Sheet

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Linearity

Active RF devices are ultimately non-linear in operation. When driven with a large enough RF
signal the device will generate undesirable spurious signals. How much spurious generated
by the device is dependant on the linearity of the device.

If an amplifier is driven hard enough the output power will begin to roll off resulting in a drop of
gain known as gain compression. The measurement of gain compression is given by the 1dB
gain compression point.

1dB Compression Point

This parameter in another measure of the linearity of a device and is defined as the input
power that causes a 1dB drop in the linear gain due to device saturation. An example of the
1dB compression point is shown in figure 2.

30

Saturated
25 Output
Power
21dBm
20
1dB
Compression
Point 20dBm 15

1dB gain change

10
Pout (dBm)

0
-10 -5 0 5 10
Pin (dBm)

Figure 1 1dB Compression point plot. The red curve is the gain compression
characteristic of a 15dB gain amplifier. The parallel black line is 1dB below and
represents a gain of 14dB. The input power where the amplifier gain crosses the 1dB
down line is know as the 1dB input compression point.
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Intermodulation Products

For example if we apply two frequencies eg 650MHz & 655MHz (ie spaced by 5MHz) to an
amplifier then there will be 'sidebands' or intermodulation products at multiples of 5MHz.
5MHz below 650MHz and 5MHz above the 655MHz carrier will be the 3rd Order
intermodulation products (IM3) at 645MHz and 660MHz. 5MHz below the IM3 at 645MHz and
5MHz above the IM3 at 660MHz will the IM5 products. These products can be a problem as
they may fall within the passband of the system and cannot be filtered out.
Also there will be a product in the baseband region at 5MHZ and this is known as the IM2
product. A convenient measure of linearity is the IM2 & IM3 Intercept points. These two points
allow us to calculate the odd and even intermodulation products.

Figure 2 shows the spurious that can be produced when an amplifier is driven into non-
linearity.

To perform a linearity measurement we first combine the two input signals (ensuring that the
powers are the same). The IM3 and IM5 (lower or upper sideband) are plotted against the
power of ONE of the input carriers. If the two IM3’s (or IM5’s) have different powers then take
the mean power.

A typical IM3/IM5 measurement of an amplifier is shown in Figure 3.

The plot shown in figure 3 shows the fundamental response in red (line1) this will have a
slope of 1:1 in the linear region and for this example shows a linear gain of 15dB. As the input
power increases the amplifier runs into compression – where the output fails to raise for
increased input power. The limited output power at high input powers is known as the
saturated output power and for this example is 14dBm.

The other plots show the IM2, IM3 and IM5 responses each with slopes of 2, 3 and 5
respectively.

If the linear plots are extended they will intersect at a point known as the output intercept point
and is typically 10dB above the 1dB compression point.
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Power
∆ 5MHz

IM3 IM3
645MHz 660MHz 2nd Harmonic 2nd Harmonic
IM2 F1 F2 2*F1+F2 2*F2+F1
1300MHz 1310MHz 1955MHz 1960MHz
IM5 IM5
640MHz 665MHz

5MHz F1 F2 F1+F2 3*F1 3*F2

650MHz 655MHz 1305MHz 1950MHz 1965MHz
Frequency 2nd Harmonics
Input carriers

Figure 2 Showing spurious generated from an amplifier driven into compression (ie in it's non-linear region).
 Sheet
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Intercept point +30dB

35
30

25
Saturated Output Power
20
15
10

5
0
Pout (dBm)

-35 -25 -15 -5 -5 5 15

-10
(1)
-15
-20
-25
(2)
-30
-35
(3) (4)
-40
-45
-50
Pin (dBm)
Fundamental IM2 IM3 IM5

Figure 3 Example linearity plot of an amplifier with a small-signal gain of 15dB. The
intermodulation slopes are shown (IM2, 3 & 5 – lines 2, 3 & 4).
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Example:

If we assume an input power of -5dBm, then reading off the graph shown in figure 3 we get
the following results:

Plot Output Power (dBm) Power relative to fundamental (dBc)

Fundamental 10 0
IM2 -10 20
IM3 -30 40
IM5 -80 90

When operating the device in the linear region the level of the spurious signals can be
estimated using the nomograph’s shown in figures 4 and 5.

Intercept Point
(dBm)
+40
OUTPUT
Signal Level
+35
(dBm) Spurious
+30 +40 Response Level
(dBc down)
+25 +30 2nd Order 3rd Order

+20 +20 0 0

+15 +10 5 10

+10 0 10 20

+5 -10 15 30

0 -20 20 40

-5 -30 25 50

-10 -40 30 60

-15 -50 -35 70

-20 -60 40 80

Figure 4 Nomograph to calculate output spurious relative to the fundamental in dBc.

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Intercept Point
(dBm) Spurious
OUTPUT Response Level
Signal Level
+40 (dBm)
2nd Order 3rd Order
(-dBm) (-dBm)
+30 +10 10 30

+20 0 20 40

+10 -10 30 50

0 -20 40 60

-10 -30 50 70

-20 -40 60 80

-30 -5 70 90

-40 -6 80 100

9 110

100 120

Figure 5 Nomograph to calculate output spurious signals in dBm.

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Dynamic Range

Is defined as the spurious free range between the 1dB compression point and the minimum
detectable out signal. This range is shown in figure 6.

Pout (dBm)

1dB
Compression
Point

Dynamic
Range

Minimum
detectable
Output
signal

0
Pin (dBm)

Figure 6 Showing the dynamic range (Also know as the Spurious free dynamic range)
between effectively the amplifier noise floor (dependant on the amplifier NF and
bandwidth) and the 1dB compression point.

The minimum detectable output signal is effectively the noise floor of the amplifier given by:

Pmdos = Po - 10log(B.W) - NF - X(dB) - Ga(dB)

Where Pmdos = Minimum detectable output power (dBm)

Po = Noise floor = - 114dBm/MHz
B.W = Device operating bandwidth (Hz)
NF = Device Noise figure (dB)
X = 3dB typically
Ga = Device gain (dB)
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The dynamic range of the device is given by:-

DR = (P1db − Pmdos )

The dynamic FREE range of the device is then given by:-

2
DR free = (P1db − Pmdos )
3
Example:

An amplifier has a gain of 20dB, Intercept point of 30dB, Noise Figure of 5dB,
Bandwidth of 100MHz. Calculate the 1dB compression point, DR and DRfree.

P1dB = PIP - 10 = 30 - 10 = 20dBm

Pmdos = - 174 + 10log(100x 10 6 ) + 5 + 3 + 20) = - 66dBm

Therefore :

DR = 20 + 66 = 88dB and

2
DR free = (88 ) = 58.6dB
3
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ADS Simulations for Linearity

(1) IM2 & IM3 Intercept Points

For the simulations a simple amplifier was designed using ‘ideal’ components for the DC
blocks and feeds. As we have to use a ‘spice’ model in order to use the Harmonic balance
simulation the bipolar device needs to be biased up and this is achieved using a current
mirror circuit.

The circuit schematic of the amplifier is shown in figure 7.

R
R5
R=3000 Ohm

R
V_DC R7
SRC2 R=120 Ohm
Vdc=5 V

ap_pnp_2N2907A_19930601
Q1
I_Probe
ap_pnp_2N2907A_19930601
Ic
Q2

R
R4
R=2200 Ohm DC_Feed DC_Feed
DC_Feed2 DC_Feed1

BFY420
X1

B C

Port R Port
DC_Block R8 E DC_Block
P1 P2
DC_Block1 R=50 Ohm DC_Block2 Num=2
Num=1

Figure 7 ADS schematic of a simple 1GHz amplifier based on the Infineon BFY420
microwave bipolar transistor. As a spice model has been used a current mirror circuit
has been built around the spice model to correctly bias it. DC blocks are required so
that the bias is not upset when adding 50-ohm terminations to the circuit during
simulation. The DC feeds are ideal RF chokes.
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The first simulation is to analyse IM2 & IM3 intercept points. Figure 8 shows the simulation
setup and the resulting plots are shown in Figure 9 together with the relevant measurement
equations

2-Tone TOI FOR AMPLIFIERS

I_Probe
I_Probe1

Buffer1GHz
P_nTone
PORT1 X1
Num=1
Var VAR
Z=50 Ohm Eqn VAR1 Term
Freq[1]=RF+fspacing/2
RFPwr=-20 Term2
Freq[2]=RF-fspacing/2
fspacing=5 MHz Num=2
P[1]=dbmtow(RFPwr)
RF=1 GHz Z=50 Ohm
P[2]=dbmtow(RFPwr)

SIMULATION CONTROLS

HARMONIC BALANCE

HarmonicBalance
HB1
MaxOrder=5
Freq[1]=RF+fspacing/2
Freq[2]=RF-fspacing/2
Order[1]=7
Order[2]=7

Figure 8 ADS Simulation setup for analysing IM2 and IM3 Intercept points of the
amplifier shown in figure 7.
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Referring to Figure 8, the amplifier shown in Figure 7 is feed by a two-tone power generator.
The variable RF is set to 1GHz with fspacing set to 5MHz. The tones are set to be 1GHz ±
2.5MHz to give a spacing of 5MHz, the powers are both set to –10dBm.

The output of the amplifier is terminated with a 50-ohm termination and given a node name of
‘Vout’. The harmonic balance frequencies are set to those generated by the two-tone power
source and MaxOrder set to 7 max (ie the IM7 will be the maximum order simulated).

Third Order Intercept Results

The complete spectrum includes up to 7 harmonics, as

SOI TOI
specified in the Harmnic Balance controller.
24.787 25.337

Eqn SOI=ipn(HB.Vout,0,HB.I_Probe1.i,{1,0},{1,-1},2)
Mix
freq
Mix(1) Mix(2)
Eqn TOI=ipn(HB.Vout,0,HB.I_Probe1.i,{1,0},{2,-1},3) 0.0000 Hz 0 0
5.000MHz 1 -1
dBm(HB.Vout) 10.00MHz 2 -2
Narrowband Spectrum 987.5MHz -2 3
15 992.5MHz -1 2
997.5MHz 0 1
10
1.002GHz 1 0
5 1.008GHz 2 -1
1.013GHz 3 -2
0
1.990GHz -1 3
-5 1.995GHz 0 2
-10 2.000GHz 1 1
2.005GHz 2 0
-15 2.010GHz 3 -1
-20 2.987GHz -1 4
2.993GHz 0 3
-25
2.998GHz 1 2
-30 3.003GHz 2 1
-35 3.007GHz 3 0
3.013GHz 4 -1
-40 3.990GHz 0 4
-45 3.995GHz 1 3
4.000GHz 2 2
-50
4.005GHz 3 1
-55 4.010GHz 4 0
-60 4.987GHz 0 5
4.992GHz 1 4
0.99 1.00 1.01 4.997GHz 2 3
5.003GHz 3 2
freq, GHz 5.008GHz 4 1

Figure 9 Simulation output showing the output frequency spectrum with the two
fundamental carriers and the two IM3 products. The mix table shows all the possible
harmonics and inter-modulation products specified by the two index numbers ie the
fundamentals are {0,1} and {1,0} for example.
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(2) 1dB Compression Point

Using the same amplifier shown in figure 7 an ADS simulation shown in figure 10 can be used
to analyse the 1dB compression point of the amplifier.

Term
Buffer1GHz Term2
P_1Tone
X1 Num=2
PORT1
Num=1 Var VAR Z=50 Ohm
Eqn
Z=50 Ohm VAR1
P=dbmtow(Pin) RFfreq=1 GHz
Freq=RFfreq Pin=-5

HARMONIC BALANCE GAIN COMPRESSION

HarmonicBalance XDB
HB1 HB2
Freq[1]=RFfreq Freq[1]=RFfreq
Order[1]=5 Order[1]=5
SweepVar="Pin" GC_XdB=1
SweepPlan="Plan1" GC_InputPort=1
GC_OutputPort=2
GC_InputFreq=1 GHz
SWEEP PLAN GC_OutputFreq=1 GHz
SweepPlan GC_InputPowerTol=1e-3
Plan1 GC_OutputPowerTol=1e-3
Start=-30.0 Stop=10 Step=1.0 Lin= GC_MaxInputPower=100
UseSweepPlan=
SweepPlan=

Figure 10 ADS schematic to analyse the 1dB compression point of the amplifier shown
in figure 7. The Sweep plan has been set to sweep the input carrier of 1GHz (RFfreq)
between –30dBm to +10dBm in 1dB steps.

The gain compression measurement uses the simulation-XDB simulation block set
with the correct frequencies and powers.

The simulation was run with the resulting gain compression characteristics shown in figure 11.
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1dB Compression Characteristic of 1GHz Buffer Amplifier using BFY420

Output Spectrum at 1 dB Gain Compression Point

m1
dBm(HB2.HB.Vout) indep(m1)=-6.000
plot_vs(dBm(HB1.HB.Vout[1]), HB1.HB.Pin)=11.114
20

dBm(HB1.HB.Vout[1])
10
30 llinear

0
20
m2
m1
-10
10

-20
0

-30
-10

-40 -20
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10
freq, GHz HB1.HB.Pin
Pin
Eqn Gain=dBm(HB1.HB.Vout[1])-HB1.HB.Pin
Eqn compression=m1-m2
Eqn linear=Gain[0]+HB1.HB.Pin
compression
-0.987
IInput and Output Powers at 1 dB Compression Point
inpwr[1] outpwr[1] m2
Pin=-6.000
-5.979 11.123
linear=12.101

Figure 11 Resulting ADS simulation of the amplifier shown in figure 7 to determine the
1dB compression point of the amplifier. The compression point was analysed at
11.123dBm (with input of –5.979). The plot on the right shows the gain compression
curve and the linear gain curve, using the equations Gain and linear. The markers are
set so that the difference between them is 1dB and therefore Marker2 will read the 1dB
compression point of 12.101dBm. In reality the outpwr[1] parameter will give the most
accurate result.
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Improving Linearity

(1) Balanced Amplifier

The balanced amplifier (as shown in figure 12) employs two quadrature hybrids in this case
two lange couplers (although branchline couplers can be used). Any reflections of an incident
signal on the input due to the poor match of the amplifiers will be channelled back through the
input lange to the 50 ohm load where they will be absorbed and similarily on the the
output.Therefore, if we look into the amplifier we will effectively ‘see’ the 50 ohm loads and
will therefore present a good match match.

With a balanced amplifier the input power is equally spilt ie is 3dB lower therefore any IM3
products will be 9dB’s lower and the 1dB compression point for the whole amplifier will be
effectively 3dB’s higher.

In addition this configuration will give us an extra 3dB’s of output power (less the insertion
loss of the Lange coupler ~typically < 0.25dB)

The main drawback of this circuit is the power required for two amplifiers instead of
one.

90 Degree
Hybrid 1

RF IN Amp1

50-ohm
load

50-ohm
load
Amp2

RF OUT
90 degree
Hybrid 2
NOTE Dashed lines are reflected
signals

Figure 12 Schematic circuit diagram of a balanced amplifier.

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ADS Simulation of the Balanced amplifier

We can check to see the improvement in IM3 performance by analysing the single amplifier
shown in figure 7 in a balanced configuration. The ADS setup is shown in figure 13.

2-Tone TOI FOR BALANCED AMPLIFIER

Hybrid90
R
HYB1
R2
Loss=0.5 dB
R=50 Ohm
GainBal=0 dB
PhaseBal=0
I_Probe
IN 0 0 IN
I_Probe1
ISO -90 Buffer1GHz -90 ISO

R X1
Hybrid90
R1 HYB2
R=50 Ohm Loss=0.5 dB
GainBal=0 dB
Buffer1GHz PhaseBal=0 Term
Term2
X2 Num=2
Z=50 Ohm

P_nTone
PORT1
Num=1
Z=50 Ohm SIMULATION CONTROLS
Freq[1]=RF+fspacing/2
Freq[2]=RF-fspacing/2
P[1]=dbmtow(RFPwr)
P[2]=dbmtow(RFPwr)
HARMONIC BALANCE

HarmonicBalance
HB1
Var
Eqn
VAR MaxOrder=5
VAR1
RFPwr=-25 Freq[1]=RF+fspacing/2
fspacing=5 MHz
RF=1 GHz
Freq[2]=RF-fspacing/2
Order[1]=7
Order[2]=7

Figure 13 ADS schematic of a balanced amplifier. The amplifier circuit is shown in

figure 7. The 90 hybrids are configured to power split on the input and power combine
on the output of the amplifiers. The resulting IM3 Intercept point should be ~ 3dB
higher than for a single amplifier.
 Sheet
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The simulation was run to confirm the new IM2 and IM3 intercept points. The resulting plots
are shown in figure 14.

Third Order Intercept Results for Balanced Amplifier

The complete spectrum includes up to 7 harmonics, SOI TOI
specified in the Harmnic Balance 30.946 28.288

Eqn SOI=ipn(HB.Vout,0,HB.I_Probe1.i,{1,0},{1,-1},2)
Mix
freq
Mix(1) Mix(2)
Eqn TOI=ipn(HB.Vout,0,HB.I_Probe1.i,{1,0},{2,-1},3) 0.0000 Hz 0 0
5.000MHz 1 -1
dBm(HB.Vout) 10.00MHz 2 -2
Narrowband Spectrum 987.5MHz -2 3
0 992.5MHz -1 2
-5 997.5MHz 0 1
-10 1.002GHz 1 0
-15 1.008GHz 2 -1
-20 1.013GHz 3 -2
1.990GHz -1 3
-25 1.995GHz 0 2
-30 2.000GHz 1 1
-35 2.005GHz 2 0
-40 2.010GHz 3 -1
-45 2.987GHz -1 4
-50 2.993GHz 0 3
-55 2.998GHz 1 2
-60 3.003GHz 2 1
-65 3.007GHz 3 0
-70 3.013GHz 4 -1
-75 3.990GHz 0 4
-80 3.995GHz 1 3
-85 4.000GHz 2 2
-90 4.005GHz 3 1
-95 4.010GHz 4 0
-100 4.987GHz 0 5
4.992GHz 1 4
0.99 1.00 1.01 4.997GHz 2 3
5.003GHz 3 2
freq, GHz 5.008GHz 4 1

Figure 14 Simulation results of the Balanced Amplifier showing the ~ 3dB increase in
rd nd
the 3 order intercept point and ~ 6dB improvement in the 2 order intercept point.

Finally we can see how the 1dB compression point has improved by 3dB from the single
amplifier case – the resulting simulation is shown in figure 15.
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1dB Compression Characteristic of 1GHz Balanced Buffer Amplifier

Output Spectrum at 1 dB Gain Compression

dBm(HB2.HB.Vout)
m1
50 indep(m1)=-2.500
plot_vs(dBm(HB1.HB.Vout[1]), HB1.HB.Pin)=13.619

0 dBm(HB1.HB.Vout[1])
llinear
30
-50
20 m2
m1
-100 10

-150 0

-10
-200
-20
-250
-30
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10
freq, GHz
HB1.HB.Pin
Pin
Eqn Gain=dBm(HB1.HB.Vout[1])-HB1.HB.Pin
Eqn compression=m1-m2
Eqn linear=Gain[0]+HB1.HB.Pin
compression
-0.983
Input and Output Powers at 1 dB Compression
inpwr[1] outpwr[1] m2
-2.470 13.633 Pin=-2.500
linear=14.602