Classes of computers.

1) Microcomputers- Microcomputers are the most common type of computers in

existence today, whether at work in school or on the desk at home. Micro computers use
micro-processors. The computers that we use at home are all micro computers. The term
"microcomputer" was introduced with the advent of single chip microprocessors. The
term "microcomputer" itself, is now practically an anachronism.

These computers include:

* Desktop computers
* Laptop and notebook computers
* Tablet PC
* Palmtop computers
* Personal digital assistants (more commonly known as PDA's)
* Programmable calculator

A) Micro –processor- Microprocessors are simply a computer processor that has been
configured into the design and function of a microchip. Sometimes referred to as a
logic chip, this small component functions as the means of executing the
command to start booting up a computer. As part of the process, a microprocessor
initiates the activation of all the components necessary to allow the computer to
be used, such as waking the operating system.

2) Minicomputers (Midrange computers)- Mini computers are usually larger and

slower, as they use Integrated Circuit chips. A minicomputer (colloquially, mini) is a
class of multi-user computers that lies in the middle range of the computing spectrum, in
between the largest multi-user systems (mainframe computers) and the smallest single-
user systems (microcomputers or personal computers). The contemporary term for this
class of system is midrange computer, such as the higher-end SPARC, POWER and
Itanium -based systems from Sun Microsystems, IBM and Hewlett-Packard.

a) Integrated Circuit: - Integrated Circuits are usually called ICs or chips. They are
complex circuits which have been etched onto tiny chips of semiconductor (silicon). The
chip is packaged in a plastic holder with pins spaced on a 0.1" (2.54mm) grid which will
fit the holes on stripboard and breadboards. Very fine wires inside the package link the
chip to the pins.

IC pin numbers
Pin numbers- The pins are numbered anti-clockwise around the IC (chip) starting near the
notch or dot. The diagram shows the numbering for 8-pin and 14-pin ICs, but the
principle is the same for all sizes.
3) Mainframe Computers :- The term mainframe computer was created to distinguish
the traditional, large, institutional computer intended to service multiple users from the
smaller, single user machines. These computers are capable of handling and processing
very large amounts of data quickly. Mainframe computers are used in large institutions
such as government, banks and large corporations. These institutions were early adopters
of computer use, long before personal computers were available to individuals.
"Mainframe" often refers to computers compatible with the computer architectures
established in the 1960s. Thus, the origin of the architecture also affects the classification,
not just processing power. The chief difference between a supercomputer and a
mainframe is that a supercomputer channels all its power into executing a few programs
as fast as possible, whereas a mainframe uses its power to execute many programs
concurrently.

Note:- Mainframe are very powerful computers usually used for server purpose. Super
computers are the most powerful of all, they are implemented for specific tasks like
satellite launching, missile firing, robots etc

4) Super Computer- A supercomputer is focused on performing tasks involving intense

numerical calculations such as weather forecasting, simulations or complex
computations. The distinction between supercomputers and mainframes can be difficult
to define at times. Supercomputers tend to focus on floating point performance.
Mainframes, while providing a lot of processing power, focus more on data throughput
and reliability, availability and serviceability (RAS), and generally perform many data
handling operations involving minor computations.

Operating system ABCs

An operating system, or OS, is a software program that enables the computer hardware to
communicate and operate with the computer software. Without a computer operating
system, a computer would be useless.

Operating system types

As computers have progressed and developed so have the types of operating systems.
Below is a basic list of the different types of operating systems and a few examples of
operating systems that fall into each of the categories. Many computer operating systems
will fall into more than one of the below categories.

GUI - Short for Graphical User Interface, a GUI Operating System contains graphics and
icons and is commonly navigated by using a computer mouse. See our GUI dictionary
definition for a complete definition. Below are some examples of GUI Operating
Systems.

System 7.x
Windows 98,Windows CE

Multi-user - A multi-user operating system allows for multiple users to use the same
computer at the same time and/or different times. See our multi-user dictionary definition
for a complete definition for a complete definition. Below are some examples of multi-
user operating systems.

Linux
Unix
Windows 2000

Multiprocessing - An operating system capable of supporting and utilizing more than

one computer processor. Below are some examples of multiprocessing operating systems.

Linux
Unix
Windows 2000

Multitasking - An operating system that is capable of allowing multiple software

processes to run at the same time. Below are some examples of multitasking operating
systems.

Unix
Windows 2000

Multithreading - Operating systems that allow different parts of a software program to

run concurrently. Operating systems that would fall into this category are:

Linux
Unix
Windows 2000

MS-DOS

Disk operating system. The term DOS can refer to any operating system, but it is most
often used as a shorthand for MS-DOS (Microsoft disk operating system). Originally
developed by Microsoft for IBM, MS-DOS was the standard operating system for IBM-
compatible personal computers.
 The initial versions of DOS were very simple and resembled another operating system
called CP/M. Subsequent versions have became increasingly sophisticated as they
incorporated features of minicomputer operating systems. However, DOS is still a 16-bit
operating system and does not support multiple users or multitasking.

For some time, it has been widely acknowledged that DOS is insufficient for modern
computer applications. Microsoft Windows helped alleviate some problems, but still, it
sat on top of DOS and relied on DOS for many services. Even Windows 95 sat on top of
DOS. Newer operating systems, such as Windows NT and OS/2 Warp, do not rely on
DOS to the same extent, although they can execute DOS-based programs. It is expected
that as these operating systems gain market share, DOS will eventually disappear. In the
meantime, Caldera, Inc. markets a version of DOS called DR-OpenDOS that extends
MS-DOS in significant ways.

MS- Dos Commands:-

Internal Commands: (in COMMAND.COM)

BREAK, CALL, CD, CHCP, CHDIR, CLS, COPY, CTTY, DATE, DEL, DIR,
ECHO, ERASE, EXIT, FOR, GOTO, IF, MD, MKDIRr, PATH, PAUSE, PROMPT, RD,
REM, REN, RENAME, RMDIR, SET, SHIFT, TIME, TYPE, VER, VERIFY, VOL

External Commands: (.COM and .EXE programs)

APPEND, ASSIGN, ATTRIB, BACKUP, CHKDSK, COMMAND, COMP, DEBUG,
DEFRAG, DISKCOMP, DISKCOPY, DOSSHELL, EDIT, EDLIN, EXE2BIN,
FASTOPEN, FC, FDISK, FIND, FORMAT, GRAFTABL, GRAPHICS, HELP, JOIN,
KEYB, LABEL, LINK, MEM, MODE, MORE, MSD, NLSFUNC, PRINT, QBASIC,
RECOVER, REPLACE, RESTORE, SELECT, SHARE, SORT, SUBST, SYS, TREE,
XCOPY

Redirection
Directing output ( > ) from a program to a specific file or device (different from the
'standard output' device: the screen).
Directing input ( < ) to a program from a specific file or device (different from the
'standard input' device: the keyboard).
Pipe
A data-channel ( | ) in RAM that takes output from a program and feeds the data as
input to another program.
Filter
A program that accepts input data - does something to the data - and delivers output
data.
Both input and output may be redirected or piped.
DOS filters: find, more, sort
 Commands details:

ATTRIB

displays or changes file attributes

CHDIR or CD

displays the name of the current directory or changes the current directory

CHKDSK

checks the status of a disk and displays a status report; it can also fix disk errors

CLS

clears the screen

COPY

copies one or more files to a destination you specify

DEL

deletes the files you specify

DELTREIE

deletes a directory and all the files and subdirectories that are in it

DIR

displays the files and subdirectories that are in the directory you specify

DISKCOPY

copies the entire contents of one floppy disk to another floppy disk. It writes over the
existing contents of the destination disk as it copies the new information on it.

ECHO

displays or hides the text in batch programs when the program is running.

EDIT
 starts MS-DOS Editor, a text editor you can use to create and edit ASCII text files.

DEL or ERASE

deletes the files you specify

EXIT

quits the MS-DOS command interpreter and returns to the program that started it, if one
exists.

FASTHELP

displays a list of all MS-DOS 6 commands and gives a short explanation of each.

FIND

searches for a specific string of text in a file or files

FORMAT

formats a disk for use with MS-DOS

HELP

starts MS-DOS Help

MKDIR or MD

creates a directory

MEM

displays the amount of used and free memory on your computer

MORE

displays one screen of output at a time

MOVE

moves one or more files to the location you specify

MSBACKUP
 backs up or restores one or more files from one disk onto another

MSD

Provides technical information about your computer

PRINT

prints a text file while you are using other MS-DOS commands

QBASIC

starts MS-DOS Qbasic

RD or RMDIR

deletes a directory

REN

changes the name of the file or files you specify

RMDIR or RD

deletes a directory

SCANDISK

starts a disk analysis and repair tool that checks a drive for errors and corrects any
problems that it finds.

TREIE

graphicaly displays the structure of a directory

UNDELETE

restores files that were deleted previously by using the DEL command

VER

displays the MS-DOS version number

XCOPY

copies directories , their subdirectories, and files except hidden and system files.