1-Rocket Propulsion Fundamentals 2010

Rocket Propulsion Fundamentals
ROCKET PROPULSION SYSTEMS
Functions
Thrust generation by acceleration of an internally stored
propellant for:
launch & orbit insertion
orbit maneuvering & maintenance
attitude control
Basic Elements
Propellant(s) & Propellant Storage
Propellant Feed System
Energy Source
Energy Conversion
Accelerator
Main Technologies & Energy Sources Cold Gas Rocket

Cold Gas Rocket Propulsion Systems (CGRPSs), thermal
Liquid Rocket Propulsion Systems (LRPSs ), chemical
Solid Rocket Propulsion Systems (SRPSs), chemical
Hybrid Rocket Propulsion Systems (HRPSs), chemical
Nuclear Rocket Propulsion Systems (NRPSs), nuclear
Electrical Rocket Propulsion Systems (ERPSs), electrical (photovoltaic, nuclear, etc.)
Luca dAgostino, Dipartimento di Ingegneria Aerospaziale, Universit degli Studi di Pisa, 2010/11.
LIQUID ROCKET PROPULSION SYSTEMS
System Architecture
SOLID & HYBRID ROCKET PROPULSION SYSTEMS
System Architecture
ELECTRIC ROCKET PROPULSION SYSTEMS
System Architecture
Arcjets Magnetoplasmadynamic (MPD) Thrusters
Electrostatic Thrusters
Hall Thrusters
KEY PROPULSION TECHNOLOGIES
Operational Comparison
ROCKET MASS BALANCE
Rocket Continuity Equation

AS
Notations and assumptions: v
control volume V , the rocket itself, bounded by:
m
AS the rocket external surface (impermeable, u ! dS = 0 )
Ae the nozzle exit area
inertial frame moving at the instantaneous rocket speed: Ae , ! e
rocket velocity v = 0 (but in general dv dt ! 0 ) ue
flow velocity u
rocket mass m
propellant mass flow rate m!
nearly uniform flow at the nozzle exit (index e)
Then:
! dm
! t #V
" dV + # "u $ dS + # "u $ dS = 0 ! + m! = 0
Ae AS dt
where:
dm !
= # " dV is the rate of change of the rocket mass m
dt ! t V
m! = # !u " dS is the propellant flow rate ( m! ! "eue Ae in the 1D approximation)
Ae
ROCKET FORCES
Rocket Momentum Equation pa

AS
Notations and assumptions: v
uniform ambient pressure pa and gravitational body force g
In an inertial frame where v = 0 (but in general dv dt ! 0 ): D
! mg
& $ "uu $ ( p $ pa ) 1 + % () * dS + # " g dV ,
! t #V
"udV = #
Ae + AS ' V
Ae , pe , !e
d dv dm ue
! ( mv ) = m + v = F + FA + mg
dt v=0 dt dt
where the use of the relative pressure p ! pa is justified because a uniform pressure pa
yields no net force on closed surfaces, and:
mg = " !g dV
V
is the rocket weight
F ! " % #uu $ dS " % ( p " p ) dS a is the rocket thrust ( ! " 0 on Ae )

Ae Ae
!#"#$ !##"## $
momentum thrust pressure thrust
FA ! " # ( p " pa ) dS + # $ % dS is the aerodynamic force ( u ! dS = 0 on AS )

AS AS
! ##"## $ ! # "#$
A/D pressure force A/D viscous force
Notice that, projecting in the forward direction, in the 1D approximation:

! e + ( pe " pa ) Ae
F ! mu
ROCKET POWERS
AS
Rocket Energy Equation v
Notations and assumptions: m
free rocket, adiabatic conditions ( g = pa = q! = Q! = 0 )
hR , m R formation enthalpy and mass of reacting propellants
hP ! h!P + c pP ( T " T ) formation enthalpy of combustion products ue Ae , ! e , Te , pe
From the energy equation for the usual control volume V :
! !p "
! t #V
" ht dV + !# S dS $ u " ht = #V ! t dV = 0 !
"t
( mRhR + mBOhBO ) + %Ae dS # u$ htP & 0
and, since mBO hBO is constant and by continuity ! m R ! t = " m! = " % #u $ dS :
Ae
% 1 (
!hR $ "u # dS + $ ' h!P + c pP ( T ! T ) + u # u * "u # dS + 0 ! Pc = Q! j + W! j
Ae Ae
& 2 )
where:
P!c = m! (hR ! h"P ) (combustion power)
% ! pP ( Te " T )
Q! e ! c pP ( T " T ) #u $ dS ! mc (exhaust thermal power)
Ae
1 1 2 1 2F 1
"Ae 2
W! e = u ! u #u ! dS $
2
ue m
! = ue $ Fc
2 c 2
(exhaust mechanical power)
!=
W! e
"
ue2 2
"
( $ # 1) Me2 2
"1 (rocket engine efficiency)
P!c c pP ( T # T ) + ue2 2 1 + ($ # 1) Me2 2
FREE ROCKET PERFORMANCE
Thrust Performance Parameters

Effective exhaust velocity:
F mu ! e + ( pe " pa ) Ae ( p " pa ) Ae
c= ! = ue + e
m! m! m!
Notice:
c is a function of the ambient pressure pa
usually ( pe ! pa ) Ae m! << ue and therefore c ! ue (exhaust velocity)
Specific impulse and volume specific impulse (or density impulse):
F F F
Isp = ! c = g0 Isp and Id = = = ! g0 Isp
mg
! 0 V! m! !
Notice:
Isp mostly relevant to mass optimization
Id mostly relevant to volumetric and aerodynamic optimization
g0 is the gravity acceleration at sea level
V! is the volumetric flow rate of the stored propellant
Problem: Show that for rockets operating with two propellants (fuel F and oxidizer O ):
m! O + m! F
Id = ! Isp g0 ! "=
m! O "O + m! F " F
FREE ROCKET PERFORMANCE
Tsiolkovskys Free Rocket Equation

Assumptions: F
straight trajectory
no body forces, no atmosphere ( g = pa = 0 ) v
constant effective exhaust velocity c m
From the rocket mass and axial momentum balances:
Dm Dv
= ! m! and m =F
Dt Dt m
Using F = mc! and eliminating m! with the continuity equation: ue
Dv Dm dm
m = mc
! = !c ! dv = "c
Dt Dt m
Integrating between the initial and burn-out masses m0 , mBO the rocket velocity change is:
m
! v = "c ln BO (Tsiolkovskys free rocket equation)
m0
Compare with Breguet eqn for leveled cruise with lift-to-drag ratio L D and velocity v0 :
L m
! x = "v0 Isp ln BO
D m0
Problem: Why are both equations logarithmic in the vehicle mass and linear in the
propulsive (and aerodynamic) performance parameters Isp (and L D )?
ROCKET THRUST PERFORMANCE
Equations and Parameters

Total impulse:
tb
I= !
0
Fdt where tb is the thrust duration or burn time
For operation at constant specific impulse:

tb
I = Isp g0 ! mdt
! = cmP where mP is the propellant mass
0
Thrust profile:
" progressive dF dt > 0 (SRPS's)
$
F ( t ) ! #regressive dF dt < 0 (SRPS's, HRPS's)
$neutral dF dt = 0 (LRPS's, ERPS's, NRPS's, SRPS's)
%
Thrust-to-weight ratio:
for free flight:
v! F
= (acceleration in g-No.)
g0 mg0
for vertical take-off:
v! F F
= !1 " >1
g0 mg0 mg0 take-off
PERFORMANCE OF KEY PROPULSIVE TECHNOLOGIES
Performance Comparison
Exhaust Velocity v/s Vehicle Acceleration
Specific Impulse v/s Thrust
MAJOR LAUNCH VEHICLE FAMILIES
SINGLE-STAGE ROCKETS
Rocket Masses
Let:
mP = propellant mass
mT = tank mass
mE = engine & propellant management mass
m L = pay-load mass (all other masses)
Then:
mS = mE + mT (structural mass)
m0 = mS + mP + m L (initial mass)
m0 ! mP = mS + m L (burn-out mass)
Define:
! = mT mP (tankage fraction, dependent on propellant type and feed system)
! = mS ( mS + mP ) (structural coefficient, ! constant for equal rocket technology)
! = m L m0 (payload ratio)
Then, using the free rocket equation mP m0 = 1 ! e ! " v c , obtain:
!=
mS
=
mE + mT
=
m E m0 + " 1 # e # $ v c ( )
( )
mS + mP mE + mT + mP mE m0 + " 1 # e # $ v c + 1 # e # $ v c
m L m0 ! m P mS m0 ! m L e! $v c ! % $v
= ! " #= > 0 " c > cmin = !
m0 m0 mS + m P m0 1! % ln %
MULTISTAGE ROCKETS
Multistage Rocket Performance

For missions with high propellant masses ( mP comparable to m0 ):
large tank and engine masses need to be accelerated
final thrust and acceleration become excessive
Hence staging can be advantageous
For each stage i = 1, 2,... n :
!i = e " # vi ci
" $ i (1 " !i ) % # vi = "ci ln &'$ i + !i (1 " $ i ) ()
where:
ci i th exhaust velocity
! i i th structural coefficient
!i i th payload ratio
For n stages:
total velocity change:
! v = " ! vi
i
overall payload ratio:

! = " !i
i
MULTISTAGE ROCKETS
Multistage Rocket Optimization

Alternative approaches:
minimum m0 for given ! v and m L ! max {!} for given ! v (new design)
!i
maximum ! v for given m0 and m L ! max {" v} for given ! (new mission)
!i
Overall velocity change and payload ratio constraint for a rocket with i = 1, 2,... n stages:
! v = " i ! vi = # " i ci ln &'$ i + %i (1 # $ i ) () and ! = " i !i # ln ! = $ i ln !i
For the constrained optimization of ! v consider the augmented objective function:
(
F = ! ( i ci ln $%" i + #i (1 ! " i ) &' ! k ln # ! ( i ln #i ) ( k is a Lagrangian multiplier)
Hence, for F to be extremum for some values of the !i s:
!F
=#
(1 # $ i ) ci + k = 0 ! "i =
# i (1 $ # i )
!"i $ i + "i (1 # $ i ) "i ci k $ 1
where k is determined using the constraint on the payload ratio:
# (1 $ # i )
! = " !i = " i ( n th order polynomial for 1 k ! k )
i i ci k $ 1
In general need to choose the best maximum corresponding to the n solutions for k = k j :
* - " i (1 # " i )
! v = max +" ) ci ln %&# i + $ij (1 " # i ) '( . where !ij = ; j = 1, 2,... n
j
, i / ci k j # 1
MULTISTAGE ROCKETS
Multistage Rocket Optimization (continued)

For equal exhaust velocities ( c1 , c2 ,... cn = c ):
1n
c %1 #i (
!1= ' $
k & " i 1 ! # i *)
1n
"i % 1 # "i (
!i = ! $
1 # " i '& i " i *)
, & 1 " #i ) /
1n
! v = "c2 ln .# i + # i ( $ % +* 1
i .- ' i # i 10
For similar stages ( c1 , c2 ,... cn = c and ! 1 , ! 2 ,... ! n = ! ):

!i = ! 1 n (equal payload ratios)
! v = "nc ln %&# + $ 1 n (1 " # ) '( (equal velocity changes)
and:
n
% e " # v nc " $ (
!='
& 1 " $ *)
In particular, for an infinite number if similar stages:
lim # v = $c lim n ln '(% + & 1 n (1 $ % ) )* = $c (1 $ % ) ln &
n!" n!"
MULTISTAGE ROCKETS
Multistage Free Rockets
Problem
Carry out the payload fraction optimization (1st approach) of multistage rockets.
ELECTRIC ROCKET OPTIMIZATION
Optimum Specific Impulse

Assumptions:
electric thruster effective beam velocity c
mission requirement ! v << c (not too unrealistic)
propellant mass flow rate m! = mP t BO
nearly uniform (1D) beam properties
electric thruster efficiency ! = W! e P!el
spacecraft specific mass ! = mS P!el
In the above assumptions:
1 2 1 mP 2
W! e ! mc ! = c exhaust beam mechanical power
2 2 t BO
! P!el ! c2
mS = ! Wel = ! = mP spacecraft structural mass
" 2"t BO
mP "v
= 1 ! e! "v c # for ! v << c propellant mass ratio
m0 c
# ! c2 &
m0 = m P + mS + m L = % 1 + mP + m L spacecraft initial mass
$ 2"t BO ('
ELECTRIC ROCKET OPTIMIZATION
Optimum Specific Impulse (continued)

Pay-load ratio:
mL % # c 2 ( mP %1 #c ( #%0 ( mP ! " )
!= = 1 " '1 + + 1 " '& c 2$t *) , v - ".
+ as c! $
m0 & 2$t BO *) m0 BO %&" ( P! , m
el S ! ")
Hence, differentiating w.r.t. c , the pay-load ratio is maximum for:
d! & 1 $ )
"( 2 # + ,v = 0
dc ' c 2%t * BO
corresponding to:
2"t BO
copt ! g0 Ispopt =
#
From this result:
2%
!opt " 1 # $ v
&t BO
or:
2! & # v )
2
t BOopt = ( +
" '1$ %*
Notice that t BOopt is a strong function of ! " 1 , of ! v and, to a lesser extent, of ! and ! .
PROPULSION SYSTEM DESIGN PROCESS
PROPULSION SYSTEM DESIGN PROCESS (continued)

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Rocket Propulsion Fundamentals

ROCKET PROPULSION SYSTEMS

Main Technologies & Energy Sources Cold Gas Rocket

LIQUID ROCKET PROPULSION SYSTEMS

SOLID & HYBRID ROCKET PROPULSION SYSTEMS

ELECTRIC ROCKET PROPULSION SYSTEMS

Arcjets Magnetoplasmadynamic (MPD) Thrusters

KEY PROPULSION TECHNOLOGIES

ROCKET MASS BALANCE

Rocket Continuity Equation

Rocket Momentum Equation pa

F ! " % #uu $ dS " % ( p " p ) dS a is the rocket thrust ( ! " 0 on Ae )

FA ! " # ( p " pa ) dS + # $ % dS is the aerodynamic force ( u ! dS = 0 on AS )

Notice that, projecting in the forward direction, in the 1D approximation:

FREE ROCKET PERFORMANCE

Thrust Performance Parameters

FREE ROCKET PERFORMANCE

Tsiolkovskys Free Rocket Equation

ROCKET THRUST PERFORMANCE

Equations and Parameters

For operation at constant specific impulse:

PERFORMANCE OF KEY PROPULSIVE TECHNOLOGIES

PERFORMANCE OF KEY PROPULSIVE TECHNOLOGIES

Exhaust Velocity v/s Vehicle Acceleration

PERFORMANCE OF KEY PROPULSIVE TECHNOLOGIES

Specific Impulse v/s Thrust

MAJOR LAUNCH VEHICLE FAMILIES

Multistage Rocket Performance

overall payload ratio:

Multistage Rocket Optimization

Multistage Rocket Optimization (continued)

For similar stages ( c1 , c2 ,... cn = c and ! 1 , ! 2 ,... ! n = ! ):

Multistage Free Rockets

ELECTRIC ROCKET OPTIMIZATION

Optimum Specific Impulse

ELECTRIC ROCKET OPTIMIZATION

Optimum Specific Impulse (continued)

PROPULSION SYSTEM DESIGN PROCESS

PROPULSION SYSTEM DESIGN PROCESS (continued)

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