14
4
1
Aluminum cover, 2 mm
13
Plan
Elevation
LED wiring cables aligned
30
30
1 20 20 mm clear extruded 10
with aluminum tube
acrylic rod 12
2 25 25 2 mm wall, 11
extruded aluminum tube 10
9 7
3 30 30 2 mm wall,
extruded aluminum tube
Section 3
1 20 20 mm clear extruded
acrylic rod
3 25 25 2 mm wall,
extruded aluminum tube
6 Secondary fixing
3 mm steel pin glued in
2 2
position
13 HDPE end cap to provide Reflective wedge cut into the acrylic rod
partial waterproof seal Plan
06 Application of technology
to PET film on custom Air space continues to
vent at roof
fabrication table
04
02
05
03 06
Anansi Playground Building
Utrecht, The Netherlands Mulders vandenBerk Architecten
Corian acrylic polymer
Design Intention Air circulates naturally behind the panels, maintaining equiva-
This daycare facility complements the surrounding playground lent conditions on both sides to deter distortion.
and park, providing interior play spaces and related support The facade panels are elevated off the ground plane using
functions. The 1,600 sq. ft. (150 sq. m) building is a linear a reveal. This isolates the facade panels from any minor settle-
scheme composed of three squares. Each interior playroom ment of the hard-surface pavers, permits maintenance access,
engages an individual facade, and has a specific orientation to and foremost in the architects mind, produced a pleasing aes-
an outdoor space. thetic separation between the facade and the hardscape below.
The building divides the playground in half with one side The material homogeneity of this facade treatment is
used chiefly by teens and the other by younger children. The unusual. It is a rare advantage that so few materials look so
buildings interior features bright colors, simple furniture, similar on all surfaces, even when cut. The facade panels in
and child-appropriate elements like the durable interactive this project march along the face with unnoticed seams, and
wall treatments (such as blackboard or magnetic shapes) even turn the corners without major visual interruption of
inside each room, which the children use to give each space a the surface. The materials uniformity of weathering means
particular identity. The design invites children to play, discover, that the clean, consistent appearance will be long lasting.
and invent games of their own. The interiors ever-changing The architects claim that cleaning has seldom been needed,
graphics contrast with the permanent design of the exterior but if a panel does get dirty it can be cleaned as easily as
wall surfaces. washing a window.
Materiality
Corian was developed by DuPont, and has been used for more
than forty years in interior applications, primarily in kitchen,
bath, and lab environments, where its impermeability and
hardness are highly valued. In the past twenty years it has been
adapted for use in windowsills, outdoor furniture, and lighting
fixtures. This is only the second application worldwide of
Corian on a building exterior, and the first in The Netherlands.
The buildings linear form is wrapped with simple,
well-proportioned white walls that are decorated with charac-
ters found in fairy tales from around the world. A local graphic
design studio, Design Arbeid, together with the neighborhood
children, selected the various fairy-tale images to be CNC-
01 Plan and primary elevation
milled into the Corian facade. The art engages the children with
02 Exterior view
a sense of playfulness. The building surfaces became decora-
03 Fairy-tale figures milled into Corian
tive but also meaningful to the children and community. cladding panels
Technical
The opaque portions of the buildings walls are made of large
white Corian solid surfaces. The Corian panels are 23.6' 11.5'
(7.2 3.5 m). They were initially manufactured as eight 2.9'
11.5' (0.9 3.5 m) panels. Each was milled with its unique
graphic pattern and then glued together at the site using the
manufacturers proprietary color-matched acrylic epoxy. These
seams are nearly invisible because they were sanded and
polished after being joined.
The Corian panels in this project are 0.5" (12 mm) thick.
Because the product is uniform in color and texture throughout
its thickness, the exterior color and weathering resistance of
the milled recesses match those of the panel faces.
The panels were secured to the wood-framed wall by
matching aluminum elements that are mounted to both the
walls substructure and the back of the Corian panels. The
panels were then simply hung onto the fixed substructure.
01
PLASTICS 199
02
03
200 Anansi Playground Building
04
Steel frame
05
Seamlessly glued corner
Corian 12 mm
Waterproof plywood
08
Corian 12 mm with
milled drawing,
seamlessly glued
corners
07 09
Miroiterie Retail Building
Lausanne, Switzerland B+W Architecture
Polytetrafluoroethylene, ehtylene tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE)
Technical
A complex tree of structural members collects the loads
from the commercial building floors and delivers them to the
load-bearing spine of the parking structure. Each triangu-
lar pillow that makes up the buildings exterior envelope is +2 +2
+1
+1
5m
PLASTICS 203
E c helle : 1:322
Mis e en page
Numrotation: -pts
T extes : -pts
E pais s eurs traits
F ort 0.10 mm
F aible 0.10 mm
02
03 04
5m
204 Miroiterie Retail Building
7 6
9 Fluorescent tube
1 Window connection
2 Intermediate layer
Neoprene SK
3 Attaching bracket 50x80 mm
4 Intermediate layer PE
5 Fixing 38/17 (M10)
6 Anodized aluminum profile
7 PTFE 1 layer
8 EPDM sealing profile
9 Insulation
10 Profile RHS 150
11 ETFE 3 layers
07
5 cm
08 09
International Committee of the Red Cross Logistics Complex
Geneva, Switzerland Group8
Coated polyester fabric, polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)
01 Administrative-floor plan
02 Ground-floor plan
03 North-south section
04 East-west section
03
04
05
208 International Committee of the Red Cross Logistics Complex
06
08
07
PLASTICS 209
09
6
4
7 3
2
1 Steel structure, HEA 260
2 Sandwich panels
Montana MTW LL 140/900
(=0.025 W/mK), e=14 cm 1
3 Vertical structure of the
textile sleeve, ROR 152.4 x10
7 Textile membrane
Ferrari Prcontraint
type 1002 T2 PVDF, white,
e=0.1 cm
10
Plastic House
Gothenburg, Sweden UNIT Arkitektur
Acrylic, polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA)
Design Intention The acrylic panels are 23.6" wide 78.7" tall (0.6 2 m)
An existing house was taken down to its foundation and rebuilt and only 0.2" (5 mm) thick. The elevations were designed to
to locate daytime spaces on an elevated floor in order to gain require only rectangular shapes of acrylic panels, making
better visibility to the surrounding seaside landscape. In fabrication and installation easier. In some locations the acrylic
the time since the original house was built, this district near panels are secured to the vertical metal furring strips with a
Gothenburg has become more densely built, obscuring the sea high-strength bonding tape, such as 3Ms VHB tape. Here, VHB
view that was once available from the ground floor. Swedish tape joins the vertical steel furring strips to the back of the
building regulations have also changed and now require that PMMA panels approximately 4" (100 mm) inside the vertical
at least one kitchen, living room, bathroom, and bedroom be edge. By locating the tape joints away from the edges, the
made accessible to disabled persons. architect reduced the amount of thermal expansion at the tape
To meet the clients objectives within the very limited joint. The architects details indicate the size of the reveals
budget, the designers used a simple geometry and a commonly between abutting acrylic panels, as well as the temperature at
available material palette. The boxlike form keeps the floor which that dimension is relevant.
plans clean and simple. Any indulgences went to increasing VHB tape has become an increasingly utilized alternative to
room sizes rather than toward luxurious building materials. In screws, rivets, welds, and other forms of mechanical fasteners.
the new configuration, the living spaces and kitchen are on the Unlike screws or rivets that join materials tightly at each
upper floor and the bedrooms are placed below. The plan will fastener, high-strength bonding tape adheres one substrate to
allow a lifting plate to be installed to adjust the house for a dis- another while spreading the stress across the greater length
abled person in the future. The upper level is inspired by Craig of the joint. The manufacturer claims that materials joined with
Ellwoods residences of the 1960s, with spaces interrupted only this tape are held together by a virtually indestructible weld.
by sliding doors. The product carries a two-year warranty, but the manufacturer
claims a much longer useful service life.
Materiality Before its application here, VHB tape had never been
The facades varied materials reflect the different activities applied to PMMA in a non-laboratory setting. Due to manu-
that take place inside the house. The ground floor, for instance, facturers specifications, panels using VHB tape could only be
is clad with sawn spruce panelingtypical of Swedish ver- installed when the outside temperature was at least 59F
nacular architecturepainted with a mixture of equal parts (15C). Screws were used for connections that were installed
turpentine, linseed oil, and tar. The upper floor is clad with a below that temperature threshold. The strength of the VHB
homogeneous modern material, white polymethyl methacry- tapes bond depends on its thickness in relation to thermal
late (PMMA). Large panoramic windows capture the remark- expansion. In this case, the tape is 0.04" (1 mm) thick and
able reclaimed view, while a large steel balcony provides an can accommodate approximately 0.12" (3 mm) of thermal
outdoor space connected to the living room. expansion and contraction. Performing within that limit, one
can potentially expect a service life of up to fifty years. The
Technical experimental use of the two methods to secure the panels
The PMMA-panel rainscreen was installed on factory-painted will become a test of VHB tapes functionality in such appli-
steel Z-shaped furring strips and secured to a well-insulated cations. The expectation is that this experiment will validate
structural wall. Small gaps between the plastic panels serve warranties of much more than two years for future users.
as vents, while the bottom of the cavity is detailed to discharge
any water to the exterior of the wood-clad wall of the ground
floor below. The rhythm of the vertical furring strips is faintly
visible through the somewhat translucent acrylic.
01 02
PLASTICS 211
03
01 Southwest elevation
02 Northeast elevation
05
06
04
PLASTICS 213
Max. thermal
expansion 5 mm
Tape
Vertical joint distance 4 mm
(by assemblage at temperature 20C)
Center line
Thermal expansion
expansion 1.5 mm
expansion 1.5 mm
Thermal expansion is
Max. thermal
based on a maximum
Max. thermal
temperature difference
of 80C.
Coefficient of heat
expansion PMMA
0.07 mm/mm/C/
Max. thermal
expansion 5 mm
07 08
MOOM Tensegrity Membrane Structure
Chiba, Japan Kazuhiro Kojima Lab / Tokyo University of Science
Polyester fabric, tensegrity structure
Design Intention
Tensegrity is a term coined by Buckminster Fuller in the 1960s
to describe tensional integrity, a structural principle using
compression and tension. MOOM was an experimental applica-
tion of the principles of tensegrity structures in a space-
defining membrane. The project was undertaken by the faculty
and students at Tokyo University of Sciences Kazuhiro Kojima
Laboratory, in collaboration with a fabric manufacturer and
local structural engineers. MOOM was exhibited on campus for
approximately two weeks, where its construction was a festive
event that evoked community pride.
The feature that distinguishes this tensegrity structure
from its predecessors is that its reliance on the membrane for
its tensile capacity; preceding structures used tension cables to
make a stable frame, upon which a membrane was placed.
Several objectives guided this experiment: It was intended
to be extremely lightweight and to be executed without lifting
apparatus, large equipment, or highly skilled labor. Its palette
of materials included only the membrane, aluminum compres-
sion rods, and ropes to secure it to the ground.
Materiality
The tensile membrane material is a woven polyester fabric
developed by Taiyo Kogyo called Shade Azul. This fabric is
elastic as well as translucent. The material permits 50 percent
of visible light to pass through while blocking approximately
80 percent of incident UV light.
Technical
Tensegrity structures have two primary characteristics. They
only load members in either tension or compressionno mem-
bers undergo bending stressesand they employ continuous
tension but discontinuous compression elements.
MOOM covered 1,572 sq. ft. (146 sq. m). The clear spans
were 85.3' 24.6' (26 7.5 m). It had a maximum height of
13.9' (4.25 m). The single piece of fabric that forms the enve-
lope was only 0.03" (0.7 mm) thick and weighed 7.8 oz/sq. yd.
(266 g/m), in total approximately 220 lb. (100 kg). Exploiting
the fabrics elasticity and the capacity to sew twenty-four
gathers, the designers were able to create the curvature of the
dome-shaped enclosure. Gather locations coincided with sleeve
locations, making fabrication more efficient.
A total of 212 aluminum rods were used, of which 131 were
compression struts elevated off the ground and had contact
only with the membrane. The other 81 rods contacted both the
01 Erection sequence of
membrane and the ground plane. Varying in length from 2'9.2'
polyester fabric tensegrity
(0.62.8 m), the rods were slipped into sleeves or pockets that structure
had been sewn onto the fabric. 02 Side elevation
03 Plan
04 Illuminated polyester
membrane and
discontinuous compression
members
01
PLASTICS 215
4200
G.L
650 650 650 650 650 650 650 650 650 650 650 650 650 650 650 650 650 650 650 650 650 650 650 650 650 650 650 650 650 650 650 650 650 650 650 650 650 650 650 650
1250 1300 1950 1950 1950 1950 1950 1950 1950 1950 1950 1950 1950 1950 1300 1250
28500
02
6.. 6.. 6.. 6.. 6.. 6..
6.. 6..
6.. 0... 0... 0... 0... 0... 6..
0... 0...
5.. /7.. /7.. 5..
/6.. /6..
4.. 4..
/5.. /5..
0... 0... /7.. /7.. 0... 0...
/7.. /7..
00.. 6.. 6.. 6.. 6.. 00..
4.. /3.. /6.. 00.. 6.. 6.. 00.. /6.. /3.. 4..
/6.. 6.. 6.. /6..
6.. 0... 0... 0... 0... 0... 6..
/5.. 0... 0... /5..
/1.. /7.. /7.. /1..
5.. 5..
6.. /0.. /3.. /7.. 00.. 03.. 04.. 05.. 06.. 06.. 06.. 06.. 06.. 05.. 04.. 03.. 00.. /7.. /3.. /0.. 6..
/7.. /7..
5.. /6.. /6.. 5..
7.. 0... 0.. 7..
/0.. /4.. 0/.. 0/.. /4.. /0..
00.. 00.. 00..
/2.. /2..
/... /1.. /7.. /7.. /1.. /...
/5.. /5..
//.. 00.. 00.. //..
02.. 02..
/1.. 02.. 03.. 03.. 03.. 03.. 03.. 03.. 02.. /1..
/6.. /6..
/... /...
4.. /3.. /6.. 00.. 00.. /6.. /3.. 4..
/4.. 00.. 00.. /4..
/7.. /7..
/5..
0... 0... /7.. /7.. 0... 0...
/5..
Footprint line
/7.. /7..
5.. /6.. 4.. 4.. /6.. 5..
0... 0..
/4.. /6.. 0/.. 0/.. /6.. /4..
00.. 00.. 00..
5.. /7.. /7.. 5..
/1.. 0... 0... /1..
/5.. /5..
6.. 0... 0... 0... 0... 0... 6..
/6.. 6.. 6.. /6..
4.. /3.. /6.. 00.. 6.. 6.. 6.. 6.. 6.. 6.. 00.. /6.. /3.. 4..
00.. 00..
/7.. /7..
0... 0... /7.. /7.. 0... 0...
/5.. /5..
4.. 4..
/6.. /6..
43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43.
/1.. /73. /73. /73. /73. /73. /73. /73. /73. /73. /73. /73. /73. /1..
03 04...
43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43. 43.
/1.. /73. /73. /73. /73. /73. /73. /73. /73. /73. /73. /73. /73. /1..
04...
04
216 NAME OF PROJECT
Masonry
217
the brick color produces a more monolithic appear- structures and readily understand their construction
ance for the wall. One with a darker color tends due to the modularity of the building blocks.
to make a wall feel darker and smaller in scale. The Greeks used clay masonry in temples around
Masonry wall mock-ups are usually a good idea when the first century BCE and stone masonry well before
using unusual colors of brick and mortar. Mortar this. Roman construction often used fired clay
joint profiles can be tooled to give different weather- masonry for the load-bearing core of walls, which
ing results and different visual effects. Frank Lloyd were then faced with cut stone for a more desirable
Wright, for instance, liked to use raked bed joints to appearance and durability. The Romans advanced
emphasize horizontality. Joints can be tooled flush the use of masonry in arches and vaults in palaces,
with the masonry for a more monolithic appearance, aqueducts, baths, and many large-scale engineering
or can be tooled deep to emphasize the masonry structures. Vitruvius, the Roman architect and author
units and give deep shadows between courses. of The Ten Books of Architecture, offers a recipe in
Mortar is designated in four types: M, high- his second book for a lime mortar. Medieval times
strength meant for below-grade, frost, or very high brought masonry use to Europe and the Islamic
compressive loads; S, a medium-strength mortar world and gave rise to massive cathedrals, huge
used for normal compressive loads and weather fortresses, and walled castle estates. Masonry was
conditions; N, another medium-strength mortar but essential to the soaring vaults and flying buttresses
generally used always above grade; and O, a medium- of Gothic architecture. The use of masonry can be
to low-strength mortar that is used for non-load- found throughout the historical buildings of Central
bearing walls and above-grade construction. and South America, as well as in Asia. Significant
examples include the Aztec religious complex at
Teotihuacan, the famously lost Incan city of Machu
HISTORY Picchu, and Angkor Wat in Cambodia.
Since prehistoric time man has used dried mud as a In Europe and North America, the Industrial
building material. There were problems with build- Revolution brought about machines that helped
ing with dried mud, most apparently its short life quarry rock and mechanized many masonry
span and the ultimate deterioration of the material. production processes. However, as steel began to
Cracking and its slow drying time were also prob- be emphasized more in construction, stone and clay
lems that were only solved by adding straw or other took a back seat. The nineteenth century saw the
dry grasses into the mud blocks. Adobe, or sun-dried mass production of concrete masonry units, which
bricks, have been used for at least 10,000 years, and were cheaper to produce than large-format clay tile
are still used today in areas where there is insuffi- and required less labor to install than brick. But
cient fuel to fire a brick kiln. Parts of the Great Wall in CMUs also helped bring brick back to the construc-
China, which date as far back as 220 BCE, were built tion palette through the inventions of the cavity and
with adobe masonry units, and other parts were built composite walls. CMUs, it was discovered, could be
with kiln-fired brick. used to back up a thinner brick veneer for less cost
Kiln-fired brick emerged to meet the need for and more strength, while steel reinforcement and
greater strength and more reliable and durable units. grout within the CMU added load-bearing capacity.
Kilns and brick ovens date back to 25002000 BCE. Mortar has also evolved with more consistent prop-
The process of a the kiln-fired brick can be traced erties, and more customizable to match strength
back to the Mesopotamians (in what is now Iraq), and and workability criteria. High-strength mortars and
was developed simultaneously in the Indus Valley different colors now allow for masonry walls in any
culture (located in what is now India). climate and style.
Mesopotamians are considered to be not only one
of the first cultures to invent the kiln-dried brick but
also the most highly skilled, noted for their large- Design Considerations
scale brick architecture. Babylon was famous for Each type of masonry carries different design con-
its impressive ziggurats, stepped towers that stood siderations. Although masonry describes a group of
50300' (15.291.4 m) tall. What is also striking in naturally occurring, compressive structural mate-
these structures is the uniform nature of the bricks in rial, and many types of masonry walls are similar in
size, color, and shape, demonstrating the consistency construction method, the design considerations are
of Babylonian brickworks. One can look at these quite varied. Stone, brick, and CMU offer a wide range
MASONRY 219
of colors, textures, sizes, and shapes, and bring hand, making construction flexible and controllable.
many different considerations to the table of todays The nominal brick sizes include the bricks dimen-
designer. Despite it being an age-old method of sion plus one mortar joint, compared to the actual,
construction, nothing preordains where each hand- smaller brick size, which omits the mortar joint.
placed unit will be located, or how it will function. Other brick types vary in height, depth, and width
How the wall becomes load-bearing, whether the and include Norman, Roman, Engineer Modular,
masonry is used as a veneer, how it resists weath- Economy, Utility, and SCR units.
ering forces, and construction details are all critical A bricks orientation is also designated with
design opportunities. From the type and color of the terms shared by designers, masons, and manufac-
mortar, to the size of the mortar joint, to the spacing turers. In addition, there are many types of brick
between stone panels, there are endless explorations bonds. The most commonly used is the running bond,
in the making of a masonry wall or building. with Flemish, stacked, common, and other bonds
One consideration unique to masonry con- designed for specific uses. Architectural historians
struction is efflorescence, which affects all types of can date a masonry building based on which bond
masonry. It is a white powdery deposit sometimes is used, since certain bonds reflect certain time
seen on newly built masonry walls and caused by the periods in a given location. The contemporary
crystallization of water-soluble salts on the walls market for brick shapes and bonding patterns is
surface. Its source is seldom from the masonry units virtually limitless.
themselves; it is more often from the sand or water These terms relate to how a brick is oriented
used to mix the mortar. Salts can also come to the within the finished wall:
masonry assemblies from adjoining materials includ-
ing ground sources, and from the atmosphere. Water Stretcher , a brick laid with its long narrow side exposed.
evaporates and leaves the salts behind. Specifying parallel to the face of the wall.
clean sand and water greatly reduces the chance of
efflorescence, as does careful detailing to make sure Soldier , a brick laid vertically with the long narrow side of the
T ypes exposed.
Brick
Brick is the worlds oldest manufactured building Rowlock , a brick laid on the long narrow side with the short end
commodity. Todays bricks are a mix of fine inorganic, of the brick exposed.
non-metallic minerals, mixed with sufficient water to
shape the units. The raw materials can vary widely Shiner , a brick laid on the long narrow side with the broad face
and affect the properties of the final brick product, of the brick exposed.
specifically its forms, sizes, strengths, textures, and
colors. How the ingredients are proportioned, mixed, Clay Bricks
dried, and fired also have significant effect on prop- Clay is a mix of very fine inorganic minerals. A clay
erties and appearance of the resulting products. brick historically was molded into a rectangular
Most commonly brick refers to clay brick. In block, but today is extruded in a pug mill, usually with
the United States and Europe most bricks are made a series of holes that facilitate uniform drying and
of clay and fired in similar manners, with unprec- firing. Bricks are fired in a continuous tunnel kiln at a
edented consistency in properties and appearance peak temperature of 1,8002,000 F (9821,093 C) to
for a given product line. Contemporary manufactur- vitrify the minerals. Physical properties of the brick
ing processes and tunnel kilns produce units that can be controlled by the firing process; generally
routinely meet the highest standards of physical manufacturers optimize the process to produce prod-
properties. ucts of high strength and low permeability.
In the United States, the approximate dimen-
sions of a standard (also called a modular) brick is
4" 8" 2.66" (102 203 67 mm). It fits easily in a
220
mixture is pressed into its desired shape, hardened the upper limit of solid clay brick used in wall con-
in a sealed autoclave, and then pressure-steamed for struction. The bricks are fired at 1,000 F (538 C) to
eight to twelve hours. The curing process increases achieve this vitrification. Terra-cotta can be glazed or
the bricks strength and durability. Calcium silicate unglazed, but today is most often unglazed and has a
bricks are usually a dull white color but can be matte surface. Often seen as ornament on buildings,
adjusted with pigments to become more pink, gray, it can also be made into a masonry unit. Terra-cotta
yellow, or brown. The bricks can be textured mechan- blocks can be filled with concrete if needed and
ically on the surface if desired; however, they are anchored with metal fasteners or ties to a building
prone to chipping. The bricks are best avoided around structure.
coastal areas as salt and water freezing can quickly Faience, like terra-cotta, is found in large, flat
deteriorate their structure. They do have advantages, slabs or tiles, often with ribbed backs and set on
including high thermal resistance and a long lifespan, concrete to act as a veneer for a building surface.
and are regarded as one of the strongest masonry It has the same physical composition as terra-cotta,
units. Interestingly, the same product is often used as and both can come in a wide range of colors from a
pipe insulation and as insulation panels. cream/buff to red. A slip, which is a liquefied sus-
pension of clay particles in water, can be applied to a
Concrete Bricks surface to change the color, most frequently to mimic
Concrete bricks are made of concrete with a mix of stone.
sand, cement, and an aggregate, or crushed rock.
The bricks are molded and chemically cured rather Concrete Masonry Units
than being vitrified in a kiln like clay brick. Concrete Concrete masonry units (CMUs) are precast units
bricks may be most commonly used in areas where made of Portland cement, aggregates of various
the clay products are not locally produced, making sizes and types, and water. These units are formed
them economically uncompetitive. Masonry units in a mold, or (nowadays) quickly extruded vertically
made of concrete are more permeable than clay onto a conveyor belt in a factory. Unlike clay masonry
masonry, so designers must accommodate moisture units, which are vitrified in a kiln, CMUs rely upon a
presence, or must specify chemical additives chemical hydration process of the cement to durably
to reduce their permeability. Concrete bricks are bind the aggregates. The curing environment of the
commonly available in the same dimensions shown CMU is controlled to be warm and humid for the
above for clay brick, but they are also easily found in first twenty-four hours, then the CMU is cured fur-
utility sizes of 4" 4" 8" (102 102 203 mm), and ther under ambient conditions. Like concrete, the
4" 4" 12" (102 102 305 mm). hydration process continues to evolve for weeks or
months after being initiated.
Slag Bricks CMUs are available in many different shapes and
This brick was developed in the nineteenth century sizes, with the most common having nominal dimen-
by taking slag, the mineral waste produced from sions of 8" 8" 16" (203 203 406 mm), with two
smelting iron, and placing it into an iron mold with or three hollow cores, though they are also available
lime. It was removed from its mold when the exterior as solid units. Other common sizes are 4", 6", 10", and
surface was hard and the interior was still molten, 12" wide (100, 152, 254, and 305 mm) blocks, with the
and then the brick was annealed in ovens to further other two dimensions remaining the same to permit
strengthen its structure. Essentially cast bricks, slag modular coordination. There are many specialized
brick was most often used for paving and is no longer shapes and sizes including units with bull-nose
in production. edges, corner blocks, rounded corners, sill blocks,
cap blocks, coping blocks, and blocks shaped to look
Terra-cotta and Faience like pilasters or solid structural members. Most hol-
Terra-cotta bricks are similar to their counterparts in low load-bearing CMUs have a compressive strength
tile and pottery. Traditionally, terra-cotta is a mix of from 6001,900 psi (413 MPa). Fire-resistance rat-
fine clays with small amounts of silica and alumina, ings for CMUs vary based on the types of aggregate
an alkaline material that gives the surface a vitrifica- used and the size of the unit.
tion for durability. Unlike building bricks, terra-cotta Like brick, CMUs can be laid up in many different
products are typically molded or extruded to produce bond patterns. CMU walls are often also used as
units that have more then 25 percent voids, which is backup structural walls for stone, stucco, brick, and
222
metal panels. The hollow cavity within the unit can transformed through pressure and heat or by the
receive grout and reinforcing steel to give it strength. folding of geological strata. Common metamorphic
For exposed applications on building exteriors architectural stones include marble and slate.
or interiors, CMUs are produced in many different Stone naturally occurs in many shapes, colors,
shapes, textures, and colors. Split-face units have a and forms since it is not a man-made, manufactured
more stone-like appearance. Fluted or ribbed-faced product. Economical stone construction may use field
CMUs give a decorative appearance. Ground-faced stones, or irregular shapes of quarried stone, but
units are mechanically abraded to expose the color it can also be more refined through the investment
of aggregate inside a relatively smooth exposed sur- of labor or industrial processes. Once quarried and
face. CMUs can be pigmented or glazed from almost fabricated, cut stone can be laid like typical masonry
white/buff to almost black, with many shades of reds, units with mortar in a patterned course. It is a
grays, and creams. compressive structural unit, used not only in struc-
tural walls, but also in veneer walls, flooring, paving,
Grades countertops, and retaining walls. Stone can be
A CMUs grade describes its strength and perfor- laid without mortar or other material between units.
mance around moisture and water. In the United The craftsman laboriously carves or chips the stone
States, Grade N is a load-bearing block with a com- away to fit the units together snugly like a puzzle.
pressive strength of 1,0001,800 psi (6.912.41 MPa). Historic examples are monumental in scale, and
These blocks can be used either above grade or include the Egyptian pyramids and the Incan walls
below grade and be exposed to water and moisture. at Machu Picchu.
Grade S is also a load-bearing block but has limited The physical properties of stone vary considerably
use in exposure to water and moisture, and has lower depending upon the geological classification, and
compressive strengths. It is used above grade and even the species and quarry-specific qualities within
can be used in exterior walls that have a weather- those classifications. Generally, stone has great com-
protective coating. pressive strength, but loses 90 percent of it in shear.
Shear is the combined energy of a pair of forces
Stone acting in opposite directions along parallel lines of
Stone is a hard, solid, naturally occurring mineral or action through the material. Stone is durable and
an aggregate of minerals. An ancient material used in hard, making it a good overall construction material.
noted architectural works, stone is strongly associ- It can be classified by its color, grain, and texture.
ated with history and strength. Stone buildings have a Stone is also classified by its density and permeabil-
long lifespan, in part because of the durability of the ity, which are critical to determining its resistance
materials and laborious details, but also because the to freeze/thaw conditions, as well as vulnerability to
projects built of stone were of such civic importance staining and atmospheric pollution.
that they were maintained exceedingly well. There are many considerations in deciding to use
Architecturally, stone is usually used in two man- stone architecturally. It is always encouraged to use
ners: as a load-bearing wall that is laid in mortar, stone that is local or quarried close to a building site
and as a thin, non-load-bearing veneer, backed up to reduce environmental impacts of transport of this
by concrete or another structural substrate. Stone massive material. Cost is generally at a premium
is most often classified by its geological origin into level. Because it is not found in regular shapes or
three types: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. sizes, quality control by fabricators, designers, and
Igneous rock is volcanic rock, formed from cooled installers regarding specified properties, color and
molten magma. Granite is the most common igneous texture must be of the highest order.
stone in architectural applications, but others include We can classify stone into three grades of finish:
obsidian, basalt, and malachite. Sedimentary rock rubble, ashlar, and trimstone. Rubble is rough,
is formed over millennia from the deposits of partic- quarry-faced stone, but can have one good face used
ulate matter (sediment) by glacial movements or by for wall construction. Ashlar is cut or split stone
water. In sedimentary rock, the particles are formed patterns that we might see in a wall facing or paving.
under pressure and are bound by natural cement. Trimstone is cut stone used for cornices, sills, lintels,
Examples include limestone, sandstone, and traver- and other details of a building. Flagstone is used for
tine. Metamorphic rock is an igneous, sedimentary, flooring or flat surfaces.
or older metamorphic rock that has been chemically
MASONRY 223
CONSTRUCTION
Stone can be used as a load-bearing wall employing
the principles of unreinforced solid masonry con-
struction. This is called a double-faced stone wall
and is usually not used above a three-story height.
Due to high material and labor costs, stone is now
most typically used as a veneer, or over a backup
wall. The stone facing material is usually between
26" thick (50150 mm) and tied to a load-bearing
CMU or concrete wall. In thinstone applications, very
narrow prefabricated stone panels may be secured
with stainless-steel clips to a metal grid that in turn
is supported by the buildings primary structure.
Alternatively, multiple thinstone panels can be
assembled into a unitized cladding panel for quick
installation in the field.
Because stone cladding is considered permanent,
it is important to use non-corrosive ties, anchors, and
flashing so as to not suffer premature corrosion or
cause any staining. Copper, brass, bronze, and mild
steel should not be used for anchors, while stainless
steel is ideal. Tolerances for movement should also
be considered regarding hardware selection and in
detailing how the stone is secured to its backup wall.
Movement and shifting of pieces will occur. The
hardware in stone veneer walls is critical because
it must accommodate loads, changes in temperature,
and manipulation during installation. Stone joints
should be regular and consistent in many types
of stone walls; in others, irregularity in joints can be
considered part of the aesthetic quality of the wall.
Shims and moisture barriers should also be con-
siderations when designing a stone veneer wall to
ensure its durability.
Stone can be made to look monolithic and solid
by using manufactured stone veneer blocks or stone
masonry units. Or stone can be used in its natural,
irregular state with little shaping. Stone is still con-
sidered a green materialit has performed well for
centuries and will continue to do so.
Stone carvers and setters were at one time much
more common than is the case now. Off-site fabrica-
tion of stone elements is now the norm, sometimes
using very specialized equipment and computer-
controlled tools. Sometimes stone veneer pieces
are secured and placed on a concrete panel or steel
panel wall unit in a shop, where greater masonry
consists of squared blocks of stone that are different
heights, thus breaking or interrupting the courses.
In addition to hardware, designers must consider the
walls mortar type and how the joints are tooled to
ensure regularity, strength, and durability.
Secondary School
Dano, Burkina Faso Dibdo Francis Kr
Laterite masonry
Design Intention Laterite clays are found in many regions of the world,
This L-shaped secondary school is part of a compound of typically in places where the soil goes through thousands of
community facilities in a village in Burkina Faso. It exemplifies years of cyclic rainy and dry seasons, like those typically found
sustainable design practices with its strategic use of local in equatorial forests or humid subtropical savannahs. During
skills and materials, passive thermal regulation, and long- the wet seasons, water-soluble binders leach out of the parent
life/loose-fit approach to design. The building features are stone or soil, leaving insoluble oxides and sulfates of iron,
uniquely representative of the local cultural, environmental, aluminium, and silica. These minerals then undergo hydrolysis
and economic circumstances. during the hot, dry season. Laterite has been used in building
Three classrooms and an elliptical sheltered amphitheater construction for more than 1,000 years, with examples in
form the long leg of the L, flanked by a block that contains Southeast Asia and India in addition to North Africa.
offices and computer spaces. The school defines the southern
edge of the compound, with generous overhangs to shelter the Technical
building and to minimize exposure to direct sun. The project The laterite blocks were placed in an reinforced running bond
utilized the vernacular construction knowledge of local build- pattern, with very thin mortar joints made of cement and sand.
ers, but also reinvigorated the artisanal tradition by training a The blocks are 12" long (305 mm) and their width varies to
new generation of workers in these techniques, ensuring that facilitate the interlocking of units within the wall. All walls
this building method will remain embedded in the community. are load-bearing; their height is approximately ten times their
This project enhanced the economic opportunities for indige- thickness. Anticipating the cyclic rainy season, walls are ele-
nous masonry materials and skills. vated off the ground using an impermeable granite stone bed
that varies in height to meet the finish grade.
Materiality The roof trusses were custom made by welding 0.55"
Economic constraints made it imperative that designers be and 0.63" (14 and 16 mm) diameter steel reinforcing bars into
resourceful with every decision. Local laterite clay was used to a three-dimensional truss, which supports the unique curved
construct almost all of the built structure, chosen for its func- ceiling below and the corrugated metal roofing above. Air natu-
tional value, but also as a pilot project to demonstrate its use in rally convects in the zone between ceiling and roof, moderating
sustainable design. Compressive walls are chiefly made using interior temperatures. Rainwater from the undulating roof is
unfaced laterite clay blocks, which also provide enclosure, collected and directed away from the building. Roof trusses
security, and passive thermal mass. The rich red color and rest on a reinforced concrete bond course cast on top of each
texture make it an attractive interior and exterior finish. wall, and by reinforced concrete beams where no wall is below.
When at or below the water table, laterite soil is soft The reinforced concrete elements accept the concentrated
enough to be cut with a spade or an axe. Clay is traditionally loads from the roof trusses, and then safely distribute them to
extracted in roughly rectangular blocks and then trimmed the masonry walls.
using hand tools. Once exposed to air it begins to dry and Three suspended ceiling elements hang in each room. Each
become stone-like as the water between the clay particles is made of 9.8' (3 m) broad flat-rolled steel sheet metal, which
evaporates and the iron salts in the soil interlock to form a lat- supports the wood/cement masonry units that provide thermal
tice structure of moderate strength. Laterite is unique because mass. Openings between the suspended ceiling elements
when it is thoroughly dry, it becomes solid without needing to permit hot room air to rise and escape through the roof cavity.
be fired in a kiln or bonded with cement additives. Ceilings are painted white to distribute daylight evenly.
01
MASONRY 225
02
07 School plan
09 Classroom interior
04
1
2
3
4
1
6 7 5
9
225
-5 8
10
11
669
-9
12
Roof covering
10 1 Corrugated steel
Roof structure 13
2 Support pillar
11 Suspended ceiling
roof covering 1 corrugated steel
6 Hollow cement block
12 roof7 Mortar
structure 2 support pillar
8 Plaster
3 bent reinforcing steel 10 mm
4 welded reinforcing steel 14 und 16 mm, steel 30
9 Bearing bar, O.C
5 80bent
mm steel tube steel 20 mm
reinforcing
Ring beam
suspended ceiling 6 hollow cement block
10 Reinforced concrete
7 mortar
11 Collapsible and8colored
plaster
wings-
13 9 bearing
shutter for windows bar,with
and doors 80 mm steel tube
adjustable, collapsible, and colored
wings
ringbeam 10 reinforced concrete
05 Walls and columns
11 shutter for windows and doors with adjustable,
12 Laterite stone, 300 collapsible
mm and coloured wings
13 Granite base
walls and columns 12 laterit stone, 30 cm
13 granit basement
Detail M 1:50
MASONRY 227
06
07
N
08 09
Brandhorst Museum
Munich, Germany Sauerbruch Hutton
Glazed ceramic rods
01
MASONRY 229
02 03
230 Brandhorst Museum
04
05
12 inserted threaded rod, M6, bolted over two nuts
with polyamide discs to the ceramic rods, tension
free, using a transversal headless screw, M4, MASONRY 231
10 10
11 11
12 12
1
mm, 3
he substructure
4
13 13
ration,
r of panel
7
flectors
8
07
8 Ceramic rods
01
02 03
01 Approach toward church across piazza 03 Some of the more than 1,300 stone
from the east blocks, each made to tolerances of
0.02" (0.5 mm)
02 Construction of two rings of masonry
stone arches 04 Section through church and piazza
04
234 Padre Pio Pilgrimage Church
05
MASONRY 235
07 08
South Asian Human Rights Documentation Centre
New Delhi, India Anagram Architects
Bonded masonry, modular coordination
Design Intention bonding of the brick courses. The architects used computer
The South Asian Human Rights Documentation Centre modeling to show the masons that a simple rotating module of
(SAHRDC) is an administrative office for this non-governmental bricks would create the kind of visual and textural complex-
organization to investigate, document, and disseminate ity needed to address the design objectives. Architects and
information about human rights. SAHRDC is a small office with masons used full-scale mockups to find a simple and practical
limited resources; their facility was designed on a small urban bricklaying technique that could be replicated by the various
corner site, which emphasizes spatial efficiency and cost- masonry teams without requiring the skills of a master mason.
effective construction. The designers prepared a set of six individual course drawings,
The 538 sq. ft. (50 sq. m) site is located at the intersection setting forth the angle of rotation of each brick. From these,
of two busy pedestrian streets, so controlling and restricting sets of triangular wooden templates were made, which the
street-level acoustic and visual disturbance into the work- masons used to accurately place the bricks.
spaces was a critical priority. The sites longer dimension faces The bricks used were 9" 4.5" 3" (230 115 75 mm),
the western sun, which in this climate required strategies to which is the standard size of a brick in India. Like modular
reduce solar thermal gain while permitting ventilation of inte- bricks worldwide, the longest dimension is exactly two or three
rior spaces. The outer wall is intended to optimize solidity and times its two smaller dimensions. The bricks were wire cut
privacy while still conversing visually with the urban realm. but are primarily handmade. Both the head joint and bed joints
The street wall is animated to reflect the energy of the city were 0.4" (10 mm). The mortar is a simple cement/sand mortar
outside, satisfying the need for privacy using a richly engaging in a 1:3 ratio.
masonry surface. The masonry wall is load-bearing, so structural perfor-
The building is diagrammatically simple, organized with mance could not be compromised by the visual pattern making.
a single, open administrative space on each of its three The centers of the cubic modules in a stack had to perfectly
aboveground floors, which are buffered by a service and stair align in a vertical axis, around which the module would rotate.
bar on the western, sun-facing side. The porosity of the stair This was difficult to accurately craft during bricklaying due to
wall permits natural ventilation horizontally and vertically. human error. Conventional masons strategies such as drop-
ping a vertical plumb line were not feasible because brick faces
Materiality were not all in the same plane.
To meet the tight budget, walls were constructed of exposed The floor vaults and slabs bear on the walls where two sets
brick. Floors and roof decks are made of gently vaulted brick of cubic modules align to make the wall thickest and strongest.
spans with a concrete topping, eliminating the need for beams Structural bonding between modules results from the cross-
and reducing slab thickness. The underside of the brick vaults stacking of the bricks in the modules. In the more perforated
are exposed, making a hung ceiling unnecessary and reducing central portion of the facade, brickwork is reinforced horizon-
floor-to-floor heights to only 10.33' (3.15 m). tally by laying a thin reinforced concrete beam within the wall
A single repeating brick module creates a visually complex thickness in place of the center brick.
pattern in the manner of traditional South Asian brise-soleils.
This is achieved with standard solid brick, and without joint
reinforcement in the masonry walls. No material other than
brick masonry was to be visible in the facade. This innovative
bricklaying method uses a common material in an unconven-
tional manner to engage the urban streetfront and stay within
01 Perspective of brick
the limited budget. The masonrys sense of movement and
coursing; plan views of
textural qualities exemplify innovative designers that use each course shown to
right
common materials creatively and thoughtfully, to the benefit
02 Exterior view of west
of everyone.
screen wall
02 03
04 05 06
NUWOG Headquarters and Housing
Neu-Ulm, Germany Fink + Jocher
Modular coordination, special shapes
Technical
Exterior walls are made of 8.7" (220 mm) load-bearing rein-
forced concrete, covered with 3.9" (100 mm) of mineral wool
insulation, a slender cavity, and lastly a brick veneer in a run-
ning bond pattern. The plasticity of freshly mixed concrete is
used to make the undulating shape of the structural substrate,
which is translated into the disciplined form language of the
orthogonal brick veneer.
01
MASONRY 239
01 Ground-floor plan
+20,48
+16,875
03
+13,50
+10,125
+0,00
Fassadenschnitt, M 1:50
02 04
01
MASONRY 241
02
01 Axonometric diagram of
scheme
20
04
5
0
05
MASONRY 243
06
07 08
Chapel of St. Lawrence
Vantaa, Finland Avanto Architects
Bonded solid masonry
01
MASONRY 245
02
01 South elevation
2 Suspended ceiling:
7 patinated copper mesh
hanging frame + substructure
3 Rw 43dB:
0.7 mm patinated copper
bituminous sheeting
plywood
25+25 mm air space
9+9 mm windproofing
100 mm wood structure + insulation
gypsum board
plywood
0.7 mm patinated copper
6
4 Insulating triple glazing, Rw + Ctr 42dB
5 5 Steel sheeting, painted
bituminous sheeting
plywood
4 mineral wool insulation
6 L-steel 50 50 5 mm
04
MASONRY 247
07
05 08
06
Warehouse 8B Conversion
Madrid, Spain Arturo Franco Architecture Studio
Recycled masonry
01
03 Renovated condition
04
250 Warehouse 8B Conversion
05
06
07
08 09
MASONRY 251
10
12
11 13
Butaro Doctors Housing
Burera District, Rwanda Mass Design Group
Compressed stabilized earth blocks, stone masonry
Technical
The CSEBs used to build the houses have less cement than con-
crete masonry units, and unlike brick do not require firing in a
kiln, reducing CO2 emissions and avoiding local deforestation.
01
MASONRY 253
02
01 Ground-floor plan
02 Exterior view
04
UPPER LEVEL
1000
05
06 07
MASONRY 255
INTERIOR EXTERIOR
Volcanic stone
Cementatious grout
08
Sand-cement rendering,
painted white
Cementatious grout
Volcanic stone
the designer to recreate the patterning, using each concrete 04 Completed concrete masonry screen
wraps the former silk workshop
masonry unit as a pixel. The rigid, repetitive expression building
normally associated with masonry is replaced by a fluid,
unpredicted quality.
01 02
MASONRY 257
Angle guide
uide
uide
uide
Perspective
tive
tive
tive
n
Elevation
n
n
Plan
03
04 05
06
Center for Design Research
Lawrence, Kansas Studio 804/University of Kansas
Limestone veneer cladding, masonry thermal mass wall
Design Intention with their exposed faces slightly out of alignment, making
The new Center for Design Research is located on the the small scale of each stone piece visible. The reclaimed
University of Kansass former dairy farm, alongside its stone cut limestone pieces were split and placed randomly into the
house and barn. The Center provides a laboratory for research wall, along with approximately 25 percent unsplit pieces.
and design collaborations between multiple schools, led by The cladding is expected to remain in service many years with
the School of Architecture, Design, and Planning. The Center little or no maintenance.
emphasizes the education of the University and community The walls and foundations are exceedingly well insulated
regarding sustainable strategies, material innovation, and in order to meet the environmental goals of the project. In
building efficiency. the wood framed walls above floor level, the studs used were
This 1,820 sq. ft. (170 sq. m) facility demonstrates exem- actually 16" deep wood I-joists at 16" intervals (406 mm);
plary sustainable design strategies, and in fact has earned a the blown cellulose between studs matches the ample stud
LEED Platinum rating and a Passive House Pre-Certification, width. The insulated wood framing was wrapped with a vapor
one of the first commercial buildings in North America to earn barrier and an additional 2" (50 mm) layer of rigid polystyrene
that title. The Center generates electricity using a wind turbine insulation, with only a slender (approximately 0.5" [13 mm])
and photovoltaic systems, but also has a rigorously designed cavity behind the stone veneer.
envelope and site strategy to achieve its environmental goals. The stone veneer exterior walls take advantage of the
These green building technologies and products have set limestones aesthetic qualities and durability. Another
the standard for the University and the surrounding commu- wall inside the Center exploits the thermal mass capacity
nity. The design capitalizes on existing resources, minimizes of masonry walls. The Centers large south-facing window
environmental degradation, and creates a safe and efficient permits sunlight to pass through it to thermally charge a stone
working environment. and masonry Trombe wall that was built 30" (760 mm) inside
Twenty-three architecture students and their professor the glass. This 32' long wall fills the 11.3" tall space (9.75 m
carried out the design and construction of the Center as an long, 3.45 m tall) and has vents at the top, which the buildings
academic design/build project. This is an example of what has mechanical systems automatically operate to let heat into the
become an annual undertaking of the terminal graduate studio interior spaces. The zone between the curtain wall and the
at this school. Trombe wall was enclosed on the ends with glass, making
it function as a double-envelope assembly for this portion of
Materiality the Center.
Resourceful use of existing local materials led to the reclaim- The trombe wall was built with a core of 6" (150 mm) con-
ing of more than one hundred tons of limestone tailings from crete masonry and was faced on both sides with 2" (50 mm)
Kansas quarry operations. Small and oddly shaped tailings limestone veneers using full collar joints but no joint reinforce-
were hand cut into thin, stackable pieces to clad interior and ment. To make the wall seem less ponderous in the space, a
exterior walls and become a contemporary version of the portion of the wall was built using 0.5" (13 mm) plate-glass
existing buildings old stone walls. Site waste was reduced by layers between each concrete masonry course. The slender
placing all scrap stone from the cladding process along the glass layers contribute to the thermal mass of the wall,
north side of the building as exposed fill. The clever reclaiming but also transmit light through the massive wall in a crisp
of this limestone not only respects the contextual use of stone geometric pattern.
historically on the site, but also demonstrates the students
creative use of this material.
The Centers southern facade is a combination of
limestone-faced wall and custom-fabricated steel curtain
wall. A limestone and CMU Trombe wall is positioned inside
the large southern windows to absorb the suns energy
during the day and radiate it at night.
Technical
The limestone exterior wall cladding was applied as 3.5 in.
thick (89 mm) veneers to wood framing above floor level, and to
concrete foundation walls below floor level. In both applica-
tions metal anchors link the veneer stone to the substrate at
24" intervals horizontally and 16" intervals vertically (610
406 mm). The stone pieces vary in width, and were installed
01
SECTION
MASONRY 259
02
01 Transverse section
02 Exterior view
Steel beam
Gravel fill
Concrete footing
04
MASONRY 261
Cant strip
Pressure treated 2
Steel mullion
05
06 07
La Pallissa
Catalonia, Spain Cubus
Renovated stone masonry
Design Intention The loft floor construction employed ceramic tile set into
Family members renovated a seventeenth-century rural home inverted T-shaped steel joists, topped with reinforced concrete
in Catalonia to create several apartments for use during sum- and locally made ceramic tile. The freestanding kitchen and
mer visits. The focus here is on the renovation of the former bath partitions were built using large-format clay tile units,
stable and hayloft annex, a secondary building adjoining the faced with either plaster or ceramic tile. The ceiling is made of
main house. recycled clay tile between wood purlins, and the roof is finished
The renovation did not alter the overall form of the annex, with locally produced clay tile.
but stabilized the existing stone construction and introduced The old and the new construction of this project exhibit a
new features to address contemporary expectations regarding great variety of masonry materials and construction tech-
the thermal envelope and building services. The annex reno- niques. The level of craft in these traditional trowel trades
vations were restrained, accepting this small buildings lower persists at a high level.
hierarchal position compared to the main house yet respecting
its historic qualities.
Materiality
The project began with an empty stone rectangular volume, 01 Schematic illustration of new
elements within existing stone walls
topped with a shed roof, and a hayloft floor over part of the
02 Exterior view of former stable from
space. The character of the existing old stone walls was con- north, with main building to the left
sidered the main architectural asset, so the design left them
exposed inside and outside. The richness and historic quality
of the stone walls give this simple renovated space a com-
plexity and story it would normally not have. Here materiality
speaks in a simple but strong voice.
A new window opening through the stone wall was intro-
duced, providing a view to the landscape. This opening used
concealed steel elements for its lintel, making it possible for it
to have a broad horizontal proportion.
A small two-story core of services was designed to be free-
standing in the volume, leaving the stone walls fully exposed.
New interior elements were finished in energetic white or
red, distinguishing them from the historic stone and timber
structural elements.
Technical
The existing unreinforced stone walls are approximately
ten times as tall as they are thick (1.64' 18.7' [500 5,700
mm]). For centuries they have performed well, demonstrating
the durability of modest bonded rubble masonry. To sustain
the stone walls further, they were reinforced where critical
structural concentrations occur. For instance, new reinforced
concrete footings were placed below the inner half of the stone
walls, where no footings existed previously. The new footings
support the walls and bear the loads of the new concrete
floor slab and finishes. Higher in the walls, new reinforced
concrete bond beams were cast into pockets within the wall
thickness to bear the concentrated loads of loft floor beams
and the roof rafters.
The renovated annex is protected from moisture intrusion
by adding a clear water-repellent treatment to the exposed
outer wall surfaces, waterproofing to the subgrade surfaces,
and perimeter drain lines to take ground water away. The new
floor slab is supported on a ventilated cavity to isolate it from
01
moisture in the soil below.
MASONRY 263
02
264 La Pallissa
03
MASONRY 265
5 6 7
9 7
10 11 12 13 14
15
16
11 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
04
1 Ventilated local ceramic tile, 8 Reinforced concrete 16 HEB-100 concrete cube 22 Perimetral expanded
rainwater collection perimetral band support polystyrene
2 Waterproof sheet 9 Bath: wall and roof tiling 17 Underfloor heating 23 Perimetral drainage with
gravel
3 Reinforced concrete 10 Polished concrete pavement 18 Reinforced concrete
(100 mm) 24 Waterproof drain
4 Thermal insulation (40 mm) 11 Local ceramic floor
with vapor barrier 19 Plastic cavities (200 mm),
12 Reinforced concrete ventilated air space
5 Recycled local ceramic tile
13 Acoustic insulation 20 Concrete base for cavities
6 Wooden beam
14 Ceramic vise between HEB- 21 Phased reinforcement
7 Existing stone masonry 100 beams concrete foundation
wall with water-repellent
treatment 15 Plastering ceiling
Index
:mlzd, 17071 costs, 134 Bilbao, Spain, 1619 casting alloys, 135 clay, 49, 86 uniformity, 50
3M, 210 customization, 152 bimetallic corrosion. See Catalonia, Spain, 26265 coatings, 50 and utilities, 53
5468796 Architecture, 15255 environmental conditions, weathering cathode, 131 cold joints, 55 water/cement ratio, 49
96 percent silica glass, 13 152, 164, 170 blister copper, 137 Catholic Church, 11 compression, 49 workability, 54, 55, 58, 68, 80
extruded, 15255 boards, 89 CATIA modeling, 188 concrete masonry units concrete masonry screen,
Aalto, Alvar, 8 finishes, 13536, 142 Bohlin Cywinski Jackson, 9, Cedeira, Spain, 15051 (CMU), 52, 217, 218, 22122 25657
Aberystwyth Arts Centre, 172 H-sections, 42 4647 Cellophane House, 19697 corrosion, 51, 55 concrete masonry units (CMU),
Aberystwyth, Wales, United joining, 136 bolts, 9192, 134, 156, 228 cellulose, 175 costs, 49, 51, 53, 58, 60, 76 52, 217, 218, 22122
Kingdom, 17273 manufacturing, 13435 high strength, 134 cellulose insulation, 112 creep, 54 connectors
absorbency ( A), 12 mechanical finishes, 135 lag, 92 cement, 54, 72, 217, 252 curing, 49, 54, 56, 64 adhesives, 92, 122
acrylic, 17879, 18283, 18487, perforated, 14245 nuts, 91 aggregate, 49 design considerations, 50 bolts, 9192, 156, 228
18891, 19295, 19697, plastic coatings, 13536 washers, 92 curing, 49 disadvantages, 50 metal plate fasteners, 92
198201, 2025, 2069, recycling, 134 bonded masonry, 23637, cement-based stucco, 6063, energy efficiency, 53, 56, 58 nails, 91
21013, 21415 stamped sheets, 17071 24447 6869 environmental conditions, screws, 91
coated polyester fabric, strength, 134, 135, 152 borosilicate glass, 13 Center for Design Research, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 58, timber, 92
179, 2069 temper, 135 Bosch Rexroth, 196 25861 68, 7071, 72, 76, 80 toothed plates, 92
Corian acrylic polymer, weathering, 136, 142, Boston, Massachusetts, 9, ceramic frit, 2629 fabric-formed, 54, 6467 Copenhagen, Denmark, 3437
17879, 198201 152, 164 10811, 252 channel glass, 15, 2425 failure, 50 copper, 129, 131, 132, 133, 134,
fluoropolymer films, 179 Aluminum Association, 135 brace frame, 86 Chapel of St. Lawrence, 24447 fiber cement, 53 13637, 232, 244
glass-fiber-reinforced American Society for Testing Brandhorst Museum, 22831 Chareau, Pierre, 8 fire resistance, 49 appearance, 137
plastic (GFRP), 178, and Materials (ASTM), brass, 130, 136 Charles River, 108 flexibility, 54, 55 architectural use, 136
18891 52, 132 Brazil, 6869, 137 chemical finishes, 135 form ties, 51 blister, 137
polyester fabric, 179, 21415 Anagram Architects, 23637 brazing, 129 Chiba, Japan, 21415 formulation, 49 color options, 137
polyethylene terephthalate Anansi Playground Building, bricks, 8, 26, 217, 218, 21922, Chicago, Illinois, 12, 86, 11617 formwork, 51, 52, 53, 54, corrosion, 136, 137
(PET), 178, 19697 9, 198201 22427, 22831, 236, 23839, Chile, 137 64, 76, 80 costs, 136
polymethyl methacrylate Andes Mountains, 58 24043, 25657 China, 9, 3033, 4647, 7275, foundations, 50 electrolysis refining, 137
(PMMA), 178, 18283 Angkor Wat, Cambodia, 218 calcium silicate, 22021 86, 91, 130, 19295, 218, graphic, 5354, 5657 environmental conditions,
polyurethane foam (PUR), Anmahian Winton Architects, characteristics, 220 25657 high-performance, 50 136, 137
178, 18891 9, 10811 clay, 219 chromium, 133 i.Light, 72 flash smelting, 137
UPM ProFi wood plastic annealing, 11, 133 color, 220 Chungbuk, South Korea, 6467 imperfection, 50 joining, 137
composite, 178 anode, 131 common, 220 Ch-ku, Osaka, Japan, 16869 insulation, 52, 54, 60, 76 in lighting, 136
Acrylite, 178 anodized aluminum, 16467 concrete, 221 Church of Our Lady of Trsat, 240 invention, 72 malleability, 137
adhesives, 92, 122 Apple Flagship Store, 9, 4647 concrete masonry units Cit du Design, 3841 and light, 53 manufacturing, 137
admixtures, 49, 50, 52, 53, Apple, Inc., 9, 4647 (CMU), 22122 Clavel Arquitectos, 2425 light-transmitting, 72 matte, 137
5455, 58, 72, 80 Archi-Union Architects, 25657 face, 220 clay, 49, 86 malleability, 49 recycling, 137
accelerating, 54 Architectura, De, 86 faence, 221 clear-coat anodizing, 135 masonry, 25657 strength, 136
air-entraining, 54 Arizona, 137 grades, 220, 222 CNC fabrication, 9699, 116, 126, as mimic, 50 weathering, 137
corrosion-inhibiting, 55 Artists Studios in Aberystwyth, orientation, 219 150, 156, 188, 192, 198, 232 movement joints, 55 in wire circuitry, 136
fibrous, 55 9, 17273 stag, 221 coated polyester fabric, 179, new technology, 50, 5354, COR-TEN, 24, 132, 15051,
fly ash, 55 Arturo Franco Architecture terra cotta, 221, 24043 2069 60, 76, 80 15659, 16869
freeze-protection, 55 Studio, 24851 texture, 220 coatings, 13536 paving, 49 environmental conditions,
pigmenting, 55, 56, 58 ashlar, 222 Brigham and Womens Hospital, coefficients of thermal permeability, 55 150, 156
chemical stain, 55 Aspdin, Joseph, 49 252 expansion, 131 photocatalytic, 7275 oxidation, 150, 156, 168
dry method, 55 Asplund, Erik Gunnar, 8 bronze, 129, 136, 137 Coignet, Franois, 49 pigmentation, 55, 56, 58, 80 perforated, 15051
integral method, 55 ASTM. See American Society building codes, 8788 cold hardening, 133 pigments, 50 prefabricated modules, 150
pozzolans, 55 for Testing and Materials building styles cold joints, 55 Portland cement, 49, 53, strength, 156
retarding, 54 (ASTM) exposed, 42 Cold War, 137 76, 221 weathering, 150, 156, 168
shrinkage-reducing Atelier Deshaus, 3033 prefabrication, 42 cold-dipped galvanizing, 133 post-tensioned, 51 Corbusier, Le, 8, 11, 50
(SRAs), 55 Austin, Texas, 15659 skeleton, 42 cold-rolled steel, 133 pre-tensioning, 51 Corian acrylic polymer, 17879,
superplasticizers, 54 Australia, 137, 14649 bull-eye glass, 14 Coll-Barreu Arquitectos, 1619 precast, 5152, 5657, 198201
water-reducing, 5455 autoclave, 52 bullion glass. See bull-eye glass common bricks, 220 5859, 64, 7275, 80, 238 architectural use, 198201
adobe, 218 Avanto Architects, 24447 Burera District, Rwanda, composite panels, 89, 90, prestressed, 50, 51 creep, 54
aggregates, 4, 50, 54, 56, 58, 72, 25255 10811, 16467 quality, 49 creosote preservatives, 88
80. See also admixtures B. F. Goodrich, 175 Burma, Myanmar, 104 resin-core, 10811 rammed earth, 53, 7679 crown glass, 14
Agrippa, Marcus, 129 B+W Architecture, 2025 Butaro Doctors Housing, composite resin-core wood recycling, 6467 cruck frame, 86
Albertslund, Denmark, 16467 Baekeland, Leo, 175 25255 panels, 10811 reinforced, 49, 5051, 55, 60, crumpled foil, 17273
alloy steel, 132, 133, 156, 168 Bakelite, 175 compressed stabilized earth 64, 68, 70, 72, 76, 129, 232, Crystal Palace, 8, 14, 130
alloys, 129, 13435, 136, 137, balloon framing, 86, 87, 88 calcium silicate bricks, 22021 blocks (CSEBs), 252255 252, 262 Crystal, The, 3437
139, 168 bamboo, 91, 1047 Canada, 7679, 12627, 137, compressive forces, 13 sandblasting, 50 Cubus, 26265
alumina, 49 Barnard College, 26 15255 concrete, 8, 9, 26, 30, 38, 4883, sculptural qualities, 50, curing, 49, 54, 56, 64
aluminosilicate glass, 13 Barragn, David, 5859 Cantonal School Canteen, 87, 94, 96, 150, 156, 160, 164, 51, 52 curved tempered insulated
aluminum, 26, 30, 38, 42, 56, Basel, Switzerland, 4245, 17071 172, 182, 22831, 232, 238, and seismic activity, 58 glass, 3033
90, 108, 129, 130, 132, 133, 18891 Cape Town, South Africa, 6063 240, 244, 252, 25657, 262 self-consolidating, 50, 54, 80 curved tempered laminated
13436, 14245, 17071, 192, basic oxygen process, 133 Capuchins, 232 admixtures, 49, 50, 52, 53, shrinkage, 55 glass, 4647
196, 198, 202, 214, 228, 240 Basque Health Department carbon, 132 5455, 58, 72, 80 steel reinforcement, 49,
alloys, 13435, 136, 137, Headquarters, 1619 carbon steel, 132 aggregates, 4, 50, 54, 56, 5051 Dairy House Annex, 11821
139, 168 bauxite, 130 Carnegie, Andrew, 130 58, 72, 80 strength, 49, 50, 53, 54, 55, Dano, Burkina Faso, 22427
casting alloys, 135 BCHO Architects, 9, 6467 Cartagea, Spain, 18487 architectural use, 4883, 60, 64, 76, 80 Denmark, 3437, 16467
heat-treatable, 135 Belgium, 14, 49 Casa Pentimento, 5859 129 stress, 54, 55 Design Arbeid, 198
non-heat-treatable, 134 bendable plywood, 12627 CAST (Center for Architectural autoclaved aerated (AAC), surface texture, 50 Design Indaba, 60
anodized, 16467 Benedictus, Edouard, 12 Structures and Technology), 5253 sustainability, 53 Design Indaba 10 10 Housing
appearance, 13536 Berrel Berrel Krutler 6467 autoclaved cellular (ACC), 52 tilt-up, 52, 64 Project, 6063
chemical finishes, 135 Architekten, 4245 cast glass, 14 cast-in-place, 51, 52, 56, 58, transparent, 50, 53, 72 Design Space Africa Architects
clear-coat anodizing, 135 Bessemer, Henry, 130 cast iron, 129, 130, 132 68, 7071, 182, 256 transportation, 52 (formerly MMA Architects),
coatings, 13536 Bethlehem Steel, 130 decorative use, 132 casting, 49 types, 5054 6063
construction use, 134, 135 Bibliothque Sainte-Genevive, cast-in-place concrete, 51, 52, cement-based stucco, ultra high performance desilverized lead, 139
corrosion, 134, 142 8 7071, 182, 256 6063, 6869 concrete (UHPC), 53, Despang Architekten, 11215
cladding, 49 8083 Detroit, Michigan, 12
267
Deutsche Bahn, 182 202, 2069, 217, 218, float, 12, 14, 118 Great Britain, 8, 14, 49, 86, iron, 8, 49, 129, 130, 131, 132, strength, 139
DIALOG, 7679 224, 232 formation, 11 130, 175 136, 137 toxicity, 139
Diana Center at Barnard wrought iron, 129, 130, 132 formwork, 11 Great International Exhibition, cast, 129, 130, 132 lead glass, 13
College, 2629 fiber cement, 53 fused silica, 13 175 wrought, 129, 130, 132 LED displays, 142, 196
digital design, 1619, 42, 80, 87, fiberglass, 176, 182 glassblowing, 11 Great Wall, 218 Italcementi, 72 LEED certification, 26, 258
122, 142, 23235, 236, 256 Fink + Jocher, 23839 heat resistance, 13 Greece, 86 Italian Pavilion at World Expo Lehman Lawn, 26
digital fabrication, 1619, Finland, 5657, 1003, 122, 172, history, 1112 green materials, 9, 60, 76. See 2010, 7275 lehr. See kilns
23235 24447 insulated, 3033, 38, also sustainability Italy, 49, 72, 23235 Lever House, 12
digitally fabricated stone, Finnish Forest Council of 4245, 164 green technologies, 60, 68. See Lexan, 178
23235 Certification, 122 insulating, 15, 26, 3033, 34 also sustainability J. Mayer H. Architects, 12225 light-transmitting precast
dimensional lumber, 89 flagstone, 222 laminated, 1415, 42, 4647, Gregor, William, 130 Japan, 7071, 86, 16869, 21415 concrete, 7275
Dorte Mandrup Arkitekter, flash smelting, 137 70, 118 Group8, 2069 Jefferson, Thomas, 8 lime, 49
16467 flat glass, 14. See also float laminating, 12, 13 GTAW. See tungsten inert gas JFK Airport, 50 limestone veneer cladding,
double glazing, 42 glass; plate glass; sheet lead, 13 welding (TIG) JKMM Architects, 1003 25861
drawing, 129 glass light, 1213, 15, 2023, 24, Guggenheim Museum, Joachim, 11 LIN Architects, 3841
dry method pigmenting, 55 flexible connections, 15255 2629, 34, 3841, 118 Bilbao, 16 John Paul II, Pope, 240 Lincoln Park Zoo, 116117
Dulles Airport Terminal, 50 float glass, 12, 14, 118 load-bearing capacity, 1112 joist hanger, 92 load-bearing construction,
DuPont, 8, 175, 178, 198 fluoropolymer films, 179, 2025 manufacturing process, 11 H-sections, 42 52, 222
Dvr Semtn, Olbramovice, Foggia, Italy, 23235 mass production, 11 Hadrian, 129 Karen, 104 log construction, 87, 118
Czech Republic, 9495 forests, 86, 87 as metaphor, 11 Hadrians Villa, 49 Karuizawa, Nagano, Japan, London, England, 8, 14, 130,
forging, 129 plate, 14, 258 Hadspen Estate, Somerset, 7071 175, 192
ECDM, 8083 form ties, 51 prestressing, 13 England, 11819 Kazuhiro Kojima Lab / Tokyo Lucite, 178
EcoBeam, 60 Formica, 176 properties, 11, 12 Halftecture O, 16869 University of Science, lumber, 85, 89, 146, 192
cole Suprieure dArt et framing, 86, 87, 88, 146, 170, recycling, 11 Hmeenlinna, Finland, 5657 21415 dimensional, 89
Design de Saint-tienne, 38 172, 198, 258 reflectance (R), 12 Hmeenlinna Provincial Keppler, Friedrich, 1112 nominal dimensions, 89
economies of scale, 58 France, 8, 14, 3841, 49, 50, reflective, 1619 Archive, 5657 Kr, Dibdo Francis, 22427 plainsawn, 85
EcoWoodBox Kindergarten, 8083 safety glass, 12, 42 Hanil Visitors Center and Kew Gardens, 192 quartersawn, 85
11215 Freyssinet, Eugene, 50 security, 15 Guesthouse, 9, 6467 KieranTimberlake Architects, Lycra, 176
Edna, Ole Jrgen, 104 Fuller, Buckminster, 214 shadow box, 2629 Hanover, Germany, 11215 19697
efflorescence, 219 fused silica glass, 13 shear forces, 13 hardwoods, 88, 89 kilns, 14, 86, 91, 122, 218, 219, Machu Picchu, 218, 222
Egypt, 11, 14, 222 sheet, 14 Harmonia 57, 6869 220, 221, 252 Madrid, Spain, 18283, 24851
El B Conference Hall and galvanizing, 131, 133 soda-lime, 13 Harry Parker Community Klaproth, Martin, 13031 Maestral, George de, 176
Auditorium, 18487 cold dipped, 133 sound insulation, 15, 16, 38 Boathouse, 9, 10811 knotholes, 85 Maison de Verre, 8
electric arc furness process, hot dipped, 133 spandrel, 15 heat of hydration. See curing knots, 85 manganese, 133, 134
133 gas metal arc welding (GMAW). spiritual environments, 11 heat-treatable alloys, 135 Koller, Ernst, 42 manufactured wood
electro-galvanizing. See cold- See metal inert gas welding stained glass, 11, 14 Heatherwick Studio, 9, 17273, Kroll, Dr. William, 131 components, 90
dipped galvanizing (MIG) strength, 13, 42, 118 19295 Kunst Depot, Henze & Ketterer box beams, 90
electrolysis refining, 137 gas tungsten arc welding stress, 11, 12, 13 Heikkinen-Komonen Art Gallery, 16063 customization, 90
Ellwood, Craig, 210 (GTAW). See tungsten inert symbolism, 11 Architects, 5657 Kynar, 26, 142 panel and box components,
embossed glass, 15, 4245 gas welding (TIG) tempered, 12, 14, 3033, Helsinki, Finland, 5657, 1003 90
Endo, Shuhei, 16869 Gehry, Frank, 9 4647 Hennebique, Franoise, 49 La Pallissa, 26265 plywood I-beams, 90
engineering, 9 General Motors Technical tensile forces, 13 Herstedlund Flleshus Labrouste, Henri, 8 trusses, 90
England, 49, 86, 118, 192 Center, 12 thermal conductivity, 12, Community Centre, 16467 Lady Bird Lake Hike and Bike masonry, 9, 26, 68, 160, 21665
Ernst Koller Pavilion, 4245 Geneva, Switzerland, 2069 20, 46 high-performance concrete, 50 Trail, 156 adobe, 218
ETFE. See fluoropolymer films Germany, 11215, 122, 13031, thermal insulation, 15, 16, high-strength bolts, 134 Lady Bird Lake Hiking Trail arches, 217
ethylene propylene diene 137, 22831, 23839 2023, 26, 34, 38 high-strength, low-alloy Restrooms, 15659 architectural use, 217,
monomer (EPDM), 202 Gibson, R. O., 176 translucency, 1213, 2023, steel (HSLA), 132. See also Lafarge, 80 21819, 222, 223
ethylene tetrafluoroethylene, Gigon/Guyer, 16063 2425, 2629 COR-TEN lag bolts, 92 bonded, 23637, 24447
2025 glass, 9, 1047, 80, 96, 112, 118, translucent, 2023 Hiroshi Senju Museum, 7071 Lambot, J. L., 49 brick, 8, 26, 217, 218, 21922,
Europe, 52, 86, 130, 218 142, 146, 164, 178, 202, 258 transmittance (T), 12 Home Delivery (MoMA), 196 laminated glass, 1415, 42, 22427, 22831, 236,
exposed building styles, 42 96 percent silica, 13 transparency, 1213, 24, Hoston Bakker Boniface Haden. 4647 23839, 24043, 25657
extruded aluminum, 15255 absorbency (A), 12 34, 4647 See DIALOG laminated veneer lumber (LVL), compressed stabilized earth
extruding, 129 aluminosilicate, 13 Triplex, 12 hot-dipped galvanizing, 133 116, 12225 blocks (CSEBs), 25255
annealing, 11, 14 types, 1315 hot-rolled steel, 133 MetsWood Kerto-Q, 122 concrete, 25657
fabric-formed concrete, 54, architectural use, 1047 windows, 11, 12, 14, 26, Hyatt, Thaddeus, 49 laminated wood, 89, 11617, 192 concrete masonry units
6467 blocks, 12, 14, 15 3841, 42, 96, 112, 164, 170, glue-laminated, 89 (CMU), 217
face bricks, 220 borosilicate, 13 210, 240, 258, 262 i.Light, 72 laminates costs, 218, 222, 224, 236, 252
Factory Extension, 2425 bull-eye, 14 wire, 15 Illinois, 8, 12, 50, 11617 glass, 1415, 42, 4647 derivative products, 217
faence bricks, 221 cast, 14, 15 glass blocks, 12, 14, 15 Illinois Institute of Technology, glue, 86, 100 design considerations, 222
Falconnier, Gustave, 11 channel, 15, 2425 Glass Townhouses, 2023 12 glue-laminate arches, 9495 disadvantages, 220
Fallingwater, 8 chemical coating, 13 glass-fiber-reinforced plastic Imperial Chemical Industries glue-laminated wood, 89, 94 durability, 217, 222, 223,
Fawcett, E. W., 176 common consumer items, 13 (GFRP), 178, 18891 Research Laboratory, 176 laminated veneer lumber 258, 262
polyethylene, 176 composition, 11 glassblowing, 11 India, 9, 86, 91, 218, 23637 (LVL), 116, 12225 efflorescence, 219
ferrous metals, 8, 2629, 30, 38, compressive forces, 13 glazed ceramic rods, 22831 Industrial Revolution, 130, 218 wood, 89, 11617 environmental conditions,
46, 49, 5051, 53, 54, 55, 56, crown, 14 glue laminates, 86, 100 insulated glass panels, 4245 laterite masonry, 22427 219, 220, 221, 222, 223,
58, 64, 70, 72, 80, 87, 91, 94, curved tempered insulated, glue-laminate arches, 9495 insulating glass, 15, 26, lattice, 11617 224, 232, 244, 248, 258
100, 116, 122, 126, 129, 130, 3033 glue-laminated wood, 89, 94 3033, 34 Lausanne, Switzerland, 2025 erosion, 220
132, 136, 14649, 15051, curved tempered laminated, glulam. See glue-laminated integral method pigmenting, 55 Lawrence, Kansas, 25861 fire resistance, 217, 221
15659, 16063, 16869, 202, 4647 wood integrated design and lead, 129, 139 glazed ceramic rods, 22831
2069, 217, 218, 224, 232 design considerations, 1213 GMAW. See metal inert gas fabrication, 12627 construction use, 139 history, 218
cast iron, 129, 130, 132 distortions, 14 welding (MIG) International Committee of corrosion, 139 insulation, 228, 238, 252, 258
steel, 8, 2629, 30, 38, 46, domestic uses, 2023 gold, 129 the Red Cross Logistics costs, 139 joining, 21718, 219, 223,
49, 5051, 53, 54, 55, 56, double glazing, 42 Goodyear, Charles, 175 Complex, 2069 desilverized, 139 228, 232, 236, 240, 244,
58, 64, 70, 72, 80, 87, 91, electrical applications, 13 Gothenberg, Sweden, 21013 International Design Biennial, durability, 139 248, 252, 256, 258
94, 100, 116, 122, 126, 129, embossed, 15, 4245 Gramazio & Kohler, 9699 38 non-architectural laterite, 22427
130, 132, 14649, 15051, energy conservation, 16 graphic concrete, 5354, 5657 Iodice Architetti, 7275 applications, 139 light, 224, 240, 244, 258
15659, 16063, 16869, fire protection, 13, 15, 16 Great Basin Desert, 76 Iraq, 218 pigmentation, 139 load-bearing, 217, 222, 244,
flat, 14 252, 262
268
moisture, 217, 221, 223, 240, design considerations, 131 mild steel, 132 Nykredit Bank, 3437 costs, 175, 177, 196 polyester fabric, 179, 21415
248, 256, 262 drawing, 129 Mill Run, Pennsylvania, 8 nylon, 175, 176 customization, 176, 196 polyethylene, 176
mortar, 21718, 236, 248, environmental conditions, milling, 85 density, 177 polyethylene terephthalate
252, 256 129, 131, 132, 134, 136, 146, minimalism, 8, 42, 7071 Oak Park, Illinois, 8, 50 disadvantages, 177 (PET), 178, 19697
ornamental, 217, 221 150, 164, 172 Mir Rivera Architects, 15659 oak screen, 9495 environmental concerns, 176 Polygal, 178
parametric design, 25657 extruding, 129 Miroiterie Retail Building, oak timber, 118121 environmental conditions, polymers, 46, 175
pigmentation, 218, 219, 220, ferrous, 8, 2629, 30, 38, 46, 9, 2025 oil canning, 131 177, 182, 184, 188, 192, 196, polymethyl methacrylate
228, 238, 240, 252 49, 5051, 53, 54, 55, 56, modernism, 8 oil-based preservatives, 88 198, 202, 206, 210 (PMMA), 178, 18283, 184,
post-tensioned, 23235 58, 64, 70, 72, 80, 87, 91, modular coordination, 23637, OMS Stage, 15255 extenders, 179 21013
recycled, 24851 94, 100, 116, 122, 126, 129, 23839 ores, 129, 130, 133, 134, 137, 138 extrusion, 180, 19295 polytetrafluoroethylene, 2025
rubble, 222, 26265 130, 13234, 136, 14649, modularity, 3841 smelting, 129, 130, 137 fiberglass, 176, 182 polyurethane foam (PUR), 178,
seismic activity, 232 15659, 16063, 168, molybdenum, 133 oriented strand board (OSB), 90 fiberoptics, 176 18891
special shapes, 23839 17273, 202, 2069, 217, Monier, Joseph, 49 Orly Airport, 50 fillers, 179 polyvinyl chloride (PVC),
stone, 22223, 224, 23235, 218, 223, 224, 232 monomers, 175, 202 Osoyoos Indian Band, 7679 fire resistance, 175, 177, 184, 17576, 177
244, 25255, 258, 26265 finishes, 13536 ethylene propylene diene Osoyoos, British Columbia, 196, 202 polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF),
strength, 218, 219, 220, 221, forging, 129 monomer (EPDM), 202 Canada, 7679 flame retarders, 179 2069
222, 223, 224, 232, 236, galvanizing, 131, 133 Montana, 137 Owens Illinois Glass Formica, 176 Pope John Paul II Hall, 24043
240, 244, 252, 256, 262 gold, 129 monumentality, 8 Corporation, 12 glass-fiber-reinforced Port Chester, New York, 49
stress, 217 high-strength bolts, 134 MOOM Tensegrity Membrane oxidization, 129 plastic (GFRP), 178, Portland cement, 49, 53, 76, 221
sustainability, 223, 224, 238, history, 12931 Structure, 21415 oxidized steel, 14649 18891 post-tensioned concrete, 51
252, 258, 262 iron, 8, 49, 129, 130, 131, 132, mortar, 21718, 236, 248, injection molding, 179 post-tensioned masonry,
thermal mass wall, 25861 136, 137 252, 256 Padre Pio Pilgrimage Church, innovation, 17576 23235
thermal properties, 217 joining, 134, 136, 137 movement joints, 55 23235 insulation, 188 postmodernism, 8
Trombe wall, 258 lead, 129, 139 construction, 55 panel products, 8990, 112, joining, 177, 210 poured-in-place concrete. See
veneer, 222, 25861 manufacturing, 13132 control, 55 12627, 150, 210 laminates, 176 cast-in-place concrete
ventilation, 236 nickel, 133 expansion, 55 composite panels, 89, 90 Lexan, 178 pre-tensioning, 51
walls, 217 nonferrous, 26, 30, 38, 42, isolation, 55 grades, 90 Lucite, 178 precast concrete, 5152, 5657,
weathering, 219 56, 90, 108, 129, 130, 131, Mt. Sobaek National Park, 64 non-veneer panels, 89, 90 Lycra, 176 5859, 64, 7275, 80, 238
wythe, 217, 252 132, 133, 13436, 137, Mulders vandenBerk plywood, 89, 90, 12627 malleability, 175, 182, 188 Prcontraint 1002, 206
masonry thermal mass wall, 13839, 14245, 15255, Architecten, 198201 span rating, 90 military use, 175, 176 Prefabricated Nature, 15051
25861 16467, 17071, 192, 196, Munich, Germany, 22831 panelized construction modifiers and additives, 179 prefabrication, 42, 1003
masonry walls, 217 198, 202, 214, 228, 232, Murcia, Spain, 2425 industry, 88 monomers, 175, 202 preservatives, 88
cavity, 217 240, 244 Museum of Modern Art (MoMA), Pantheon, 129 nylon, 175, 176 creosote, 88
reinforced, 217 oil canning, 131 196 parametric design, 25657 Parkesine, 175 oil-based, 88
solid, 217 ores, 129, 130, 133, 134, MYCC Architects, 15051 Paris, France, 8, 49, 50, 8083 Perspex, 178 water-based, 88
veneer, 217 137, 138 Parkes, Alexander, 175 plasticizers, 179 prestressed concrete, 50, 51
Mass Design Group, 25255 ornamentation, 129 nails, 91, 100 Parkesine, 175 Plexiglas, 178 Private Residence in Riedikon,
materiality, 89 oxidization, 129 common, 91 particleboard, 87, 90 polycarbonate, 17778, 9699
matte, 137 patinas, 131 finish, 91 Partners in Health, 252 18487 PTFE. See fluoropolymer films
mechanical finishes, 135 processing, 129 galvanized, 91 Passive House designation, polyester, 176 PUR. See polyurethane foam
MEP systems, 26 properties, 129 pennies, 91 112, 258 polyethylene, 176 (PUR)
Mesopotamia, 11, 14, 218 recycling, 134, 137, 146 Nature Boardwalk at Lincoln Patkau Architects, 12627 Polygal, 178 PVC. See polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
metal inert gas (MIG), 134 reflectivity, 131 Park Zoo, 11617 Paxton, Joseph, 8, 14, 130 polymers, 175 PVDF. See polyvinylidene
metal inert gas welding, 136 research, 13132 Netherlands, The, 9, 198201 pennies, 91 polyvinyl chloride (PVC), fluoride
metal plate fasteners, 92 rolling, 129 Neu-Ulm, Germany, 23839 Pennsylvania, 8 175176, 177
joist hanger, 92 silver, 129 New Delhi, India, 23637 perforated aluminum, 14245 processing methods, quenching, 133
metals, 9, 12873, 258 smelting, 129, 130, 137 New Guinea, 137 perforated COR-TEN, 15051 179180 Quito, Ecuador, 5859
alloys, 129, 13435, 136, 137, soldering, 129, 134, 136, 139 New York, New York, 12, 2629, perforated steel, 16063 recycling, 177, 178, 196, 206
139, 168 stainless steel, 13233, 142, 49, 50, 175, 19697 permanence, 8 reinforcing fibers, 179 rammed earth, 53, 7679
aluminum, 26, 30, 38, 42, 56, 156, 17273, 223, 232 Newcastle, England, 49 Perret, Auguste, 8, 11 rubber, 175 Randi-Turato Architects,
90, 108, 129, 130, 132, 133, steel, 8, 2629, 30, 38, 46, 49, nickel, 133 Perspex, 178 SmartWrap, 19697 24043
13436, 14245, 15255, 5051, 53, 54, 55, 56, 58, Nishizawa, Ryue, 7071 photocatalytic concrete, 7275 stabilizers, 179 RATP Bus Center, 8083
16467, 17071, 192, 196, 64, 70, 72, 80, 87, 91, 94, NkMip Desert Cultural Centre, photosynthesis modules, 38 strength, 175, 177, 184, 188, reactive powder concrete. See
198, 202, 214, 228, 240 100, 116, 122, 126, 129, 130, 7679 photovoltaic panels, 38 192, 202 ultra high performance
American Society for Testing 13234, 14649, 15659, Noh Bo, Thailand, 1047 pig iron. See iron stress, 188, 214 concrete (UHPC)
and Materials (ASTM), 132 16063, 168, 17273, nominal dimensions, 89 pigmentation, 55, 218, 219, 220, sustainability, 196, 206 recycled masonry, 24851
anode, 131 202, 2069, 217, 218, 223, non-heat-treatable alloys, 134 228, 238, 240, 252 synthetic, 175 recycling, 134, 137, 146, 24851
brass, 130, 136 224, 232 non-veneer panels, 89, 90 integral method, 55 Teflon, 175, 202 reduction. See electrolysis
brazing, 129 strength, 129, 131, 132, 135, oriented strand board Pilkington, Alastair, 12 thermoplastics, 175, 17779 refining
bronze, 129, 136, 137 136, 156, 172 (OSB), 90 pine slats, 9699 thermosetting, 175, 177 reflectance (R), 12
cast iron, 129, 130, 132 structural use, 129, 130, 131, particleboard, 90 Pio of Pietrelcina, 232 toxicity, 177 reflective glass, 1619
casting, 129 132, 134 waferboard, 90 plastic coatings, 13536 translucency, 178, 182, 192, reinforced concrete, 49, 5051,
cathode, 131 titanium, 46, 129, 13031, nonferrous metals Plastic House, 21013 202, 210, 214 55, 60, 64, 68, 70, 72, 76, 129,
chemical finishes, 135 13738 aluminum, 26, 30, 38, 42, 56, plastics, 89, 17415, 17677 transparency, 182, 184, 232, 252, 262
coatings, 13536 for tools, 129, 130 90, 108, 129, 130, 132, 133, 3M, 210 196, 202 Renaissance, 129
coefficients of thermal weathering, 131, 168 14245, 15255, 16467, acrylic, 17879, 18283, Tupperware, 176 Renault, 8
expansion, 131 welding, 134, 136, 139, 168 17071, 192, 196, 198, 202, 18487, 19295, 19697, Velcro, 176 renovated stone masonry,
cold hardening, 133 wrought iron, 129, 130, 132 214, 228, 240 198201, 2025, 2069, wood-simulating, 87 26265
copper, 129, 131, 132, 133, zinc, 129, 130, 133, 134, 136, copper, 129, 131, 132, 133, 21013, 21415 plate glass, 14, 258 Renzo Piano Building
134, 13637, 232, 244 137, 13839 134, 13637, 232, 244 Acrylite, 178 platform framing, 87, 88 Workshop, 23235
COR-TEN, 24, 132, 15051, Metropol Parasol, 12225 lead, 129 Bakelite, 175 Plexiglas, 178. See also Richardson, Henry Hobson, 8
15659, 16869 MetsWood Kerto-Q, 122 zinc, 129, 130, 133, 134, 136, blow molding, 180 polymethyl methacrylate Rijeka, Croatia, 24043
corrosion, 129, 131, 132, 134, Mexico, 218 137, 13839 calendering, 180 (PMMA) rolling, 129
135, 136, 137, 138 Michigan, 12, 137 Novartis Entrance Pavilion, carbon, 175 plywood, 86, 87, 89, 90, 12627, Roman Empire, 49
costs, 129, 132, 133, 134, Middle Ages, 11, 14, 86, 130 18891 casting, 179, 19295 164, 192 Romans, 11, 49
136, 138, 172 Mies van der Rohe, Ludwig, nuts, 91 cellulose, 112, 175 bendable, 12627 Rome, Italy, 49
crumpled foil, 17273 8, 12 NUWOG Headquarters and coatings, 13536 polycarbonate, 17778, 18487 Ronchamp Chapel, 50
definition, 129 Housing, 23839 corrosion, 175, 177 polyester, 176 rubber, 175
269
rubble, 222, 26265 SRAs. See admixtures masonry, 22223, 224, pigmentation, 138 Weiss/Manfredi Architecture/ milling, 85, 90, 96, 118
Russia, 137 St. Andrews Beach House, 23235, 244, 25255, 258, rutile, 137, 138 Landscape/Urbanism, moisture, 86, 104, 108, 118
rutile, 137, 138 14649 26265 weathering, 138 2629 non-veneer panels, 89, 90
Rwandan Ministry of Health, stag bricks, 221 rubble, 222, 26265 Tokyo University of Science, 214 welding, 136, 138, 139, 168 oak screen, 9495
252 stained glass, 11, 14 sustainability, 223 toothed plates, 92 metal inert gas, 134, 136 panel and box components,
stainless steel, 13233, 142, trimstone, 222 torrefied wood. See thermally tungsten inert gas, 134, 136 90
Saarinen, Eero, 8, 12, 50 156, 17273, 223, 232 Stork Nest Farm, 9495 modified wood Wettingen, Switzerland, 17071 panel products, 8990, 112,
Saez, Jos Mara, 5859 costs, 134 structural insulated panels translucent glass, 2023 Weyerhauser, 8 12627, 150, 210
safety glass, 12, 42 finishing, 134 (SIPs), 88 transmittance (T), 12 white heat state, 132 panelized construction
Saint-tienne, France, 3841 strength, 133 structural solid wood, 89 transparency, 4647 whole-metal facades, 42 industry, 88
Sander Architects, 2023 stamped aluminum sheets, stucco, 6063, 6869 transparent concrete, 50, 53 Wichtrach, Switzerland, 16063 particleboard, 87
So Paulo, Brazil, 6869 17071 cement based, 6063, 6869 trees, 8586 Wilkinson, William, 49 pine slats, 9699
Sauerbrach Hutton, 22831 Stanley Saitowitz | Natoma stud framing. See platform trimstone, 222 windows, 11, 12, 14, 26, 3841, plainsawn lumber, 85
Schmidt Hammer Lassen Architects, 14245 framing Triplex, 12 42, 96, 112, 164, 170, 210, platform framing, 87, 88
Architects, 3437 Statue of Liberty, 129 Studio 804 / University of Triptyque, 6869 240, 258, 262 pliability, 116
screws, 91, 108, 150, 210, 228 steel, 8, 24, 2629, 30, 38, 46, Kansas, 25861 Trombe wall, 258 Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada, plywood, 86, 87, 89, 90,
Seagram Building, 12 49, 5051, 53, 54, 55, 56, Studio Gang Architects, 11617 Trus-Joist TJI wood trusses, 112 12627, 15255 12627, 164, 192
Sean Godsell Architects, 14649 58, 64, 70, 72, 80, 87, 91, 94, superplasticizers, 54 tungsten, 133 wire glass, 15 plywood I-beams, 90
seasoning, 8586 100, 116, 122, 126, 129, 130, sustainability, 26, 34, 53, 7679, tungsten inert gas (TIG), 134 wood, 8, 9, 20, 42, 50, 53, 60, 76, prefabrication, 1003,
Secondary School, 22427 13234, 142, 14649, 15051, 87, 104, 108, 112, 122, 137, tungsten inert gas welding, 136 8427, 146, 150, 164, 172, 112, 116
Seed Cathedral. See UK Pavilion 15659, 16063, 16869, 196, 223, 24851, 252, Tupperware, 176 182, 198, 210, 248, 262 preservatives, 88
at World Expo 2010 17273, 182, 184, 202, 2069, 258, 262 TWA Terminal, 50 alternatives, 87 pressure treatment, 88
self-consolidating concrete, 217, 218, 223, 224, 232 Sweden, 21013 TYIN Tegnestue Architects, architectural use, 8427 quartersawn lumber, 85
50, 54, 80 alloy, 132, 133, 156, 168 Swiss School for Metal and 1047 balloon framing, 86, 87, 88 recycling, 87
SelgasCano Architecture Office, alloys, 13435, 136, 137, Building Technology, 42 bamboo, 91, 1047 seasoning, 8586
18283 139, 168 Switzerland, 9, 4245, 9699, U.S. Steel, 130 boards, 89 shakes, 1003
SelgasCano Arquitectos, annealing, 133 16063, 17071, 18891, UK Pavilion at World Expo 2010, box beams, 90 shear, 85
18283, 18487 appearance, 133134 2025, 2069 19295 bracing, 104 shrinkage, 92, 118
Senju, Hiroshi, 70 carbon, 132 ultra high performance building codes, 8788 softwoods, 85, 8889
Serge Ferrari, 206 cladding, 172 Taiyo Kogyo, 214 concrete (UHPC), 53, 8083 cellular structure, 100 strength, 85, 86, 89, 90, 91,
Serra, Marco, 18891 cold-dipped galvanizing, 133 Tampa Museum of Art, 14245 UNIT Arkitektur, 21013 CNC fabrication, 9699, 116, 100, 116, 122
Seville, Spain, 12225 cold-hardening, 133 Tampa, Florida, 14245 United Kingdom, 17273 126, 150, 156, 188, 192, stress, 91, 118, 122, 126
SGL Projekt, 9495 cold-rolled, 133 Teflon, 175, 202 United States, 8, 9, 12, 2023, 26, 198, 232 structural framing, 85
Shade Azul, 214 COR-TEN, 24, 132, 15051, temper, 135 49, 50, 6467, 76, 86, 10811, composite panels, 89, 90, structural insulated panels
shadow box glass, 2629 15659, 16869 tempered glass, 12, 14, 3033, 11617, 129, 130, 14245, 10811, 16467 (SIPs), 88
shale, 49 corrosion, 134, 168 4647 15659, 175, 196, 219, 220, compression, 85 structural integrity, 8586
Shanghai, China, 9, 3033, costs, 134, 172 tempering, 133 252, 25861 coniferous, 8889 structural solid, 89
4647, 7275, 19295, environmental conditions, Ten Books of Architecture, Unity Temple (Wright), 8, 50 connectors, 9192, 94, 108, sustainability, 87, 104,
25657 146, 150, 160, 172 The, 218 University of Kansas, 258 116, 126 108, 122
shear forces, 13 finishing, 134 tensegrity, 214 University of Manitoba, 64 construction methods, synthetics, 86, 87
sheet glass, 14 fireproofing, 134 tensegrity structure, 21415 University of Wales, 172 8788 tension, 85
silica, 49 framing, 160, 2069 tensile forces, 13 UPM ProFi wood plastic costs, 85, 87, 90, 122 thermal insulation, 100
Silk Wall + J-Office, 25657 high-strength, low-alloy Teotihuacan, 218 composite, 178 decay, 86 thermally modified, 91,
silver, 129 (HSLA), 132 Terra Firma, 76 Uster, Switzerland, 9699 deciduous, 89 11215
Simon, Waldo, 175 hot-dipped galvanizing, 133 terra-cotta bricks, 221, 228, Utah, 137 density, 85, 91 timber, 89, 11821, 122, 232
SIREWALL, 76 hot-rolled, 133 24043 Utrecht, Netherlands, 9, design considerations, 87 timber-frame construction,
site-cast concrete. See cast-in- joining, 134 TERRART Baguette, 228 198201 disadvantages, 88, 90 8788
place concrete manufacturing, 133 Thtre des Champs-lyses, 8 durability, 89 tolerance, 89
Skating Shelters, 12627 basic oxygen process, thermal conductivity, 12, 46 Vantaa, Finland, 24447 as energy source, 86 trusses, 90, 112
skeleton building styles, 42 133 thermally modified wood, 91, Velcro, 176 engineering, 86, 122 types, 8889
Skene Catling de la Pea, electric arc furnace 11215 veneer, 8, 9, 89, 90, 100, 108, environmental conditions, veneer, 8, 9, 89, 90, 100, 108,
11821 process, 133 thermoplastics, 72, 175, 17779 12225, 192, 222, 25861 86, 88, 108, 112, 116, 12225, 192, 25861
Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, 12 mild, 132 acrylic, 178 Venice, California, 2023 12627 ventilation, 108
SmartWrap, 19697 oxidized, 14649 Acrylite, 178 ventilated double-envelope finish work, 85 waferboard, 90
Smeaton, John, 49 perforated, 16063 Lexan, 178 glass system, 3437 fire retardants, 88 waterproofing, 100
smelting, 129, 130 quenching, 133 Lucite, 178 vermiculite, 68 flaws, 8586 wood shakes, 1003
Society of American Foresters, raw materials, 133 Perspex, 178 VHB tape, 210 forests, 86, 87 wood-plastic composite, 20
86 recycling, 146 Plexiglas, 178 Victoria, Australia, 14649 framing, 86, 87, 88, 90, 91, World Expo 2010, 72, 192
soda-lime glass, 13 shaping, 133 polycarbonate, 17778 Vigaceros, 24 112, 146, 164, 170, 172, 198, World War II, 129, 131, 175, 176
Soe Ker Tie House, 1047 stainless, 13233, 142, 156, Polygal, 178 Viikki Church, 1003 248, 258 Wright, Frank Lloyd, 8, 50, 218
softwoods, 85, 8889 17273, 223, 232 polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 177 Villareal, Leo, 142 glue laminates, 86, 9495, wrought iron, 129, 130, 132
soldering, 129, 134, 136, 139 standard, 132 thermosetting plastics, 175, 177 vinyl. See polyvinyl chloride 100 white heat state, 132
South Africa, 6063, 137 strength, 132, 156, 160, 172 Thompson, Edgar, 130 (PVC) grading, 85, 90 wythe, 217, 252
South Asian Human Rights strength-grade, 132 tilt-up concrete, 52, 64 Virginia, 8, 50 grain, 85
Documentation Centre, 9, tempering, 133 timber, 89, 11821, 122, 232 Viroc, 150 hardwoods, 85, 88, 89 yield point, 132
23637 weathering, 156, 168 timber connectors, 92 Vitruvius, 86, 218 harvesting, 87
South Korea, 9, 6467 yield point, 132 split ring connector, 92 history, 8687 zinc, 129, 130, 133, 134, 136, 137,
South Okanaga, British Stockholm Library, 8 timber framing. See framing waferboard, 90 joining, 86, 100, 122, 126 13839
Columbia, Canada, 76 stone, 8, 86, 22223, 224, timber-frame construction, Wales, 9, 17273 knotholes, 85 appearance, 138
Spain, 1619, 2425, 12225, 23235, 244, 25255, 8788 Ward, W. E., 49 knots, 85 architectural use, 13839
15051, 18283, 18487, 25861, 26265 titanium, 46, 129, 13031, Warehouse 8B Conversion, laminated, 89, 11617, 192 corrosion, 138
24851, 26265 ashlar, 222 13738 24851 laminated veneer lumber environmental conditions,
span rating, 90 construction, 223 appearance, 138 washers, 92 (LVL), 116, 12225 138
spandrel glass, 15 design considerations, 222 architectural use, 13738 water-based preservatives, 88 lattice, 11617 joining, 139
special shapes, 23839 digitally fabricated, 23235 corrosion, 138 waterproofing, 100 log construction, 87, 118 manufacturing, 138
Spiral Gallery, 3033 flagstone, 222 costs, 138 weathering, 131, 168 lumber, 85, 89, 146, 192 pigmentation, 138
split ring connector, 92 limestone, 25861 joining, 138 weathering steel, 156 manufactured components, strength, 138
manufacturing, 138 90 weathering, 138
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Illustration Credits
271
Kunst-Depot, Henze & Ketterer Art Miroiterie Retail Building Warehouse 8B Conversion
Gallery 01, 0305, 07, 08 B+W Architecture; 02, 01, 02, 0608, 10 Arturo Franco
01, 04, 08 Gigon/Guyer Architekten; 02, 03, 09 Thomas Jantscher, 06 Jean-Philippe Architecture Studio; 0305, 09, 1113
0507 Heinrich Helfenstein Daulte Carlos Fernndez Piar
Herstedlund Flleshus Community International Committee of the Red Butaro Doctors Housing
Centre Cross Logistics Complex 01, 04, 05 Iwan Baan; 02, 03, 0609 Mass
01, 02, 04, 07 Dorte Mandrup Arkitekter; 0104, 09, 10 Group8, 0508 Rgis Golay, Design Group
03, 05, 06, 08, 09 Adam Mrk FEDERAL studio, Geneva
Silk Wall + J-Office
Halftecture O Plastic House 0106 Archi-Union Architects
01, 04 Shuhei Endo; 02, 03, 05 Yoshiharu 01, 02, 0508 Unit Arkitektur; 03, 04
Matsumura Krister Engstrom Center for Design Research
0107 Studio 804 / University of Kansas
Cantonal School Canteen MOOM Tensegrity Membrane Structure
01, 06 :mlzd; 0205 Dominique Marc 01, 04 Sadao Hotta; 02, 03 Kazuhiro La Pallissa
Wehrli Kojima Laboratory / Tokyo University of 01, 04 Cubus; 02, 03 Nani Pujol
Science
Artists Studios in Aberystwyth
0103, 06 Heatherwick Studio; 04, 05
Edmund Sumner Masonry
Secondary School
Pl astics 01, 03, 0508 Dibdo Francis Kr; 02,
04, 09 Erik-Jan Ouwerkerk
SelgasCano Architecture Office
01, 0507 SelgasCano Arquitectos; 0204 Brandhorst Museum
Iwan Baan 01, 06, 07 Sauerbruch Hutton; 02 Andreas
Lechtape; 0305 NBK Keramik GmbH
El B Conference Hall and Auditorium
01, 02, 04, 06, 0810 SelgasCano Padre Pio Pilgrimage Church
Arquitectos; 03, 05 Iwan Baan; 07 Roland 01 Michel Denanc; 02, 0407 Renzo
Halbe Piano Building Workshop; 03, 08 Berengo
Gardin Gianni
Novartis Entrance Pavilion
01, 04, 07, 08 Marco Serra; 02, 03 Lukas South Asian Human Rights
Roth; 05 Christoph Haas Documentation Centre
01 Anagram Architects; 0206 Asim Waqif
UK Pavilion at World Expo 2010
01, 03, 0811 Heatherwick Studio; 02, NUWOG Headquarters and Housing
0407 Iwan Baan 01, 02 Fink + Jocher; 03, 04 Michael
Heinrich
Cellophane House
01, 02, 06 KieranTimberlake Architects; Pope John Paul II Hall
0305 OTTO Archive 0108 Randic-Turato Architects