T10KT MW TKG Lesson 18 Stability and Stability Margin in Freq Domain-D-001 08122014

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Stability and Stability Margin in Freq
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Domain
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T. K. Ghoshal
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Honorary Emeritus Professor, Electrical Engineering,

Centre for Knowledge Based Systems
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Jadavpur University
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2014
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Contents
Pedagogic Perspective
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Example Course Material of Selected Topics
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Background Concepts and Definitions
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Nyquist Stability Theorem
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Interpretations for Open loop stable systems
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Stability Margin in Nyquist
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Stability Margin in Bode
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Stability Margin in Nichols

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Disk Margin
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T10KT-December 2014 CKBS-Jadavpur University, Kolkata 2

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Domain (Units 5.2 & 5.3)
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Contents
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Disk Margin
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Module Decomposition
Module-5: Stability Analysis
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5.1 Module Introduction
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5.2 Nyquist Plane Analysis of Stability
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5.3 Concepts of Stability Margins
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5.4 Effects of Pole Zero Cancellation
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Objectives : Units 5.2 and 5.3 (Stability Analysis)
Compute indices of relative stability of the closed
p
loop system, such gain/phase/disc margins, regions
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of exclusion of poles of close loop system on the
or
complex planes etc.
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Explain and demonstrate numerically the nature of
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closed loop response near the stability boundary
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Establish the numerical validation of stability
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theorems by checking the amplitude and frequency

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of oscillations as well as the loop gain and phase at

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the onset of instability.

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Objectives : Units 5.2 and 5.3 (Stability Analysis)-2
Compute stability margins in presence time delays
p
in the loop
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Relate stability margins such as gain and phase
or
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margins and corresponding cross-over frequencies
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with time/frequency domain response parameters
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such as bandwidth, damping factor etc.
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Unit Decomposition
Unit 5.2: Nyquist Plane Analysis of Stability
Nyquist Plane Analysis of Stability
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Nyquist plot over the D-zone in Imaginary plane
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Nyquist Criterion
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Unit 5.3: Concepts of Stability Margins
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Concepts of Stability Margins
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Defining Stability Margin, Stability Margin as ,
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robustness, 0K
using Nyquist, Bode and Nichols plots to represent
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Stability margin, relation with transient response; disk

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margin, dmplot, M-circle and Disk margin, Composite

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Distance, Disk margin in Nichols Plane.

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Computation of stability margins for multi-loop

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systems,.
Pedagogic Notes
The theory of stability for (linear) feedback
p
system owes to several engineers of Bell
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Labs, USA, who were working to improve
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amplifiers for long distance telephony. This
or
Nyquist
include:
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Harry Nyquist (1889 1976)
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Stability analysis, fax machines and many more
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Harold Stephen Black (1898 1983)
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Bode
Analysis of Negative Feedback
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Hendrik Wade Bode (19051982)

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Frequency domain analysis for stability

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Black
Contents
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Disk Margin
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Example Course Material
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Domain (Units 5.2 and 5.3)
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Contents
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Example Course Material of Selected
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Topics
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Disk Margin
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Background Concepts and
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Definitions
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Stability of Linear Systems
Stability of a (closed loop or open loop) linear
p
system can be determined from the location of the
ho
poles.
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or
Systems which have all the poles in the left half of
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the complex plane (LHP) can be proven to be
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asymptotically stable.
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Initial conditions eventually decays exponentially
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This can be proven without taking recourse to the
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frequency response of the system.

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However, Nyquist theorem and polar plots of

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frequency response in complex plane provide some

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additional advantageCKBS-Jadavpur
for stability anlysis , beyond a 14
Y/N type of answer.
T10KT-December 2014 University, Kolkata
Objective of Nyquist Theorem
Nyquist Theorem allows prediction of the stability of
p
a closed loop linear system
ho
ks
from the frequency domain behaviour (TF) of the
or
corresponding open loop system,
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Over which a system designer may have some choice to
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modify
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without solving for the roots of the characteristic
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equation of the closed loop system.
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The strength of this theorem is that regarding

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stability, it
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not only gives an yes-no type of answer.

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But also
T10KT-December 2014 provides a CKBS-Jadavpur
quantitative measure
University, Kolkata of stability. 15
Open and closed loop Transfer Function
K ( s )G p ( s )
p
Gc ( s ) = = CLTF
ho
1 + K ( s )G p ( s ) H ( s )
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G ( s)
or
= (say)
1 + G ( s) H ( s)
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T ( s ) = K ( s )G p ( s ) H ( s ) = OLTF
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Some definitions first: Note
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Forward path TF= G(s), Feedback path TF= H(s),
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Plant TF= Gp(s), Controller TF= K(s), Open loop TF

(also called loop TF ) = T(s), closed loop TF= GC(s),
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These TFs are not shown explicitly on the diagram.

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Open and closed loop-2
N G (s) N H (s)
p
G (s) = ; H (s) =
ho
DG ( s ) DH ( s )
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or
N C (s) NT (s)
Gc ( s ) = ; T (s) =
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DC ( s ) DT ( s )
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Characteristic Equation of Gc ( s ) :
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DC ( s ) = 0 1 + T ( s ) = 0 1 + G ( s ) H ( s ) = 0
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All the transfer function may be expressed in

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numerator and denominator forms.

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Stability of the CL system is determined from the

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above ChE.
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Characteristic Equation of Gc ( s ) :
p
ho
DC ( s ) = 0 1 + T ( s ) = 0 1 + G ( s ) H ( s ) = 0
ks
N G N H DG DH + N G N H
1 + G ( s) H ( s) = 1 + =
or
DG DH DG DH
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N G (s) N H (s)
G (s) H (s) =
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DG ( s ) DH ( s )
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A zero of 1+G(s)H(s) is a pole of GC(s)
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Poles of G(s)H(s) and 1+G(s)H(s) are the

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same.
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Example: K ( s 1)( s 2)( s 3)( s 4)
KG ( s ) H ( s ) =
( s 5)( s 6)( s 7)( s 8)
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KG ( s )
1 + KG ( s ) H ( s )
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KG ( s ) H ( s )
1 + KG ( s ) H ( s )
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Zeros: (1,2,3,4) Zeros: (1,2,3,4)
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Zeros: a, b, c, d
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Poles: (5,6,7,8) Poles 5,6,7,8
Unknowns
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For stability analysis of the closed loop system,

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we have to determine (a, b, c, d) or use Nyquist Theorem

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Given the OLTF, we can tell the number of closed-
p
loop poles on the right half plane from the Nyquist
ho
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theorem ,
or
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If none of the closed-loop poles are on the right half
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plane, the closed loop system is stable.
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If there is any closed-loop pole on the right half plane,
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the system goes unstable.
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Fence sitter poles on the imaginary axis are a bit tricky

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but these too can be predicted

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There are more to it

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Mapping of Contours
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( s z1 )( s z 2 )
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F (s) =
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( s p1 )( s p2 )
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Any line or a closed contour can be mapped from the s- plane to a

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general function F(s).

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Ordinarily for single valued functions, a closed contour would map

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into another closed contour

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Mapping of Contours-2
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( s z1 )( s z 2 )
F (s) =
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( s p1 )( s p2 )
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For contour mapping, direction of traversal, shown

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by arrows are often important.

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Any quantity (s-a)
can be represented
p
Q s
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by a vector
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originating on the
or
point a and
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a terminating on the
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(current location of
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the) point s.
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( s z1 )( s z 2 )
F (s) =
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( s p1 )( s p2 )
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While computing F(s) in each point in the contour Q,

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in s-plane, each pole zero and gain factor

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contributes to magnitude and angle.

Any quantity 1/(s-
p
Q s
a) can be
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represented by a
or
vector opposing
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a the vector (s-a)
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and has a
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magnitude equal
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( s z1 )( s z 2 ) to the reciprocal of
F (s) =
(s-a)
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( s p1 )( s p2 )
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While computing F(s) in each point in the contour Q,

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in s-plane, each pole zero and gain factor

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contributes to magnitude and angle.

A zero inside a
p
Q s
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closed contour
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or
contributes 360
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a
deg. angular
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change.
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( s z1 )( s z 2 )
F (s) =
T1
( s p1 )( s p2 )
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A pole inside also causes the vector to rotate by 360

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degree but in opposite direction

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A zero outside a
p
Q s
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closed contour
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contributes o
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deg. angular
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a
change.
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( s z1 )( s z 2 )
F (s) =
T1
( s p1 )( s p2 )
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A pole outside the contour also causes a net

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rotation of zero degree

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Pole/zero inside a
closed contour
p
contributes 360 deg.
ho
angular change.
ks
Pole/zero outside
or
contour has 0 deg.
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angular change.
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For clockwise traversing
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around s-contour, a
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0K zero of F(s) inside
yields rotation in CW,
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pole inside yields

rotation in CCW
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N = P-Z Z = P-N
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N = # of counterclockwise direction about the origin

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P = # of poles of characteristic equation inside contour

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= # of poles of open-loop system

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z = # of zeros of characteristic equation inside contour

N
= # of poles of closed-loop system

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The frequency at which the phase equals 180
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degrees is called the phase crossover frequency
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The frequency at which the magnitude equals 1 is

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called the gain crossover frequency.

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Points to Ponder
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Contextual Pedagogic Note-1
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Contextual Pedagogic Note-2
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Contents
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Disk Margin
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Nyquist Stability Criterion.
Consider an open-loop transfer function Go(s) that
p
is proper and has no unstable pole-zero
ho
ks
cancellations.
or
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Let N be the number of times that the Nyquist plot for
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Go(s) encircles the -1 point in the clockwise direction.
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Also let P denote the number of poles of Go(s) that lie
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to the right of the imaginary axis.
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Then, Z = N + P
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where Z is the number of roots of the characteristic

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equation that lie to the right of the imaginary axis (that

is, its number of zeros).
Some important properties of the NSC
Provides a necessary and sufficient condition for
closed-loop stability based on the open-loop
p
ho
transfer function.
ks
A simplified version of the criterion exists for
or
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open-loop stable systems.
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A negative value of N indicates that the -1 point is
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encircled in the opposite direction (counter-
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clockwise). This situation implies that each
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countercurrent encirclement can stabilize one
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unstable pole of the open-loop system.

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Unlike the Bode stability criterion, the Nyquist

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stability criterion is applicable to

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Open-loop unstable processes.

Multiple GCF cases.
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Interpretations for Open loop stable
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systems
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Contents
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Disk Margin
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NSC for OL Stable Systems
Recall that for systems which are stable in O/L
p
ho
P = 0 and thus Z = N.
ks
Consequently, the closed-loop system is unstable if the
or
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Nyquist plot for GOL(s) encircles the critical point, one
n
or more times.
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Which in other words is that for closed loop stability,
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the Nyquist plot should not encircle the critical point
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at all.
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This simplifies the Nyquist plot substantially.

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NSC for OL Stable Systems-2
Imaginary
II
p
I
Indentation <
ho
0
ks
IV Real
R<
or
R
III
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Another simplifying assumption is that there are no
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poles on the imaginary axis either.
T1
This eliminates the requirements of indentation on the

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D-Contour and consequent large circles in F contour.

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Many standard Nyquist plot interpretations have

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these implied assumptions

NSC for OL Stable Systems-3
With these simplifying
p
ho
assumptions, we need
ks
to plot the polar plot
or
corresponding to the
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positive values of
n
=
ai
frequencies for zero to
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infinity only.
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0K
Stability is ensured if
T1
=0
the critical point is
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never on the right of this

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plot, while going from to

N
=0 to = .
Simplified Nyquist
May be extended for open loop poles on imaginary
p
axis.
ho
ks
Also may be extended with open loop unstable
or
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systems.
n
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With extreme caution
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T
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Stability margins on Nyquist.
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NSC for OL Stable System

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Stability Margins
The real strength of the Nyquist theorem lies in its
p
ability to quantify the degree of stability by two
ho
quantities:
ks
or
Gain Margin (GM) and
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Phase margin (PM)
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The Gain margin is the change quantifies the
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change (alone) in the open-loop gain (in terms of
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ratio or equivalently in dB) to make the closed-loop
T1
system unstable ,
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it may simply be computed as the inverse of the gain at

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the phase cross over frequency, where the phase

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condition is already satisfied.

Stability Margins-2
The Phase Margin (PM) quantifies the phase lag
p
alone required to make the closed-loop system
ho
ks
unstable.
or
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This is computed at unity gain (Gain Cross Over)
n
frequency by 190 degree + phase at GCF.
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Example-1: at PCF, the gain is 0.5,
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the gain margin is ratio 1/0.5= 2 times = 6dB
T1
Example-2: at GCF, the phase lag is 130 degree

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(i.e. phase=-130 degree),

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the phase margin is 180+(-130) degree=50 degree

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Why GM?
p
ho
Why PM?
ks
Delay Margin
or
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GM and PM via Nyquist plot
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Stability margins on Nyquist-2
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PM & GM are not adequate for some rogue

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systems
Contents
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Disk Margin
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Gain Margins with Nyquist
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GM and PM via Bode Plot
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The frequency at which
or
the phase equals 180
W

degrees is called the
n
GM
phase crossover
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frequency
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GM
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The frequency at which
0K the magnitude equals 1 is

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called the gain crossover
frequency M
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gain crossover frequency phase crossover frequency

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GM and PM on Nyquist plot
The Unit circle
p
ho
cuts the negative
ks
or
real axis at the
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critical point.
n
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It also intersects
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the frequency
T
0K
response plot
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where the
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Gain=1, i.e. GCF

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GM is to be a
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ratio =a here.
Stability Margins-3
The stability margins are in effect measures of
p
stability robustness to plant parameter
ho
perturbations.
ks
or
These PM and GM quantify how much change in
W
system phase and system gain respectively can be
n
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tolerated before the closed loop system becomes
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unstable.
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0K
Phase shift can occur because of neglected dynamics
T1
or because of hidden time delay in the process or in the

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digital controller.
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Gain change can occur due to plant ageing, component

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substitution, shift of operating point of a nonlinear

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system.
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Stability Margins in Bode
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Contents
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Stability Margins in Nyquist
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Disk Margin
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Stability from Bode Plot
Bode plots of Open
loop TF are adequate
p
ho
to analyse stability and
ks
assessing stability
or
margins if the Open
W
loop TF is stable.
n
ai
In such cases the
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phase and gain
T
-180 0K
margins may be simply
T1
obtained from the Bode

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plot provided
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Both the magnitude and

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phase plots are

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available and
both the GCF and the
Example
p
40 K
ho
G (s) =
( s + 2)( s + 4)( s + 5)
ks
or
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0K
T1
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Bode Plots for K=1

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GCF 2 r/s (for K=1+) ; PCF=7 r/s; GM =20 dB

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Stability Analysis using Bode Plot-1
To comment on the stability of linear systems detection of
p
the right hand side pole location of the closed loop TF is
ho
important
ks
or
The characteristic equation having at least one root on RHS of s-
W
plane makes the system unstable.
n
ai
For analysis of relative stability of closed loop system Gain
M
Margin and Phase Margin are useful
T
0K
The gain margin indicates how far the gain is to increased so that
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the closed loop system poles come at the verse of instability

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Phase margin indicates the additional phase lag is to introduced

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at the frequency when the magnitude is 1 so that the overall

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phase is -180
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Stability Analysis using Bode Plot-2
Using Bode plot computation of Gain Margin and Phase Margin

becomes convenient because of separate Magnitude and Phase plot
p
ho
with respect to frequency
ks
Gain margin is the amount of gain in decibels (dB) that can be added
or
to the loop before the closed-loop system becomes unstable.
W
Phase cross over frequency is the frequency at which the phase is 180
n
At the PCF the dB is to be recorded from the magnitude plot to get the Gain
ai
margin. A positive GM indicate stability
M
Phase margin (PM) is defined as the angle in degrees which is to be
subtracted at the frequency where the magnitude plot intercept 0 dB
T
line so that the phase is 180
0K
T1
Gain cross over frequency is the frequency at which the magnitude is 0 dB
At GCF the phase is to be recorded and the difference from 180 has to be
CT
found to get the phase margin. A positive GM indicate stability

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Illustration
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Fig taken
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from B.C.
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Kuo
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Closed-loop transient response and closed-loop frequency
responses from OL frequency Response
p
C (s)
= T (s)
ho
R( s)
ks
n2
or
= 2
s + 2 n s + n2
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0K
T1
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N

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The magnitude of the resonance peak is an indication for the system

relative stability. A large resonance peak indicates the existence of a
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dominant pair of complex poles with a small damping ratio. Such

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poles may lead to an undesirable transient response.

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Correlating time and frequency response for more general systems
In general systems, obtaining the time-frequency response relationship is not as

direct as it is in second order systems .
p
Typically, the addition of any poles may change the correlation between step
ho
transient re-sponse and frequency response . However, the derived results for
ks
second order systems may be applicable to higher order systems in the presence
or
of a dominant second order system poles
W
For an LTI higher order systems with a dominant second order pole, the following
relationships generally exists
n
ai
The value of Mr is indicative for the relative stability. A satisfactory performance is
attained for 1 < Mr < 1:4, which corresponds to a damping ration of 0; 4 < < 0:7.
M
A large Mr indicates a high overshot and slow damping.
T
If the system is subject to noise signals whose frequency are near to the resonance
0K
frequency !r, the noise will be amplified in the output causing a serious problem.
T1
The magnitude of the resonance frequency !r indicates the speed of the transient
response. Large !r indicates faster time response [smaller rise and settling times]
CT
The resonant peak frequency!r and the damped natural frequency !d of unit step
response are very close to each other for lightly damped systems.
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N

Freq Response and Damping Ratio
C (s)
p
= T (s)
ho
R( s)
ks
n2
= 2
or
s + 2 n s + n2
W
n
ai
M
T
0K
T1
CT
EI
M
Closed Loop M and Damping Ratio.

N

Response speed and frequency response
p
n = = BW = n (1 2 2 ) + 4 4 4 2 + 2
ho
Ts Tp 1 2
ks
or
The first set of relations show the inter dependence
W
of natural frequency, peak time and settling time
n
ai
(low damping).
M
The second equation provides approximate 3-db
T
0K
Bandwidth.
T1
NF=90 degree BW
CT
For the reasonable value of 0.5 damping ratio, the 3 db

EI
BW=1.27 times the NF.

M
For 50 deg PM, NF/GCF=1.1/.813=1.35; 3dB

N
BW/GCF=1.72
PUOS vs zeta
p
ho
ks
or
W
n
ai
M
T
0K
T1
CT
EI
M
N

PUOS vs zeta
Tutorial pm-zeta-os
p
ho
ks
or
W
n
ai
M
T
0K
T1
CT
EI
M
N

Mp vs zeta
p
ho
ks
or
W
n
ai
M
T
0K
T1
CT
EI
M
N

Response speed and closed-loop frequency response
p
BW = n (1 2 2 ) + 4 4 4 2 + 2
ho
ks
4
BW = (1 2 2 ) + 4 4 4 2 + 2
or
Ts
n
BW = (1 2 2 ) + 4 4 4 2 + 2
ai
M
Tp 1 2
T
0K
BW
T1
= frequency at which magnitude is 3dB down

CT
1
from value at dc (0 rad/sec), or M =
EI
.
M
2
N

Find BW from
Open-loop Frequency Response
p
ho
ks
or
W
n
Nichols Charts
ai
M
T
0K
T1
CT
From open-loop frequency response, we can find

BW at the open-loop frequency that the magnitude
EI
M
N
lies between -6dB to -7.5dB (phase between -135 to -225)

Relationship between
damping ratio and phase margin
p
of open-loop frequency response
ho
ks
or
W
Phase margin of open-loop frequency response
n
ai
Can be written in terms of damping ratio as following
M
T
0K
2
M = tan 1
T1
2 2 + 1 + 4 4
CT
EI
M
N

Example
Open-loop system with a unity feedback has a bode plot
below, approximate settling time and peak time
p
ho
BW = 3.7
ks
or
W
n
ai
M
T
0K
T1
CT
PM=35
EI
M
N

2
M = tan 1
2 2 + 1 + 4 4
p
= 0.32
ho
Solve for PM = 35
ks
or
W
4
Ts = (1 2 2 ) + 4 4 4 2 + 2
n
ai
BW
M
= 5.5
T

0K
Tp = (1 2 2 ) + 4 4 4 2 + 2
T1
BW 1 2
CT
= 1.43
EI
M
N

p
ho
ks
or
W
n
Stability Margins in Nichols
ai
M
T
0K
T1
CT
EI
M
N
Contents
p
ho
ks
or
W
n
ai
M
T
0K
T1

CT
EI
M
Disk Margin
N

p
ho
ks
or
W
n
ai
M
T
0K
T1
CT
EI
M
N

p
ho
ks
or
W
n
The Disk Margin Concept
ai
M
T
0K
T1
CT
EI
M
N
Contents
p
ho
ks
or
W
n
ai
M
T
0K
T1

CT
EI
Disk Margin
M
N

p
ho
ks
or
W
n
ai
M
T
0K
T1
CT
EI
M
N

Neglected Nichols
p
ho
ks
or
W
n
ai
M
T
0K
T1
CT
EI
Presented in J-N-P
M
N
Popularized Gille et al
disk margin-3
p
ho
ks
or
W
n
ai
M
T
0K
T1
Disk Margin in Nichols Plot (Gibson-1978)

CT
EI
Pumpkin Margin 1976-TKG

M
N

Obtaining Transfer Function -2
1
Y ( s) = c ( sI A) bU ( s)
T
p
ho
Y ( s) c T
Adj ( sI A)b N ( s )
ks
1
G ( s) = = c ( sI A) b =
T
=
or
U ( s) det( sI A) D( s)
W
n
Obtaining the TF is straight Forward.
ai
M
Note that both the numerator N(s) and the denominator
T
D(s) are polynomials in s, corresponding to the numerator
0K
and the denominator characteristic polynomials.
T1
Assuming no pole-zero cancellation, the poles and zeroes

CT
are obtained as:

EI
Poles from: D(s)=0 ; Zeroes from: N(s)=0

M
N

p
ho
ks
or
W
n
ai
M
T
0K
T1
CT
EI
M
N
Contents
p
ho
ks
or
W
n
ai
M
T
0K
T1

CT
EI
Disk Margin
M
N

Concept of State Space
Any state can be
p
represented by
ho
Point in state Space
x3
a point in this
ks
x2 state space.
or
W
n
ai
x1
M
State Space: The n-dimensional space
T
0K
whose coordinate axes are the individual
T1
elements (x1, x2, ., xn, ) of the state vector

CT
is called a state space.

EI
M
N

SV Differential Equations of Dynamic Models-8
n
d k y (t ) m d j u (t ) x = A(x) + B(u)
= bn
p
; m<n
ho
ak
dt k
dt j
y = C(x) + D(u)
ks
k =0 j =0
or
x = f (x, u) or x = f (x) + g(u ) The terms ak, bj etc or for linear
W
system, elements of the A, B, C,D
y = h(x, u) matrices are called parameters.
n
ai
M
For LTI systems the parameters are constants.
T
For linear time varying systems, some of the parameters
0K
are functions of time
T1
For nonlinear systems, some of the parameters are

CT
functions of states themselves.

EI
In this case, the matrix form would not always be possible.

M
N

p
ho
ks
Thank you
or
W
for
n
ai
M
Your kind AttentionT
0K
T1
CT
EI
M
N

T10KT MW TKG Lesson 18 Stability and Stability Margin in Freq Domain-D-001 08122014

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Honorary Emeritus Professor, Electrical Engineering,

Stability Margin in Nichols

T10KT-December 2014 CKBS-Jadavpur University, Kolkata 2

Stability Margin in Bode

Stability Margin in Nichols

T10KT-December 2014 CKBS-Jadavpur University, Kolkata 4

Module-5: Stability Analysis

T10KT-December 2014 CKBS-Jadavpur University, Kolkata 5

Compute indices of relative stability of the closed

theorems by checking the amplitude and frequency

of oscillations as well as the loop gain and phase at

the onset of instability.

T10KT-December 2014 CKBS-Jadavpur University, Kolkata 6

Compute stability margins in presence time delays

T10KT-December 2014 CKBS-Jadavpur University, Kolkata 7

Stability margin, relation with transient response; disk

margin, dmplot, M-circle and Disk margin, Composite

Distance, Disk margin in Nichols Plane.

Computation of stability margins for multi-loop

Hendrik Wade Bode (19051982)

Frequency domain analysis for stability

Stability Margin in Nichols

T10KT-December 2014 CKBS-Jadavpur University, Kolkata 10

Stability Margin in Nyquist

Stability Margin in Bode

Stability Margin in Nichols

frequency response of the system.

However, Nyquist theorem and polar plots of

frequency response in complex plane provide some

The strength of this theorem is that regarding

not only gives an yes-no type of answer.

Plant TF= Gp(s), Controller TF= K(s), Open loop TF

These TFs are not shown explicitly on the diagram.

T10KT-December 2014 CKBS-Jadavpur University, Kolkata 16

All the transfer function may be expressed in

numerator and denominator forms.

Stability of the CL system is determined from the

T10KT-December 2014 CKBS-Jadavpur University, Kolkata 17

Poles of G(s)H(s) and 1+G(s)H(s) are the

T10KT-December 2014 CKBS-Jadavpur University, Kolkata 18

For stability analysis of the closed loop system,

we have to determine (a, b, c, d) or use Nyquist Theorem

T10KT-December 2014 CKBS-Jadavpur University, Kolkata 19

Fence sitter poles on the imaginary axis are a bit tricky

but these too can be predicted

There are more to it

T10KT-December 2014 CKBS-Jadavpur University, Kolkata 20

Any line or a closed contour can be mapped from the s- plane to a

general function F(s).

Ordinarily for single valued functions, a closed contour would map

into another closed contour

T10KT-December 2014 CKBS-Jadavpur University, Kolkata 21

For contour mapping, direction of traversal, shown

by arrows are often important.

T10KT-December 2014 CKBS-Jadavpur University, Kolkata 22

While computing F(s) in each point in the contour Q,

in s-plane, each pole zero and gain factor

contributes to magnitude and angle.

Any quantity 1/(s-

While computing F(s) in each point in the contour Q,

in s-plane, each pole zero and gain factor

contributes to magnitude and angle.

A pole inside also causes the vector to rotate by 360