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MELTING UNDER VACUUM in an induc- the melting process. Accordingly, the vacuum- The charge generally consists of three
tion-heated crucible is a tried and tested process melted superalloys (compared to EAF/AOD- portions:
in the production of liquid metal. It has its origins melted alloys) are improved in fatigue and
in the middle of the 19th century, but the actual stress-rupture properties. A virgin portion, which consists of material
technical breakthrough occurred in the second Control of alloying elements also may be that has never been vacuum melted
half of the 20th century. Commercial vacuum achieved to much tighter levels than in EAF/ A refractory portion, which consists of those
induction melting (VIM) was developed in the AOD products. However, problems can arise virgin elements that are strong oxide formers
early 1950s, having been stimulated by the need in the case of alloying elements with high vapor and have the tendency to increase the
to produce superalloys containing reactive pressures, such as manganese. Vacuum melting
elements within an evacuated atmosphere. The also is more costly than EAF/AOD melting. Crucible
process is relatively exible, featuring the inde- The EAF/AOD process allows compositional Power
pendent control of time, temperature, pressure, modication (reduction of carbon, titanium, supply
and mass transport through melt stirring. As such, sulfur, silicon, aluminum, etc.). In vacuum
VIM offers more control over alloy composition melting, the charge remains very close in com-
and homogeneity than other vacuum melting position to the nominal chemistry of the initial
processes. charge made to the furnace. Minor reductions
Vacuum induction melting can be used to in carbon content may occur, and most VIM
advantage in many applications, particularly in operations now include a deliberate desulfuriza-
the case of the complex alloys employed in tion step. However, the composition is substan-
aerospace engineering. The following advan- tially xed by choice of the initial charge Induction coil
tages have a decisive inuence on the rapid materials, and these materials are inevitably
increase of metal production by VIM: higher-priced than those that are used in
arc-AOD. To vacuum pumps
Flexibility due to small batch sizes
Fast change of program for different types of
steels and alloys
Easy operation
Low losses of alloying elements by oxidation
Process Description Fig. 1 Basic elements of a vacuum induction melting
furnace
Achievement of very close compositional
tolerances A VIM furnace is simply a melting crucible
Precise temperature control inside a steel shell that is connected to a high-
Low level of environmental pollution from speed vacuum system (Fig. 1). The heart of
dust output the furnace is the crucible (Fig. 2) with heat-
Removal of undesired trace elements with ing and cooling coils and refractory lining.
high vapor pressures Heating is done by electric current that passes
Removal of dissolved gases, for example, through a set of induction coils. The coils are
hydrogen and nitrogen made from copper tubing that is cooled by
water owing through the tubing. The passage
Vacuum induction melting is indispensable of current through the coils creates a magnetic
in the manufacture of superalloys. Compared eld that induces a current in the charge Shunt
to air-melting processes such electric arc fur- inside the refractory. When the heating of
Heating
naces (EAF) with argon oxygen decarburization the charge material is sufcient that the charge coil
(AOD) converters, VIM of superalloys provides has become all molten, these magnetic elds Brick
a considerable reduction in oxygen and nitrogen cause stirring of the liquid charge. The opti- crucible
contents. Accordingly, with fewer oxides and mal induction coil frequency for heating the Cooling
nitrides formed, the microcleanliness of vac- charge varies with the charge shape, size, coil
uum-melted superalloys is greatly improved and melt status (liquid or solid). Older equip-
ment used a single frequency, but newer Ground
compared to air (EAF/AOD)-melted superal-
detection
loys. Additionally, high-vapor-pressure ele- power supplies are able to be operated at var-
ments (specically lead and bismuth) that may iable frequencies and are adjusted throughout
enter the scrap circuit during the manufacture the melt to obtain the most rapid heating/melt- Fig. 2 Schematic of vacuum induction melting
crucible (shell, coil stack, backup lining, and
of superalloy components are reduced during ing conditions. working lining)
2 / Vacuum Induction Melting
105 1000
Installed power
1200
104 100
Pyrometer temperature
1100
1500 2732
1400 1000
103 10 2552
Pyrometer temperature, F
1300 2372
Pressure
Melt chamber pressure, Pa
Pyrometer temperature, C
Fig. 4 Typical vacuum induction melting protocol for nickel- and cobalt-base superalloys
<10 mm) range. The virgin material is melted by Process Controls. Process computerization Determination of the process steps, such as
application of current to the induction coils sur- and automation continue to enhance better completion of the rening period and the
rounding the refractory crucible. reproducibility of the melts and computer mod- suitable time for tapping
When the virgin material has been eling. Using charge and alloy calculations, it is Advance detection of leaks in the furnace
completely melted (all molten), it outgasses. easy to achieve the required chemical analysis chamber, cooling water system, or hydraulic
The outgassing is monitored until it is com- with minimal cost. For this application, in the system
plete. The outgassing is a response of the gas ideal case, the computer is linked to the analy- Monitoring of the state of degassing of the
in solution in the melt to the low partial pres- sis system computer so that the additives can crucible refractory lining
sures of gases in the vacuum chamber. Some be calculated and, if necessary, weighed and
degassing is accomplished because carbon in added directly after the analysis. If this alloy Remelting by VIM for Shape Casting. Vac-
the charge will form CO with the oxygen and calculation is laid out as a charge calculation, uum furnaces for precision casting are used to
also be evolved from the melt. The progress the charges and the amounts of scrap necessary remelt alloys that have already been treated in
of degassing is followed by measuring the can be optimized. The complete calculation vacuum. The remelted alloy is then precision
leak-up rate at set time intervals. When a con- system enables a calculation of the alloying ele- cast into preheated ceramic molds. Heating and
stant leak-up rate is obtained, this indicates that ments, starting with the amount of scrap needed melting in such furnaces almost always takes
degassing (rening) of the melt is complete. and proceeding to the necessary alloy addition place by induction, although some electron beam
After degassing is complete, the reactive and at the end of the rening period. melters and vacuum arc furnaces are used. Elec-
revert charges are added to bring the charge to A computer-controlled mass spectrometer tron beam furnaces offer the advantage of
its planned weight. A ladle sample is taken after system, specially developed for the VIM pro- ceramic-free melting, but they do not permit a
all additions are complete. Based on the analysis cess, can make a signicant contribution to sufciently accurate and reproducible tempera-
of this sample, trim additions are made to bring the optimization of the melting process and its ture control for charges of more than approxi-
the melt into a very precise compositional range. economics. Using a computer evaluation of mately 5 to 7 kg (11 to 15 lb). Vacuum arc
Because there are no ongoing chemical changes the gas composition in the furnace chamber, furnaces are used for titanium precision casting.
in the melting, as there are in EAF/AOD, the com- information about the state of the degassing Remelting with VIM furnaces for precision
positional requirements of a melt may be met as process and of the chemical reactions in the casting is done with two-chamber furnaces
closely as allowed by the reproducibility of chem- melt can be continuously obtained. (Fig. 5a), where the melting crucible and mold
ical analysis. After the trim additions have been The melting process can thus be controlled are in separate chambers. The mold chamber is
made, the temperature of the heat is brought pre- more exactly. Process parameters that can be preferably placed under the melting chamber so
cisely to the desired point, and the heat is poured. closely controlled include: that, in connection with another chamber for
The heat, although produced in vacuum, will still the charge or melting material, semicontinuous
have generated signicant amounts of slag from Determination of the correct time for the operation with minimal cycle times is possible.
the products of deoxidation, desulfurization, and addition of chemically active elements and For cobalt- or nickel-base superalloys, the melt-
the deterioration of the refractory crucible lining. the sequence of addition of such elements ing chamber pressure is of the order of 0.01 Pa
4 / Vacuum Induction Melting
(104 mbar, or 7.5 105 torr), while the mold A typical small casting produced by this Ceramic foam lters are used in some master
lock would be evacuated to approximately 5 Pa method is a turbocharger wheel for automotive metal operations to remove relatively large melt
(0.05 mbar, or 0.038 torr) within 1 min. engines (Fig. 5b). Automotive turbocharger inclusions by means of entrapment. Foam lters
In addition to the casting of equiaxed, direc- wheels weighing 400 to 500 g (0.9 to 1.1 lb) are most effective where extremely high pour
tional solidication, and single-crystal blades for are produced in automatic precision casting rate conditions and gross cleanliness problems
gas turbine engines, vacuum precision casting machines. Total cycle time, including 40 s for prevail. Filter performance often varies because
can be used for large parts (melt weights up to melting, is typically 90 to 100 s. In the produc- of the occasional use of lters with poor
1000 kg, or 2200 lb) or for the large-scale produc- tion of such small parts, the crucible is often mechanical strength and/or thermal shock resis-
tion of small parts. Examples of large parts pro- integrated into the mold. Casting yields of 80 tance. Foam cell particle breakage often results
duced using vacuum precision casting include to 90% are obtained. from handling during shipment or tundish
compressor sections of jet engines and structural Filters. One of the most critical stages with installation and, if undetected, results in lter
parts for stationary turbines. respect to cleanliness is the pouring of the melt. particulate in the alloy bar stock and subse-
quently cast components. Optimized VIM tech-
nology and practice without lters provide a
clean alloy, without the inherent risks asso-
ciated with lter use when applied to master
metal production.
VIM Metallurgy
Vacuum induction melting is often done as
the primary melting operation followed by sec-
ondary melting (remelting) operations such as
electroslag remelting (ESR) and/or vacuum arc
remelting (VAR).Various processing routes fol-
lowing VIM are illustrated in Fig. 6. Some
superalloys are produced by a triple-melt
sequence (VIM/ESR/VAR), where the VIM
(a) (b)
ingot is typically referred to as an electrode
for subsequent ESR and/or VAR operation.
Fig. 5 Shape casting with vacuum induction melting, (a) Computer-controlled vacuum furnace with mold chamber. The casting weight can vary from a few kilo-
(b) Precision-cast turbocharger wheels for automotive engines. From left: mold with integrated crucible, bar grams to 30 Mg (33 tons), depending on
stick, cast part, machined turbocharger wheel whether the VIM furnace is being used for
Fig. 6 Potential processing routes for products cast from vacuum induction melting (VIM) ingots or electrodes. VAR, vacuum are remelting; ESR, electroslag remelting; EB, electron
beam; HIP, hot isostatic pressing. Source: Ref 1
Vacuum Induction Melting / 5
precision casting or for the production of ingots Suitable deslagging and ltering techniques loss is realized because of scavenging asso-
or electrodes for further remelting. during pouring ciated with the CO bubbles, and a slight sulfur
There are many different metallurgical factors Conception of a suitable tundish and launder reduction may occur during the CO supersatu-
that arise with induction furnace melting. The system for good oxide removal ration stage via sulfur dioxide (SO2) evolution.
crucible material has an extraordinary effect on Minor tramp elements such as lead, silver, bis-
the metal/slag reaction because the ceramic outer For particular applications, however, the muth, selenium, and tellurium are partially eva-
wall reacts with the liquid metal and with the quality of the material produced by VIM will porated during this period as well as throughout
slag. In a VIM furnace, slag would be transported not be sufcient to satisfy the highest quality the entire rening process (Ref 3). Some unde-
to the crucible wall by the characteristic bath requirements with respect to cleanliness and sirable elements, however, such as arsenic and
movement. The result is that the slag solidies primary structure. In this case, the VIM-pro- tin, must be controlled through raw materials
at the wall and therefore has an insufcient reac- duced material must undergo secondary melting selection because they are not removed by
tion with the melt. It is therefore benecial to use processes (Fig. 6). vacuum rening.
a slag that is more or less saturated with the oxi- VIM Renement Process. The primary pro- Bath rening from a somewhat vigorous CO
des of the crucible lining in order to minimize cess of melt renement is the removal of melt- boil is undertaken at a temperature and duration
heavy slag attack of the lining. contained oxygen by means of a reaction with long enough to reach the so-called system equi-
In contrast to the ladle metallurgy processes carbon to form carbon monoxide (CO). The reac- librium conditions, the assurance of which is
with EAF, the crucible wall lining is susceptible tion occurs most readily at or near the melt sur- provided by the attainment of consistent fur-
to signicantly higher erosion than the brick wall face, with the reaction kinetics being affected nace leak-up rates. At this point, there is the
of a ladle. For this reason, metallurgical opera- by crucible geometry and melt stirring. The CO addition of the refractory charge, which
tions such as dephosphorization and desulfuriza- bubbles form along the walls and, sometimes, includes elements with reactivity toward oxy-
tion are limited. The metallurgy of VIM is bottom of the melt/lining-refractory interface gen (for example, aluminum, titanium, zirco-
primarily limited to the pressure-dependent reac- (Fig. 7). This occurs preferentially at small cre- nium, and hafnium) that were withheld from
tions, such as carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and vices existing in the lining, with the bubbles the virgin charge because of their reactivity.
hydrogen, and the evaporation of undesired ele- growing during movement toward the molten Revert charge is also added. Once the boiling
ments with high vapor pressures, such as copper, metal/vacuum interface (Ref 2). Actual bubble subsides, surface desorption of additional CO
lead, bismuth, tellurium, and antimony. formation is dependent on the number of gas occurs, and it is during this nonboiling period
Cleanliness can be signicantly improved if a molecules present, the pressure in the liquid at that nitrogen removal (desorption) is most
reactive liquid slag capable of absorbing oxides the level of the bubble, the temperature of the effective (Ref 4).
and suldes is in contact with the melt. Vacuum gas, and, for very small bubbles, the interfacial Trace Element Removal. The removal of
induction furnaces are generally not operated tension between the gas and the liquid metal. undesired volatile trace elements, such as arse-
with active slags. Therefore, reaction products Following formation, bubble growth and nic, antimony, tellurium, selenium, bismuth,
can precipitate only on the crucible walls, and mass transport within the liquid toward the liq- and copper, from the vacuum induction furnace
the melt may not be as clean as with other pro- uid/vacuum interface is dependent on: is of considerable practical importance. These
cessing methods. elements must be held to very low concentra-
Because the various alloys produced in vac- The quantity of the dissolved gas tions to avoid the risk of premature part failure,
uum induction furnaces must meet the highest The decreased pressure exerted on the bub- particularly for the production of superalloys
quality requirements and because the vacuum ble as it rises in the melt for critical applications, such as jet engine
induction furnace is primarily a consolidation The bath temperature parts. Figure 8 shows the inuence of some
unit and only secondarily a rening unit, the fol- The time it takes for the bubble to rise trace elements on the stress-rupture properties
lowing methods are used to produce clean melts: through the melt to the surface, which, in of alloy 718. Because of the high vapor pres-
turn, is a function of melt stirring sures of most of the undesirable trace elements,
Selection of a more stable refractory mate- The pressure above the melt they can be kept to very low levels by distilla-
rial for the crucible lining The interfacial tension between the bubble tion during melting under vacuum.
Rinsing of the melt with inert gas Figure 9 shows how the different trace ele-
and the liquid metal
Minimizing the contact time of the melt in ments behave under vacuum. In a nickel-chro-
the crucible The relatively vigorous, but controlled, portion mium melt, arsenic, antimony, and tin cannot
Exact temperature control to minimize cru- of the boiling process results in the greatest be reduced over the gas phase, while copper,
cible reactions with the melt CO removal. Concurrently, a slight nitrogen lead, selenium, tellurium, and bismuth can be
reduced to a level far below 10 ppm.
Nitrogen Degassing. Nitrogen gas can be
decreased because its solubility at constant tem-
perature is directly proportional to its partial
pressures. As long as no strong nitride-forming
elements are present in the melt, there is no dif-
culty in reducing the nitrogen content to 20
ppm (Ref 79). When nitride-forming elements
such as chromium, vanadium, aluminum, and
titanium are present, the activity of the nitrogen
is very low; therefore, removal of nitrogen
under high vacuum is difcult. If low nitrogen
contents are desired in alloys containing
nitride-forming elements, raw materials low in
nitrogen must be used.
Figure 10 shows the reduction in nitrogen
levels obtained in the VIM of a die steel. From
an average level of approximately 400 ppm at
Fig. 7 Vacuum induction rening process the beginning of treatment, the nitrogen has
6 / Vacuum Induction Melting
200 99.9
99.5
99
Frequency, %
Silver 90
Selenium
Concentration, %
80
Rupture life, h
0 Fig. 11
Reduction in hydrogen content of
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 X38CrMoV51 die steel after vacuum
induction degassing
Impurity content, ppm
Fig. 8 Effect of trace elements on the stress-rupture properties of alloy 718. Test conditions: 650 C (1200 F), 690
MPa (100 ksi). Source: Ref 5 prevent refractory lining erosion, a potential prob-
lem particularly during the controlled but more
(0.5)
vigorous CO boiling portion of the process.
99.9
Arsenic The nal attainable oxygen content for a
99.5 given carbon content is directly proportional
Tin 99 After treatment
97.5
to the CO partial pressure. The theoretical
0.1 equilibrium values for oxygen are below 1
95 With argon bubbling
Frequency, %
60
Selenium 50 higher. These higher oxygen contents result
40 from impurities in the crucible lining, crucible
0.01 30 Before treatment
outgassing and leakage, and, above all, the fact
20 that the reaction does not reach equilibrium
Copper
10 with decreasing oxygen content because of the
0 100 200 300 400 500
difculty of CO nucleation.
Nitrogen content, ppm
In addition, the hydrostatic pressure of the
liquid metal in the melt must be taken into
Lead
Bismuth Fig. 10 Reduction in nitrogen content of X38CrMoV51
account because only a relatively small bath
(Fe-0.38C-5.2Cr-1.3Mo-0.4V-1Si-0.4Mn) die
103 steel after vacuum induction melting processing surface area is in direct contact with the pre-
Tellurium vailing vacuum pressure. However, the inu-
ence of the liquid-metal hydrostatic pressure
(3103) can be minimized through the use of additional
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 shows the hydrogen contents of a die steel agitation effects.
Time, min before and after vacuum treatment. The CO reaction occurs in two stages
It is evident from Fig. 11 that nal hydrogen (Ref 1). The rst stage is boiling, that is, the
Fig. 9 Evaporation of trace elements from Ni-20Cr contents below 1 ppm can be routinely formation of CO bubbles within the melt along
melts under vacuum. Source: Ref 6
achieved. The reduction in hydrogen during with a strong bath agitation as a result of this
the degassing treatment amounts to approxi- gas formation. The second stage is desorption,
mately 80%. Argon purging had no perceptible in which no more CO bubbles form inside the
been reduced to a level of 50 ppm. Additional inuence. The bath agitation in the case of this melt, and CO formation takes place only at
argon purging during melting of the steel furnace, which is operating at normal fre- the bath surface.
did not improve nitrogen removal. In the case quency, is sufcient for hydrogen removal. Deoxidation with carbon is also a decarburi-
of iron-nickel melts, however, the additional Similar results were also obtained for the VIM zation reaction, which is used for the produc-
argon purging reduces nitrogen to much lower processing of superalloys. tion of low-carbon high-chromium steels. By
values. Deoxidation of the melt in the vacuum induc- using the CO reaction under vacuum, very low
Hydrogen Degassing. Like nitrogen, hydro- tion furnace can be done via the generation of CO carbon contents can be achieved without a
gen can be decreased via the gas phase because gas (C + O ! CO). The removal of oxygen from noticeable loss of chromium. The oxygen con-
its solubility is directly proportional to its par- the melt as CO is favored by decreased melt tent in such alloys is higher because of the
tial pressure. The solubility of hydrogen at chamber pressure, elevated bath temperature, decrease in oxygen activity due to chromium.
atmospheric pressure and at 1600 C (2910 and increased carbon activity (Ref 10). Proper In this case, precipitation deoxidation using alu-
melt stirring is integral to the deoxidation process
F) in iron or nickel melts is in the range of minum, silicon, or titanium must be applied.
30 ppm. During VIM, the hydrogen can be and must be optimized through proper furnace The CO partial pressures at which the lining
removed to very low concentrations. Figure 11 power frequency and application procedure to oxides are reduced by carbon in the melt are:
Vacuum Induction Melting / 7
Carbon monoxide partial pressure Melting Bath Agitation. As noted, melt agi- vacuum. This ensures that the admitted purging
Lining material kPa torr tation is an important process factor. Agitation gas ows through the melt and does not take
is caused by the induction coil itself, depending the path of least resistance through the lining
CaO 0.04 0.3
ZrO2 0.13 1.0 on the power input and the installed frequency. of the crucible.
MgO 0.53 4.0 Stirring is directly proportional to the amount of Both agitation processes offer advantages
Al2O3 0.53 4.0 induced power and inversely proportional to the with regard to higher reaction rates, correct
SiO2 81.1 610.0 square root of the frequency. Therefore, a more temperature adjustment, homogenization with
Source: Ref 1 intense stirring for a given size furnace occurs simultaneously lower erosion of the crucible
at a higher power and a lower frequency. lining, and better cleaning of the melt. Figure
It is evident that CaO represents the stable Bath agitation from the induction coil is basi- 14 shows the three different agitation methods
crucible material, while SiO2 is reduced at rela- cally limited to the meltdown period. It can be operating in a typical VIM process sequence.
tively high pressure. Apart from that, SiO2 can done with the induction coil alone only if there The agitation effect at 200 to 500 Hz in
be reduced by alloying elements such as man- is a high-power input and therefore strong bath the melting phase assists in shortening the
ganese, chromium, aluminum, titanium, or zir- heating. This high temperature increase is not melting time. In the rening and superheating
conium. This can cause a heavy chemical always metallurgically desirable. For this rea- periods, it is better to use electromagnetic agita-
erosion of the lining, accompanied by an unde- son, two agitation systems are offered in state- tion at 50 to 60 Hz or argon purging through a
sired silicon pickup in the melt. Because of of-the-art vacuum induction furnaces: porous plug.
these undesired reactions with a silica lining, a
spinel-forming basic refractory material is used Electromagnetic agitation with an additional
for the melting of high-grade steels and superal- coil Production of Nonferrous Materials
loys. The spinel formation during sintering Agitation by argon purging through the bot-
leads to volume growth; therefore, as with the tom of the crucible Apart from melting high-grade steels and
oxidic material, a densication of the rammed superalloys, VIM is being increasingly used
lining takes place. The difference between the electromagnetic
for the production of nonferrous metals and
agitation by a separate coil and the agitation
The vacuum induction degassing and alloys. Table 2 shows some examples for possi-
caused by the electromagnetic forces of the main
pouring (VIDP) furnace (Fig. 12) is a varia- ble use in nonferrous metallurgy.
coil lies in the fact that the bath can be more vig-
tion of the conventional VIM furnace. The Aluminum alloys with additives such as zir-
orously stirred without a temperature increase.
VIDP furnace design employs a modular con- conium, titanium, beryllium, cerium, tellurium,
A second transformer would be needed.
cept that allows for connecting it to casting and cadmium must be melted under vacuum
units for ingot casting, horizontal and vertical Another method of bath agitation is derived or under inert gas atmosphere because of their
continuous casting, or powder production. from the principle of argon purging usually high reactivity with air and, in some cases, their
Because of the smaller volume of the VIDP fur- applied in ladle metallurgy. Argon purging has toxicity. Aluminum-lithium alloys are also can-
nace compared to the VIM furnace and signi- a long history of use in atmospheric melting didates for VIM processing.
cantly lower desorption and leakage rates, it is furnaces. A characteristic of this purging is that Copper Alloys. The production of high-
possible to obtain very low pressures with the porous plug is not in direct contact with the purity copper having less than 2 ppm O can
lower pumping capacity. The lower part of the liquid melt. Instead, the plug is covered with be accomplished only in a vacuum induction
furnace can be decoupled and replaced rapidly; refractory material identical to that used for furnace. Oxygen content inuences the electri-
therefore, the VIDP furnace enables faster the crucible lining (Fig. 13). The basic differ- cal conductivity of copper alloys; the lower
replacement of different furnace vessels with ence is that the porous plug is in direct contact the oxygen content, the higher the electrical
changes of alloy. with the melt and is suitable for operating under conductivity (Ref 11). For the production of
Crucible lining
Exchangeable
porous plug
Basic set
oxygen-free copper, melting and casting must elements with high vapor pressures. In nonferrous from copper scrap by using the vacuum to evapo-
be carried out under vacuum. metallurgy, this effect is used for the distillation of rate volatile elements such as lead and zinc
Selective Evaporation of Alloying Ele- metalsfor example, for the separation of (Ref 12).
ments. The use of vacuum metallurgy is primarily lead and zinc in lead rening, in zinc production,
linked with degassing and decarburization. A side and for the reduction of magnesium and
effect of these treatments is the evaporation of nonalkali metals. Similarly, copper can be rened ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES