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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

04 HOW LOW CAN YOU GOCONSIDERATIONS FOR LOW-CARBOHYDRATE DIETS

DEBRA WEIN, MS, RDN, LDN, NSCA-CPT,*D, AND ESTHER BUSTAMANTE, RD, NSCA-CPT

08 REPEATED SPRINT CAPABILITY IN SOCCER PLAYERS

GARY STEBBING, PGDIP, CSCS

12 TECHNOLOGY AND THE STRENGTH COACHA DISCUSSION OF PRACTICALITY,

AFFORDABILITY, AND EFFICACY
DAN GIULIANI, MS, CSCS

16 STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING FOR TABLE TENNIS ATHLETES

DANNY LUM, CSCS

22 EARLY SPORT SPECIALIZATION VERSUS DIVERSIFICATION IN YOUTH ATHLETES

THOMAS CARUSO, CSCS, RSCC

26 HOW CONDITIONING TRAINING AFFECTS GAME DAY PERFORMANCE

CHRIS MCQUILKIN, MS, CSCS

30 REFRAMING INFLAMMATION IN THE TENDON REPAIR PROCESS

GABRIELLE SMITH, MA, AND BRIAN GEARITY, PHD, CSCS

34 START EARLYTHE KEY TO PREPARING ATHLETES FOR THE RIGORS OF HIGH SCHOOL
STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING
RICK HOWARD, MED, CSCS,*D, USAW

NSCA COACH 2.4 | NSCA.COM 3

HOW LOW CAN YOU GOCONSIDERATIONS FOR LOW-CARBOHYDRATE DIETS
DEBRA WEIN, MS, RDN, LDN, NSCA-CPT,*D, AND ESTHER BUSTAMANTE, RD, NSCA-CPT
T
raditional diets tend to have carbohydrates comprise the
majority of the kilocalories of overall intake. This is due to
the fact that glucose has long been known to be the bodys
preferential source of energy, especially in brain function and
during high-intensity exercise (2,4,7). However, recent research
has developed new ways of approaching macronutrient ratios
that challenge this conventional way of thinking. This article aims
to take a look at what is usually recommended for athletes, as
well as different lower carbohydrate variations. This way strength
and conditioning coaches and athletes can better determine
which approach is best for them to reach their specific goals.
Furthermore, working directly with a Registered Dietitian may be
the best way to approach any dietary plans.
MACRO GUIDELINES FOR GENERAL
POPULATION/HEALTH
The health and wellness of the general population can be achieved
by following the dietary guidelines set forth by the United States
Department of Agriculture (USDA) and Institute of Medicine. The
goal of these guidelines is to promote overall health and stave
off chronic diseases (i.e., diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular
disease, etc.). These guidelines recommend that at least half of the
carbohydrates consumed should be from complex, whole grains
(12). They also advise a diet laden with fruits and vegetables.
The protein sources should be lean and fat sources should be
unsaturated fats predominately. The guidelines indicate that these
macronutrients should be consumed in the ratio of 45 65%
carbohydrates, 10 35% protein, and 20 35% fat (12).
GUIDELINES FOR ATHLETES
Because athletes are not the general population, different
recommendations have been made for them. The Academy of
Nutrition and Dietetics and the International Society of Sports
Nutrition have recommended carbohydrate intake at 5 10 g/kg
of bodyweight for athletes in general, protein intake of 1.2 1.4
g/kg of bodyweight for endurance athletes, and 1.2 1.7 g/kg of
bodyweight for strength athletes (8,11). However, athletes involved
in high-intensity training can consume protein amounts up to
2.0 g/kg of bodyweight (8). Fat intake is consistent with USDA
recommendations at 20 35% of total kcals (8,11). Due to the
potential risk of an unbalanced diet resulting in nutrient
deficiency, general health concerns, and performance issues,
high fat diets are not generally recommended for athletes (11).
These recommendations may need to be adjusted based on
individual goals, bodyweight, total kcals needed, and training
volume and intensity.
PROS
1. Appropriate and easily adaptable for everyone from physically
active general populations to elite athletes.
2. Balanced ratios, similar to USDA guidelines, promote healthy
athletes with no risk of nutrient deficiencies.
4 NSCA COACH 2.4 | NSCA.COM
3. Higher carbohydrate recommendations ensure sufficient
energy to power through training and games/races and
for recovery.
4. Moderate protein and fat for building and maintaining muscle
mass and energy stores.
CONS
1. Macronutrient ratios may be inappropriate for weight or body
composition changes for athletes in weight-dependent sports.
LOW CARB
The Paleo Diet is notorious for cutting out grains, dairy, and
legumes while emphasizing animal-based protein. This is just one
of many low-carb diet options but it will be used as an example
for the purposes of this article. This low-carbohydrate diet involves
slightly higher protein and fat than is generally recommended for
athletes with ratios of about 23% carbohydrates, 38% protein, and
39% fat (5). The Paleo for Athletes version of the diet provides
exceptions, such as higher carbohydrate intake of up to 40%
and an emphasis on timing of carbohydrate intake for training,
competition, and recovery (5). The diet touts improved physical
performance and body composition with increased energy levels.
Although no research had been conducted specifically on athletes,
there have been positive changes for subjects who are afflicted
with metabolic syndrome (3).
PROS
1. Cuts out processed foods, refined sugars, and grains; it also
encourages fruits and vegetables.
2. Recognizes carbohydrates as a source of energy during
training and events.
CONS
1. Cuts out entire food groups, grains, and dairy. Without
supplementation, diet can be low in fiber and calciumwhich
are needed for muscle and nerve contraction as well as bone
health.
2. Encourages animal protein, which can be high in saturated fat
and may lead to elevated cholesterol levels.
3. It can be expensive to maintain because it consists of grass-
fed meats, fish or seafood, organic coconut oil, and grass-fed
butter.
4. Currently, there is not much research available on athletes
using the diet.
VERY LOW CARB
Ketogenic diets restrict carbohydrates anywhere from less than
30 g to 130 g per day, or less than 10% total kcals. These diets
include moderate amounts of protein with the remainder of total
kcals in fat to place the body in a state of ketosishigh levels
of ketone bodies in the blood from increased fat oxidation (1).
The premise of the ketogenic diet is to train the body to tap into
stored fat and run on ketones instead of glucose for any activity,

from daily living to intense endurance exercise. There is a finite
amount of glucose stored in the body as glycogen, and when it
eventually runs out, the athlete will hit a wall in terms of energy.
There is much more potential energy from stored fat than stored
glycogen that can be used when the triglycerides are oxidized
to form ketone bodies. Researchers have noted improvements
in bodyweight, body composition, energy, and endurance after
adaptation to running while using ketones; however, if intensity of
training were to increase, the ketone bodies may not be able to
properly fuel the activity (9,14).
PROS
1. Effective in weight loss for overweight or obese populations
and improvement of metabolic syndrome symptoms.
2. Improvement in body composition and weight can positively
impact athletic performance (10).
3. Can be beneficial in endurance athletes and those performing
at submaximal levels; however, no evidence for intermittent
sport athletes or high-intensity exercise.
4. Adaptation can take as little as two weeks (13).
CONS
1. Adaptation can take as long as a few months (13).
2. During adaptation, performance may suffer (9).
3. Not practical for high-intensity sports or exercise; those bouts
require glycogen (9,14).
4. The body synthesizes adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from
glycogen at a faster rate than from ketone bodies.
5. High-fat diets can impair cardiac and cognitive function (6).
6. Unfavorable lipid levels and diseases associated with them
can be a concern.
CONCLUSION
All of these diets have positives and negatives associated with
them. Because each individual is unique in their needs and
metabolism, eating plans should be adjusted to fit their specific
needs. Important items to consider are the athletes goals, training
volume, and intensity. The best macronutrient distribution ratios
are the ones that can be sustained without hindering performance.
REFERENCES
1. Accurso, A, Bernstein, RK, Dahlqvist, A, Draznin, B, Feinman,
RD, Fine, EJ, et al. Dietary carbohydrate restriction in type 2
diabetes mellitus and metabolic syndrome: Time for a critical
appraisal. Nutrition and Metabolism 5: 9, 2008.
2. Berg, JM, Tymoczko, JL, and Stryer, L. Each organ has a
unique metabolic profile. In: Biochemistry. (5th ed.) New York: WH
Freeman; 2002.
3. Boers, I. et al. Favourable effects of consuming a Palaeolithic-
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type diet on characteristics of the metabolic syndrome: A
randomized controlled pilot-study. Lipids in Health and Disease; 13:
160, 2014.
4. Burke, LM, Hawley, JA, Wong, SHS, and Jeukendrup, AE.
Carbohydrates for training and competition. Journal of Sports
Sciences 29(suppl 1): 17-27, 2011.
5. Cordain, L, and Friel, J. The Paleo Diet for Athletes: The
Ancient Nutritional Formula for Peak Athletic Performance. New
York, NY: Rodale; 2012.
6. Holloway, CJ,Cochlin, LE,Emmanuel, Y,Murray, A,Codreanu,
I, Edwards, LM, et al. A high-fat diet impairs cardiac high-energy
phosphate metabolism and cognitive function in healthy human
subjects. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 93(4): 748-755,
2011.
7. Kenney, WL, Wilmore, J, and Costill, D. Physiology of Sport
and Exercise. (6th ed.) Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 51-71, 2015.
8. Kreider, RB, Wilborn, CD, Taylor, L, Campbell, C, Almada, AL,
Collins, R, et al. ISSN exercise and sport nutrition review: Research
and recommendations. Journal of the International Society of
Sports Nutrition 7:7, 2010.
9. Maughan, RJ, and Shirreffs, SM. Nutrition for sports
performance: Issues and opportunities. Proceedings of the
Nutrition Society 71(1): 112-119, 2012.
10. Rhyu, H, and Cho, SU. The effect of weight loss by ketogenic
diet on the body composition, performance-related physical
fitness factors and cytokines of Taekwondo athletes. Journal of
Exercise Rehabilitation 10(5): 2014.
11. Rodriguez, NR, DiMarco, NM, and Langley, S. Position of
the American Dietetic Association, Dietitians of Canada, and
the American College of Sports Medicine: Nutrition and athletic
performance. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 109(3):
509-527, 2009.
12. United States Department of Agriculture and United States
Department of Health and Human Services. Dietary Guidelines for
Americans (7th ed.) Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing
Office; 2010.
13. Volek, JS, and Phinney, SD. The Art and Science of Low
Carbohydrate Performance. Miami, FL: Beyond Obesity, LLC; 2012.
14. Zajac, A, Poprzecki, S, Maszczyk, A, Czuba, M, Michalczyk,
M, and Zydek, G. The effects of a ketogenic diet on exercise
metabolism and physical performance in off-road cyclists.
Nutrients 6(7): 2493-2508, 2014.
5
HOW LOW CAN YOU GOCONSIDERATIONS FOR LOW-CARBOHYDRATE DIETS

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Debra Wein is a nationally recognized expert on health and Esther Bustamante is a Registered Dietitian (RD) and National
wellness. She has nearly 20 years of experience working in the Strength and Conditioning Association-Certified Personal
health and wellness industry and has designed award-winning Trainer (NSCA-CPT). She has nearly seven years of experience
programs for both individuals and corporations across the in the health and wellness field with a background in fitness
country. She is President and founder of Wellness Workdays, and sports medicine. She completed her dietetic internship with
(www.wellnessworkdays.com) a leading provider of worksite a focus on worksite wellness through Wellness Workdays.
wellness programs. Wein is also the Program Director of the
Wellness Workdays Dietetic Internship, the only worksite wellness-
focused internship for dietetics students interested in becoming
Registered Dietitians that is approved by the Accreditation
Council for Education in Nutrition and Dietetics (ACEND).

TABLE 1. CARBOHYDRATE, PROTEIN, AND FAT RATIOS

DIET/ FUELING PLAN CARBOHYDRATES PROTEIN FAT
United States Department
46 65% of total kcals 10 35% of total kcals 20 35% of total kcals
of Agriculture (12)
Academy of Nutrition
6 10 g/kg bodyweight 1.2 1.7 g/kg bodyweight 20 35% of total kcals
and Dietetics (11)
International Society
5 10 g/kg bodyweight 1.4 2.0 g/kg bodyweight ~30% of total kcals
of Sports Nutrition (8)
23% of total kcals; athletes
Paleo Diet (5) 38% of total kcals 39% of total kcals
can increase up to 40%
< 30 g/day or < 10%
Ketogenic Diet (1) Moderate High
of total kcals

6 NSCA COACH 2.4 | NSCA.COM

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REPEATED SPRINT CAPABILITY IN SOCCER PLAYERS
GARY STEBBING, PGDIP, CSCS
S
occer requires a blend of extraordinarily diverse athletic
capabilities ranging from aerobic endurance to explosive
power and repeated sprint ability. These athletic abilities
must be combined with technical proficiency, tactical awareness,
psychological robustness, and fatigue resistance in order to attain
high levels of success. Adequate and appropriate development
of these abilities are challenging alone, but also may require a
strength and conditioning coach capable of addressing these
facets within specific periods of the competitive cycle (16). This
article will examine the physical demands of soccer players and
discuss why repeated sprint ability (RSA) is considered highly
important in the performance of these athletes.
PHYSIOLOGICAL DEMANDS OF SOCCER
Quantifying key performance variables is comparatively
straightforward in sports such as track and field or cycling.
However, in soccer a complex array of performance elements
interact on individual and team levels (8). Soccer demands have
been assessed by monitoring player work rates and physiological
responses. The resultant statistical data is consistently used to
guide training prescription; however, the potential variability
that exists in data collection should warn practitioners about the
reliability of single observations and the small sample sizes that
are commonly found (8).
Evidence indicates overall intensity across a 90-min match for
elite-level soccer players is close to lactate threshold or around
80 90% maximum heart rate with total distances covered in
8 NSCA COACH 2.4 | NSCA.COM
the 10,000 11,000 m range (about 10,900 12,000 yards) (11).
In addition, VO2max testing indicates that most players measure
in the 55 65 ml/kg/min range (11). Although analysis of elite-
level soccer players has measured a range of important factors
in soccer performance, the overall impact of specific high-
intensity movements, particularly the constant deceleration and
acceleration, requires a better understanding still (18).
Even though metabolic analysis suggests a high reliance
on aerobic metabolism, critical game moments are often
characterized by explosive activities, including sprinting,
acceleration, deceleration, change of direction, turning,
and jumping (12). In addition, speed and power are critical
performance factors. Although high-intensity efforts represent
only around 10% of the distance covered, these efforts are often
key in the decisive moments (10). As a result, intermittent high-
intensity endurance and, in particular, RSA are considered of high
importance in competitive soccer (5).
DEVELOPING REPEATED SPRINT CAPABILITY
Repeated sprint exercise (RSE) is characterized by short, maximal-
intensity efforts interspersed with periods of incomplete recovery,
and has been described as sprints of 10 s or less with recovery
bouts of 60 s or less (1). Decreases in running speed over repeated
efforts are normally used to assess repeated sprint performance
of this kind. Effective performance of repeated sprints requires an
individual to quickly generate explosive power and then to sustain
this over several efforts (1). Repeated power output of the lower

limbs is also associated with sprint performance in soccer (15).
Most protocols currently used to train RSA use predetermined
sprint durations, repetitions, and recovery periods, which are
not sensitive to the individual or position of the player (15).
Furthermore, many of these RSA protocols lack support in the
research literature (2).
Alternative approaches using sprint training with complete
recovery between efforts may also develop RSA. In consideration
of the change of direction demands of soccer, developing
combined sprint and agility training may also prove effective (3).
Resistance training has demonstrated effectiveness in improving
single sprint performance and early evidence suggests training
with a high metabolic training rather than maximal strength
training may also positively affect RSA (2).
High-velocity (i.e., explosive) strength training is commonly used
to improve the neuromuscular qualities associated with athletic
performance, and both explosive exercise and RSE training can
enhance RSA (3,4). Production of power and explosive ability
is dependent on a variety of structural, neural, and coordinative
factors. Consequently, training using the application of ballistic
resistance training, plyometrics, and weightlifting should all be
considered in overall programing (20). Additionally, improved
aerobic endurance and greater VO2max may also improve RSA
(7,14). This may be related to its influence on recovery between
efforts in combination with enhanced lipid utilization, which can
delay the onset of fatigue (7,9). Therefore, the benefits of training
to improve aerobic endurance should not be overlooked.
Based on the practice methods of elite sprint coaches, an interest
in submaximal sprint efforts has been explored as a possible
option for improving RSA. Initial findings using 90% of maximum
intensity still support the need for maximal efforts to improve
RSA; however, this approach warrants further exploration (9).
Small-sided games (i.e., competitive, focused races/contests
that replicate the demands of the sport, but are scaled down for
training purposes) may be effective in developing some aspects of
soccer conditioning, and it may be interesting to explore how this
setting can be manipulated to include a specific RSA component.
In collision sports such as rugby league, repeated sprint and effort
ability have been identified as two distinct qualities; this may
also be true to soccer, even though it may be to a lesser degree
because of the lower instances of collisions (13). Repeated sprint
efforts may involve jumps, changes of direction, collisions, coming
up from the ground to sprint, and sprinting to tackle and then
sprinting again. Implementing specifically designed RSE drills that
integrate these factors may prove beneficial for soccer players.
PRACTICAL PROGRAM DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Approaches to conditioning training for soccer can be broadly
categorized as follows:
General training is characterized by work of varying types
and intensities without a ball.
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Specific training without a ball reflects specific
characteristics of the game such as work-to-rest
interval patterns but does not include a ball.
Specific training with a ball reflects the demands of the
game and includes a ball in all sessions.
Combination training includes elements of specific work
with and without the ball, combining both aspects of
specific training.
Repeated sprint work with turns and small-sided games are
common approaches currently used to address aerobic and
anaerobic performance as well as recovery ability (6). Though
small-sided games can be manipulated and organized to provide
an excellent conditioning environment, the need for specific
interventions to target key abilities is still highly important in
developing the soccer player (18). There is a need for conditioning
coaches to develop modified drills involving game-like simulations
specific to each player that target the relevant physical abilities
needed. These drills will involve combinations of speed work, ball
work, technical demands, and varying intensities and recovery
bouts in line with the positional demands and development
objectives of each player (17). Match-based work-to-rest ratios,
which are influenced by level of competition and playing position,
should also be considered (20).
It is important to develop a long-term approach for soccer RSA
that is managed within the overall player development program
and considers the competitive schedule of the team and individual
(2). Across most levels of the game, the training year can be
divided into off-season, pre-season, and in-season periods, with
the competitive period between 9 and 11 months in duration. This
is dependent on the level of the player and the overall success of
the team, which may extend the season via cup competitions or
playoff scenarios.
A periodized plan that includes each approach individually
across training blocks or multiple approaches in single blocks
are two potentially viable options for strength and conditioning
coaches. RSA appears difficult to develop when applied
concurrently in-season on top of the other training modes
required of a soccer player.
SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
In an analysis of soccer performance, it can be very difficult
to differentiate the various physical factors due to significant
crossover and inter-reactions between abilities. Combined with
the unpredictability of the game, its competitive schedule, and the
prevalence of injury, strength and conditioning for soccer creates
unique program design challenges for coaches.
Current understanding of the various interactions between
metabolic, neural, and mechanical factors involved in RSA
makes specific training guidelines elusive. However, general
recommendations include:
9
REPEATED SPRINT CAPABILITY IN SOCCER PLAYERS
Training to improve maximal sprint speed (i.e., specific sprint
drills or resistance training approaches).
Inclusion of high-intensity interval running sessions with
shorter recovery periods.
Inclusion of traditional RSA training with repeated maximal
sprint efforts and limited recovery.
Training for high-velocity (i.e., explosiveness) where
appropriate; ballistic resistance work, plyometrics, and
weightlifting drills could also be implemented.
Using small-sided games of varying configurations (e.g., 1
versus 1 and 2 versus 2).
Ensuring that aerobic conditioning is well trained.
It is important to remember that in game situations, RSE are often
combined with an array of technical and decision-making skills. In
addition, the impact of fatigue on tackling, jumping, ball contact,
dribbling, and ball striking need to be understood better (18).
Backward and lateral movements, often omitted from training
programs, are important in defensive situations and should be
prioritized for relevant players (19).
Use of small-sided games in differing sized areas with varying
participants (i.e., 1v1, 2v2, 3v3, up to 5v5) provides an opportunity
to target a conditioning adaptation while providing some degree
of sport specificity. Guidelines for appropriate volume and
duration of both RSA and small-sided games sessions need to be
carefully planned and managed.
REFERENCES
1. Bishop, D, and Giroud, O. Repeated sprint ability. In: Cardinale,
M, Newton, R, and Nosaka, K (Eds). Strength and Conditioning
Biological Principles and Practical Applications. Chichester UK:
Wiley-Blackwell; 223-241, 2011.
2. Bishop, D, Giraud, O, and Mendez-Villanueva, A. Repeated
sprint ability Part II: Recommendations for training. Sports
Medicine 41(9): 741-756, 2011.
3. Buchheit, M, Bishop, D, Haydar, B, Nakamura, FY, and Ahmaidi,
S. Physiological responses to shuttle repeated sprint running.
International Journal of Sports Medicine 31(6): 402-409, 2010.
4. Buchheit, M, Mendez-Villaneuva, A, Delhommel, G, Brughelli,
M, and Ahmaidi, S. Improving repeated sprint ability in young elite
soccer players: Repeated shuttle sprints vs explosive training. The
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 42(10): 2715-2722,
2010.
5. Chaouachi, A, Manzi, V, Wong, DP, Chaalali, A, Laurencelle, L,
Chamari, K, and Castagna, C. Intermittent endurance and repeated
sprint ability in soccer players. The Journal of Strength and
Conditioning Research 24(10): 2663-2668, 2010.
10 NSCA COACH 2.4 | NSCA.COM
6. Dellal, A, Chamari, K, Wong, DP, Ahmaidi, S, Keller, D, and
Barros, RML. Comparison of physical and technical performance
in European soccer match-play: FA Premier League and La Liga.
European Journal of Sport Science 11(1): 51-59, 2011.
7. Gharbi, Z, Dardouri, W, Haj-Sassi, R, Chamari, K, and Souissi,
N. Aerobic and Anaerobic determinants of repeated sprint ability
in team sport athletes. Biology of Sport 32(3): 207-212, 2015.
8. Gregson, W, Drust, B, Atkinson, G, and Salvo, VD. Match to
match variability of high speed activities in Premier League Soccer.
International Journal of Sports Medicine 31(4): 237-242, 2010.
9. Haugen, T, Tonnessen, E, Leirstein, S, Hem, E, and Seiler, S. Not
quite so fast: Effect of training at 90% sprint speed on maximal
and repeated-sprint ability in soccer players. Journal of Sport
Sciences 32(20): 1979-1986, 2014.
10. Haugen, TA, Tonnessen, E, and Seiler, S. Anaerobic
performance testing of professional soccer players 1995-2010.
International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 8(2):
148-156, 2013.
11. Hoff, J. Training and testing physical capacities for elite soccer
players. Journal of Sport Sciences 23(6): 573-582, 2005.
12. Hoff, J, and Helgerud, J. Endurance and strength training for
soccer players Physiological considerations. Sports Medicine
34(3): 165-180, 2004.
13. Johnston, RD, and Gabett, T. Repeated sprint and effort ability
in rugby league players. The Journal of Strength and Conditioning
Research 25(10): 2789-2795, 2011.
14. Le Rossignol, P, Gabbett, TJ, Comerford, D, and Stanton, WR.
Repeated sprint ability and team selection in Australian Football
League players. International Journal of Sports Physiology and
Performance 9(1): 161-165, 2014.
15. Lpez-Segovia, M, Dellal, A, Chamari, K, and Gonzlez-Badillo,
JJ. Importance of muscle power variables in repeated and single
sprint performance in soccer. Journal of Human Kinetics 40, 201-
211, 2014.
16. McGawley, K, and Anderson, PI. The order of concurrent
training does not affect soccer related performance adaptations.
International Journal of Sports Medicine 34(11): 983-990, 2013.
17. Mohr, M, and Marcello Iaia, F. Physiological basis of fatigue
resistance training in competitive football. Gatorade Sports Science
Exchange 27(126): 1-9, 2014.
18. Osgnach, C, Poser, S, Bernardini, R, and di Prampero. Energy
cost and metabolic power in elite soccer: A new match analysis
approach. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 42(1): 170-
178, 2010.
19. Reilly, T. An ergonomics model of the soccer training process.
Journal of Sport Sciences 23(6): 561-572, 2005.
20. Turner, AN, and Stewart, PF. Strength and conditioning for
soccer players. Strength and Conditioning Journal 36(4): 1-13, 2014.
 NSCA COACH 2.4

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Gary Stebbing studied sport and exercise science as an
undergraduate and sport and performance psychology at the
postgraduate level (PGDip). He has been certified as a Certified
Strength and Conditioning Specialist (CSCS) through the National
Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) for 13 years. He
trains clients for challenging objectives such as ultra-endurance
and multi-day events. Since 1995, Stebbing has been a trainer
and freelance performance and conditioning coach, including
practicing, writing, and lecturing on coaching psychology, training,
and conditioning for sport in the United Kingdom and Australia.
Prior to this, he was a professional soccer player, spending 11 years
in English leagues and captaining England at the U18 and U19 levels.

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TECHNOLOGY AND THE STRENGTH COACHA DISCUSSION OF PRACTICALITY,
AFFORDABILITY, AND EFFICACY
DAN GIULIANI, MS, CSCS
THE 21ST-CENTURY WEIGHT ROOM
I
n todays world, technology has made its way into the realm
of strength and conditioning. This means that the low-tech
tools upon which the industry reliesbarbells, dumbbells, and
medicine ballsmeet high-tech solutions for data measurement,
performance analysis, and training prescription. Coaches and
athletes have access to thousands of fitness apps, wearable tech
devices, and online tools. These new tools have been coined
fitness technology and they represent the intersection between
old and new. For the strength and conditioning coach, this
intersection can be a potentially uncomfortable crossroads: either
evolve with the changing landscape of technology, or be deemed
a dinosaur and disregarded as out of touch with todays athlete.
There are several clear advantages to embracing and using this
technology for a strength and conditioning coach. Strength and
conditioning coaches can use technology to further engage
athletes in and out of the weight room. On average, people from
the Millennial Generation check their phone around 43 times per
daythis equates to about once every 20 min during a 16-hour
day (1). Strength and conditioning coaches can use the immediacy
of information gleaned from new technologies to make decisions
about training and recovery. Additionally, technology can extend
the reach of a strength and conditioning coach beyond athletes
at one specific facility or school, thus enabling expertise and
guidance to reach athletes around the world.
12 NSCA COACH 2.4 | NSCA.COM
NAVIGATING THE TECH FLOOD: IS MORE
REALLY MORE?
Most new technologies promise similar advances like more data,
more tracking, more analytics, and more insights. They also seem
to preserve a strength coachs most precious resource, which is
time. Strength coaches are notorious for working slavishly long
hours with modest compensation and having to sacrifice family
time, social time, and alone time for the good of their athletes.
But, do these new technologies actually save time?
Each new app or program demands a time investment to learn its
functionalities, implement training schedules, and keep all data
inputs up-to-date. Each new device requires time devoted to
learning how to calibrate, operate, and maintain it. This presents
a catch-22 scenario as it may end up costing more time than it
saves. This is not to say that strength and conditioning coaches
should eschew all technological advances, but rather, they should
be judicious in considering the cost in terms of time.
THE LEBRON JAMES FACTOR AND THE MAJORITY
Many professional teams and major Division I programs are
tackling this issue of data inundation by hiring a sport scientist,
or a team of sport scientists, and borrowing from the high-
performance model promoted in Australia and Europe (2). The
small percentage of strength and conditioning coaches fortunate
enough to operate with abundant budgets are able to invest in the
most cutting-edge and expensive technologies. While this may
help with training elite teams, some technologies are not practical

for the majority of strength and conditioning coaches that are
working with much smaller budgets and fewer resources.
Immediate metrics on athlete performance, from heart rate
recovery data to measurements tracked with Global Positioning
System (GPS), provide a discerning strength and conditioning
coach with a wealth of data that can be used to improve their
programming. Common measures that can be easily assessed
include skin temperature, the velocity of a barbell during a
snatch, and fluctuations in heart rate and response time that can
indicate central nervous system fatigue (3). For example, with
the right tools, strength and conditioning coaches can analyze
discrepancies in a football centers lateral movements, break
down the physiological cost of deceleration for a basketball
player, and leverage technology that uses gyroscopes,
accelerometers, and magnetometers to better prepare their
athletes for competition (4).
There is no denying that technology can do a lot for strength
and conditioning coaches. However, just because a new, shiny,
and expensive technological toy comes out, does not mean it
is the right fit for all strength and conditioning coaches. One of
the biggest mistakes often seen with strength and conditioning
coaches is trying to do what high-profile coaches and teams are
doing. For example, just because the Miami Dolphins National
Football League (NFL) team is using the latest and greatest
technological innovations to train and measure their football
athletes does not make the same technology applicable, practical,
or affordable for high school or college programs. This has been
termed the LeBron James factor by some sport professionals.
For example, a 15-year-old basketball player cannot be expected
to be successful from emulating the same training program that
LeBron James uses.
For the majority of strength and conditioning coaches who do
not have a large budget at their disposal, selecting the right
technologies to utilize with their athletes is even more important.
They must be able to discern what technology to embrace, what
to disregard, and what is worth the financial commitment. When it
comes to technology, it is all about the bottom line: how to get the
most bang for your buck. One way to think of it is that it is like a
kid in a candy store with one dollar. The kid must decide what will
give them the most enjoyment from the finite amount of money.
For todays strength and conditioning coaches, the premise is the
same. They must decide between purchasing one piece of high-
tech equipment that only a few athletes can utilize at once, or
selecting something that is scalable to the whole team.
TECH ETHICS FOR THE STRENGTH AND
CONDITIONING COACH
Working with a fixed budget places a lot of responsibility on a
strength and conditioning coachs shoulders to find tech options
that are directly applicable to the preparation and performance of
their athletes, practical for day-to-day implementation, and within
the limitations of their budget. The following three factors
NSCA COACH 2.4 | NSCA.COM
NSCA COACH 2.4
are offered for consideration when narrowing down the myriad of
technology choices:
1. Price
When factoring for price, use that same analogy of the kid
in the candy store. Ultimately, the limiting factor in choosing
what to purchase is the finite monetary resources available. For
instance, it is cut-and-dry that the kid is unable to buy a two-
dollar candy bar with only one dollar. However, for the strength
and conditioning coach, budgetary concerns are usually more
convolutedpartly because there are more stakeholders in an
athletic department. Part of this decision is to decide what to
prioritize (e.g., all or many athletes, the best athletes, or the
highest profile teams in the department). Between strength
and conditioning coaches, athletic directors, sport coaches,
athletic trainers, and other personnel with vested interest in
the program, there is room for disagreement and debate
about how to best use the departments finite budget. So,
although price forms the bottom line of what technology can
ultimately be invested in, the decision should not be made in
a vacuum. It is recommended that strength and conditioning
coaches consult with the key stakeholders to figure out which
technologies will give the best return for the investment, given
the priorities at hand.
2. Practicality
Practicality harkens back to the LeBron James factor. The
coolest, most expensive new tech gadget on the market may
be absolutely useless to a specific strength and conditioning
program. When deciding how to use these resources, it is
important to always return to the question of practicality: can it
be implemented in the program, in the weight room, and with
all or most of the athletes? For some strength and conditioning
coaches, a single piece of equipment that can only be used by
one athlete at a time will make sense for their programs. For
others, technology that can be used simultaneously by many
athletes will be a more practical investment. It is paramount
to consider all of the factors that the environment presents
(e.g., what size is the weight room? Will the technology be
used indoors or outdoors? Is the facility secure enough to store
expensive tech equipment safely? What are the ages of the
athletes? Are they mature enough to care for new technology?
Are all the athletes coached at once, or in small groups? Will the
athletes buy into new technology?). Answering these questions
can give a strength and conditioning coach a good sense of
what direction to go with purchasing new technology.
3. Credibility
After price and practicality, the most importantand arguably,
the most overlookedfactor in the decision to invest in new
technology is its credibility. One way to think of credibility is
to look at it as if considering the purchase of a specific book
on training methods. One very important concern would be
to consider who wrote the book. Also, it is useful to know
about the authors qualifications, background, certifications,
13
TECHNOLOGY AND THE STRENGTH COACHA DISCUSSION OF PRACTICALITY,
AFFORDABILITY, AND EFFICACY

coaching experience, and reputation within the industry. All

of these answers would factor into a book purchase decision
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
and the subsequent implementation of its information, and the
Dan Giuliani is an Adjunct Professor of Sport Performance at
same should go for investing in new technology. With such an
the University of Washington and is the co-founder of Volt
important decision, the strength and conditioning coach should
Athletics. He has coached athletes at the high school and
only invest in technologies created by those who understand
college levels since 2006 and is a renowned speaker in the
the industry and are dedicated to its growth.
sport performance field. Giuliani has a Masters degree in
Sport Administration and Leadership from Seattle University
THE RESPONSIBILITY OF THE STRENGTH COACH and earned a Bachelor of Arts degree from Colby College.
When choosing whether to purchase new technological advances,
strength and conditioning coaches should be discriminating and
discerning in order to maximize the training of their athletes. It is
important to not be led astray by the lucrative, shiny, and well-
advertised new technologies, and instead rely on good decision
making. Three factors that strength and conditioning coaches
could consider are price, practicality, and credibility. The job of the
strength and conditioning coach has, and always will be, to train
athletes in the most effective and ethical way. The strength and
conditioning coach should make informed and deliberate decisions
of when new technology will, or will not, aid them in performing to
their best abilities.

REFERENCES
1. Maurides, Z. How technology is changing the way athletic
departments communicate. Pivot. 2015. Retrieved August 18, 2015
from https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/how-technology-changing-
way-athletic-departments-zachary-maurides.
2. Konrad, A. The Australian tech thats improving the worlds
best athletes. Forbes Tech. 2013. Retrieved September 12, 2015
from http://www.forbes.com/sites/alexkonrad/2013/05/08/aussie-
tech-catapult-gps/.
3. Poliquin Group. Monitoring central nervous system recovery.
2012. Poliquin Group. Retrieved September 12, 2015 from http://
www.poliquingroup.com/ArticlesMultimedia/Articles/Article/825/
Monitoring_Central_Nervous_System_Recovery.aspx.
4. Steinbach, P. Tracking technology revolutionizes athlete
training. Athletic Business. 2013. Retrieved August 18, 2015 from
http://www.athleticbusiness.com/equipment/tracking-technology-
revolutionizes-athlete-training.html.

14 NSCA COACH 2.4 | NSCA.COM

 NSCA COACH 2.4

NSCA COACH 2.4 | NSCA.COM 15

STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING FOR TABLE TENNIS ATHLETES
DANNY LUM, CSCS
T
able tennis, or ping pong, is a fast-paced racket sport that
requires an athlete to perform intermittent high-intensity
movements throughout a game. To win each set, the athlete
is required to score 11 points, and each game is won when the
athlete successfully wins three out of five sets. The sport has
been played in the Summer Olympic Games since 1988. Published
works on table tennis have mainly touched on the biomechanics
and physiology of the sport, yet little is known about strength and
conditioning for this sport. The aim of this article is to provide
a brief overview of the physical demands of the sport, and to
provide recommendations on specific strength and conditioning
exercises based on the biomechanical and physiological demands
of the forehand loop technique utilized in table tennis.
PHYSICAL DEMANDS
In a sample of regional and national-level table tennis athletes,
researchers reported that the average total play time per table
tennis game is 970 s (16.2 min), with an average real playing
time of 244.7 s (4.1 min), and an average rally duration of 3.4 s
(10). During this playing time, the athlete will perform a number
of rapid movements and changes of directions in order to return
the ball to the opponent. It was also reported that athletes could
perform about 35 shots per min (10). With the ball traveling at
such high speed, successful table tennis athletes are required to
possess high levels of anaerobic power and agility in order to
move rapidly and successfully return a shot multiple times.
Among all the attacking techniques in table tennis, one of the
most prevalent attacking techniques is the forehand loop because
16 NSCA COACH 2.4 | NSCA.COM
it is generally considered the most effective. When performing this
technique, the table tennis athlete typically pushes off the ground
in the forward or lateral direction with the lower limb on the same
side as the hand holding the paddle or racket. Subsequently, the
athlete will simultaneously rotate the trunk, horizontally flex and
internally rotate the shoulder joint, and flex the elbow to swing the
paddle towards the approaching ball. It is important for offensive
athletes to be able to generate high paddle velocity when
performing the forehand loop technique as it will lead to a higher
ball speed and spin (5). Electromyography data have shown that
the major contributors to paddle speed during ball impact include
speed of trunk rotation, shoulder flexion, and shoulder internal
rotation (3). Another study reported that the elbow and wrist
joints also contribute significantly to the energy transfer from the
shoulder to the paddle (4). The summation of forces produced by
the activated muscles allows the table tennis athlete to produce
high ball speed; therefore, it is important for table tennis athletes
to strengthen these areas.
Contribution to the ball speed during the forehand loop technique
is not limited to the upper body. The initial force development
during a forehand loop technique is produced by the lower body
and then transferred through the body to the paddle, or bat (9,11).
Studies have shown that a high amount of ground reaction force is
produced when athletes hit the ball (9,11). This supports the need
for table tennis athletes to possess high levels of muscular power
in the lower body. Furthermore, the constant need to accelerate,
decelerate, and reaccelerate multiple times throughout the
game requires table tennis athletes to develop multiple strength
components for the lower body (8).

TRAINING PROGRAM
Table tennis is a fast-paced sport that requires speed and agility.
Therefore, when prescribing a strength and conditioning program
for table tennis athletes, strength and conditioning coaches should
focus on improving the ability of the nervous system to activate
the stretch shortening cycle of the muscles, rather than inducing
muscle hypertrophy which might slow down the athlete or not
induce high-velocity adaptations. Therefore, it is recommended
that strength and conditioning coaches avoid having these
athletes train until momentary muscular failure, as such training
methods are more likely to induce muscle hypertrophy (6,7).
Power is the product of force and velocity. Thus, to increase
muscular power, it is advisable to improve both the force and
velocity components. It has been shown that training with loads
greater than 80% of one-repetition maximum (1RM) is effective in
improving muscular force development, and low-load explosive
exercises are effective in improving the velocity component (1).
Furthermore, the magnitude of improvement in maximal power
may be influenced by the movements associated with the selected
exercises (2). Therefore, strength and conditioning exercises
should mirror the movements that are specific to the sport to help
improve the coordination of the involved muscles and joints while
training for maximal power. Strength and conditioning coaches are
encouraged to take these factors into consideration when planning
training program for their athletes.
Table 1 shows a sample strength and conditioning program for
table tennis athletes. The program is comprised of exercises
that train the muscles of the upper and lower body, trunk, and
shoulders, which all contribute to table tennis performance. These
exercises also aim to improve multiple strength components and
change of direction ability.
INJURY PREVENTION
Trunk rotations and shoulder movements are executed numerous
times during skills training sessions and competitions. High
repetitive movement about the joints might increase the risk of
overuse injuries. Therefore, it is recommended that strength and
conditioning coaches include exercises for injury prevention. Table
2 provides a list of exercises that may aid in preventing shoulder
and lower back injuries.
CONCLUSION
Table tennis is a fast-paced sport that requires athletes to possess
the agility to change direction rapidly and multiple times. It also
requires athletes to possess the ability to produce high ball speed
by transferring energy from the lower body, trunk, and upper
body to the paddle. This proposed training program may aid in
improving a table tennis athletes performance while reducing the
risk of injury.
REFERENCES
1. American College of Sports Medicine. Progression models
in resistance training for healthy adults. Medicine and Science in
Sport and Exercise 41(3): 687-708, 2009.
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NSCA COACH 2.4
2. Cormie, P, McGuigan, MR, and Newton, RU. Developing
maximal neuromuscular power part 2 Training considerations
for improving maximal power production. Sports Medicine 41(2):
125-146, 2011.
3. Iino, Y, and Kojima, T. Kinematics of table tennis topspin
forehands: Effects of performance level and ball spin. Journal of
Sports Sciences 27(12): 1311-1321, 2009.
4. Iino, Y, and Kojima, T. Kinetics of the upper limb during table
tennis topspin forehands in advanced and intermediate players.
Sports Biomechanics 10(4): 361-377, 2011.
5. Neal, RJ. The mechanics of the forehand loop and smash
shots in table tennis. The Australian Journal of Science and
Medicine in Sport 23(1): 3-11, 1991.
6. Ogborn, D, and Schoenfeld, B. The role of fiber types in
muscle hypertrophy: Implications for loading strategies. Strength
and Conditioning Journal 36(2): 20-25, 2014.
7. Schoenfeld, B. The use of specialized training techniques to
maximize muscle hypertrophy. Strength and Conditioning Journal
33(4): 60-65, 2011.
8. Spiteri, T, Nimphius, S, Hart, NH, Specos, C, Sheppard, JM, and
Newton, RU. Contribution of strength characteristics to change of
direction and agility performance in female basketball athletes.
The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 28(9): 2415-
2423, 2014.
9. Xiao, DD, Su, P, and Tang, JJ. The study of the GRF in table
tennis forehand loop technology. Journal of Tianjin University of
Sport 1: 57-59, 2008.
10. Zagatto, AM, Morel, EA, and Gobatto, CA. Physiological
responses and characteristics of table tennis matches determined
in official tournaments. The Journal of Strength and Conditioning
Research 24(4): 942-949, 2010.
11. Zhang, XD, Zhu, ZQ, Li, WZ, Xiao, DD, and Zhang, YQ. GRF
of table tennis players when using forehand attack and loop
drive technique. International Journal of Table Tennis Science 8:
15-19, 2013.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Danny Lum is a strength and conditioning coach at the Singapore
Sports Institute. He graduated from the University of Western
Australia with a Bachelor of Science degree in Exercise and Health
with honors, and is completing his Masters degree in Sports
Science at Nanyang Technological University in Singapore. He is
also certified as a Certified Strength and Conditioning Specialist
(CSCS) through the National Strength and Conditioning
Association (NSCA). His current position involves planning and
implementing training programs for Singapores national athletes
competing in table tennis, swimming, judo, and softball, as well as
conducting research relating to strength and conditioning. Prior to
this position, Lum was a strength and conditioning officer for the
Singapore Armed Forces, planning physical training program for
national service men.
17
STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING FOR TABLE TENNIS ATHLETES
Forehand Loop Technique (Figure 1)
The athlete flexes the right knee to prepare to perform the
technique. The athlete begins by extending the right knee and
rotating the trunk. The athlete continues rotating the trunk then
begins horizontally flexing and internally rotating the shoulder
and flexing the elbow. The athlete finishes the movement with
pronation of the forearm.
FIGURE 1. FOREHAND LOOP TECHNIQUE
Four-Direction Hop (Figure 2)
The athlete begins the exercise by standing on one leg. The athlete
hops forward and then immediately back to the starting position.
Repeat the action for the other three directions (i.e., right,
backward, and left). Completing hops in all four directions and
returning to the starting position is considered one repetition.
FIGURE 2. FOUR-DIRECTION HOP
18 NSCA COACH 2.4 | NSCA.COM
Explosive Forward Lunge (Figure 3)
The athlete begins the exercise in a parallel stance position with
the feet shoulder-width apart and the hands holding a weight
plate on the right side of the body. The athlete lunges forward
explosively with the left leg while swinging the weight plate
diagonally upwards and to the left side of the body. The athlete
then returns to the starting position as fast as possible upon
landing. Repeat the movement on the opposite side. Inexperienced
athletes should begin this exercise with no added resistance to
help avoid potential injury.
FIGURE 3. EXPLOSIVE FORWARD LUNGE
Skater Hop (Figure 4)
The athlete begins the exercise by standing on one leg with the
hands holding a weight plate positioned on the same side of the
supporting leg. The athlete hops laterally and simultaneously
swings the weight plate to the side of the landing leg. Repeat the
action as fast as possible while alternating sides. Inexperienced
athletes should begin this exercise with no added resistance to
help avoid potential injury.
FIGURE 4. SKATER HOP
 NSCA COACH 2.4

Single-Arm Medicine Ball Throw (Figure 5)
The athlete begins the exercise with the left foot forward holding
a small medicine ball with the right hand. The athlete throws the
ball by rotating the hips and swinging the hand as fast as possible
while pronating the forearm. The athlete releases the ball at the
end of the movement to complete one repetition.
Towel Grip Inverted Row (Figure 7)
The athlete begins by holding onto the towels positioned
shoulder-width apart that are wrapped around the barbell from
underneath. The athlete keeps the heels on the ground and
maintains a neutral spine throughout the movement. The athlete
then pulls the body up towards the barbell before returning to the
starting position to complete one repetition.

FIGURE 5. SINGLE-ARM MEDICINE BALL THROW

FIGURE 7. TOWEL GRIP INVERTED ROW
Single-Arm Chest Press (Figure 6)
The athlete begins by standing in an athletic position with feet
wider than shoulder-width apart and uses one hand to hold the
end of a barbell that is anchored to the ground. The athlete pushes
the barbell forward and upward as fast as possible, then returns
to the starting position to complete one repetition. Repeat the
movement with the opposite arm.

FIGURE 6. SINGLE-ARM CHEST PRESS

NSCA COACH 2.4 | NSCA.COM 19

STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING FOR TABLE TENNIS ATHLETES

TABLE 1. EXAMPLE STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING PROGRAM FOR ADVANCED TABLE TENNIS ATHLETES
EXERCISE SETS X REPETITIONS LOAD REST PERIOD
Four-direction hop 3 x 5/side Bodyweight 1 2 min
Explosive forward lunge 3 x 5/side 10 20 lb 2 3 min
Skater hop 3 x 5/side 10 20 lb 2 3 min
Single-arm medicine
3 x 5/side 4 6 lb 2 3 min
ball throw
Sumo squat 3x5 80% of 1RM 2 3 min
Deadlift 3x5 80% of 1RM 2 3 min
Single-arm chest press 3x5 80% of 1RM 2 3 min
Towel grip inverted row 3x8 Bodyweight 1 min
Reverse woodchop 3 x 10/side Self-regulated 1 min

TABLE 2. INJURY PREVENTION EXERCISES

EXERCISE SETS X REPETITIONS LOAD
Prone plank 2 x 30 60 s Bodyweight
Side plank 2 x 30 60 s Bodyweight
Bird dog 2 x 10/side Bodyweight
Eccentric shoulder external rotation (5 s) 2 x 5/side Self-regulated
Scapular push-up 2 x 10 Bodyweight
Wall angel 2 x 10 N/A

20 NSCA COACH 2.4 | NSCA.COM

 NSCA COACH 2.4

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NSCA COACH 2.4 | NSCA.COM 21

EARLY SPORT SPECIALIZATION VERSUS DIVERSIFICATION IN YOUTH ATHLETES
THOMAS CARUSO, CSCS, RSCC
O
ver the last thirty years, the landscape of adolescent
athletics has changed drastically. Adolescents
who participate in sports activities may find them
enjoyable while reaping the many potential benefits they can
offer. Sport activities promote self-esteem, leadership, and
relationships amongst fellow teammates (4). However, the level
of competitiveness in youth sports is on the rise causing more
competitive events at younger ages, specific training, and sport
specification (4). Seasons are longer and parents are encouraged
to sign their children up for organized club sports that practice
and compete year-round. In the United States youth participating
in sports has increased from approximately 18 million in 1987 to
60 million in 2008 (5). Although more children are playing sports,
it appears the multisport athlete is becoming a thing of the past
(7). This raises the question: is early sport specialization or sport
diversification the best way to develop youth athletes? Early sport
specialization can be defined as intense year-round training in a
specific sport with the exclusion of other sports at a young age
(5). On the other hand, sports diversification is the participation
in a variety of sports and activities through which an athlete
develops multilateral physical, social, and psychological skills (10).
As the money in college and professional sports has increased, the
desire to train children to become star athletes has increased as
well. The purpose of this article is to discuss the different opinions
regarding the validity of early sport specialization as opposed
to diversification, specifically the effect these two methods have
on injuries, motor development, skill acquisition, and social and
psychological aspects.
22 NSCA COACH 2.4 | NSCA.COM
EARLY SPORT SPECIALIZATION
This article will focus on the following five parameters to consider
with early sport specialization: early start age in one sport, early
involvement in one sport while not participating in many sports,
early involvement in focused practice, high-intensity training,
and early involvement in competitive sport. Arguments for
early specialization have been made regarding expertise in skill
development. There is a theory that states the earlier an individual
starts with purposeful practice of a skill, the earlier one becomes
an expert at the skill. This seems to relate closely to the 10-year
rule, which is a general criteria for teaching chess that proposes
that 10 years is a sufficient period of time to amass the level of
knowledge to be considered an expert (3). This rule has been
extrapolated and observed in several activities beyond chess,
including sports (3). Utilizing this theory, it can be concluded
that in order for athletes to be the best at a particular skill or
sport, they need to start early with skill development and
practice very specific activities to improve their strengths and
reduce their weaknesses.
Sports that require an efficient, repetitive motion, like golf, tennis,
or swimming, appear to have the greatest likelihood of employing
deliberate practice for expertise development. However, many
people throughout numerous sports have drawn upon (i.e.,
marketed) the theory of deliberate practice as a way to improve
athletic expertise.

CONSIDERATIONS AND CONCERNS
FOR SPECIALIZATION
In an effort to make sure a child is ready for structured practice,
certain developmental components should be considered, such
as sport-related fundamental motor skill development, sport-
specific knowledge, motivation, and socialization. Fundamental
motor skill development should be trained to achieve success in
the sport setting, including skills such as running, jumping, kicking,
and throwing. If a child has an immature level of fundamental skill
development, they may attempt to play organized sport but the
experience may not be as positive as if they were developmentally
ready to learn the sport-specific skills. Having adequate levels of
physical maturation, or developmental age, will help the children
to learn the sport-specific skills that require strength and speed.
MOTIVATION AND INTEREST
Knowledge that an individual possesses about a specific
sport can increase their ability to learn the sport-related skills
required to play the sport as well. The more they know about a
sport, the more they will remember important points necessary
for the performance of motor skills potentially. The processing
skills necessary for learning, which are present in adults, are often
lacking or deficient in children under the age of five. Kolstoe once
said, Nobody cant teach nobody nothing, (1). This illustrates an
important point regarding instruction: if there is no motivation
to learn, then learning is not likely to take place. Sometimes the
best indicator of a childs readiness to learn and participate in a
sport comes from them expressing interest in it (1). A child with
friends and family who help identify them as athletic will provide
that child with a greater chance of identifying themselves as
athletic. Prior knowledge of these categories of sport readiness
would be helpful in placing the child in the proper organized
sport setting. This will provide a better chance of the child
having a positive experience (1).
GROWTH AND INJURY RISK
One key factor that separates young athletes from mature athletes
is the fact that children are still growing. Constant changes in
bodyweight, height, and muscle mass provide additional stress to
joints and connective tissue. In young athletes, growth cartilage
is present at the growth plate as well as the musculotendinous
insertion. Growth cartilage is vulnerable to the stress of repeated
microtraumas. For example, injuries common in youth baseball
players are Little League elbow and Little League shoulder.
These are both overuse injuries to the epiphyseal growth cartilage.
Because the musculotendinous unit may develop faster than the
bone to which it is attached, this area can be more susceptible
to Osgood-Schlatter disease and Severs disease (7). Many
professionals agree that the benefits of sports participation
outweigh the risks, but not all. With this in mind, youth are
encouraged to play sports at an early age even though there is an
associated risk of injury. It is important to understand the factors
that can predispose young athletes to overuse injuries. Table 1
shows the predisposing factors for overuse injuries.
NSCA COACH 2.4 | NSCA.COM
NSCA COACH 2.4
Despite the overall health benefit of sports participation, any
sport activity invites a chance of sustaining an injury. The
potential for injury increases as the intensity level and training
volume increases. This supports the need for adequate recovery
for youth sport athletes (9). Recovery for a youth athlete does
not mean taking a child out of all activity. Adequate recovery
could include remaining physically active during a break from
that particular sportknown as active recovery. It is important
to provide rest from the repetitive motions that continually
place stress on their body. Strength and conditioning can be an
option when an athlete is considering a rest from their specific
sport. This can provide an opportunity for injury rehabilitation,
injury prevention, and enhancing long-term health. With proper
supervision and a well-designed program, a youth resistance
training program can improve body composition, increase bone
health, and decrease injury (4).
If an athlete experiences unexpected long-term decreases in
performance without evidence of injury, this can be termed
staleness and may be a result of overtraining. It is important for
parents and strength and conditioning coaches to understand and
be able to identify symptoms of overtraining. This may help to
reduce the long-term effects of overtraining on a young athletes
body and mind. Table 2 shows example of common symptoms
found during overtraining, including physical and nonphysical
symptoms (8).
BURNOUT
Early specialization has shown to be not only physically difficult
but also mentally difficult. Athletic burnout can be an unfortunate
effect of early specialization in one sport. It can be defined as
physical and emotional exhaustion from the psychological and
physiological demands of the athletes sport, (8). Burnout can
become so severe that it can cause withdrawal or dropout from
the activities that were previously enjoyable to the athlete. From
personal experience, swimmers and divers who had success from
specializing at an early age had a greater propensity for their
bodies to break down, causing a decrease in performance at a
high level. Additionally, with the decrease in performance and the
increase in injury, there was depression resulting in withdrawal
from the sport and team activities.
SPORT DIVERSIFICATION
Sport diversification can be thought of as playing as many sports
as often as possible. This method exposes children to a multitude
of sports with a focus on playing instead of practicing. This
method provides an environment that may nurture a genuine love
for a sport so that productive, structured practice may follow. The
belief behind sport diversification is that physical and cognitive
abilities may develop quicker via playing multiple sports instead
of just one because of a potential crossover effect from playing
multiple sports. For example, instead of only developing hand-
eye coordination as it pertains to hitting and throwing in baseball,
a child playing baseball and soccer can also develop foot-eye
coordination, footwork, and running mechanics.
23
EARLY SPORT SPECIALIZATION VERSUS DIVERSIFICATION IN YOUTH ATHLETES
A transfer in fundamental cognitive skills can occur, but it is
likely dependent on the degree of perceptual and information
processing similarity between sports. The ability of a player to
read the game or understand player movement and pattern
configurations with proper visual cues will likely have a higher rate
of crossover if the athlete is participating in sports with similar
pattern configurations. For example, running and biking have a
higher rate of cardiovascular transfer than between swimming
and running. However, researchers examining early sport
specialization participation trends in elite athletes have found that
early specialization is not an essential component of elite athletic
development (6).
CONCLUSION
Early involvement in sports provides opportunities to develop
gross motor skills that include, but are not limited to, hand-eye
coordination, jumping, throwing, hopping, balancing, and running.
Adolescent bodies are not prepared to be treated like an adults
body. Diversification in sports at an early age has the potential
to provide stimuli so that a childs body can adapt and develop
multiple motor skills that may crossover between sports. However,
only once the mental, physical, and social aspects of a child are
fully developed can specialization can be considered. Parents
and coaches have to keep this in mind when choosing the level
of competition that is appropriate for the athlete. If the level of
competition is not appropriate for one or all of these aspects, the
child may have a negative experience. Perhaps the most beneficial
method is to allow the children to choose the sports they are
passionate about, this way they are less likely to experience
burnout or overuse injuries while setting themselves up for a
better chance of becoming a well-rounded elite athlete.
REFERENCES
1. Aicinena, S. Youth sport readiness: A predictive model for
success. Physical Educator 49(2): 58-66, 1992.
2. Baker, J. Early specialization in youth sport: a requirement for
adult expertise? High Ability Studies 14(1): 85-94, 2003.
3. Baker, J, and Cobley, S. What do we know about early sport
specialization? Not Much! High Ability Study 20(1): 77-89, 2009.
TABLE 1. PREDISPOSING FACTORS AND OVERUSE INJURIES (7)
INTRINSIC FACTORS
Anatomic malalignment
Prior injury
Poor conditioning
Growth
Menstrual dysfunction
24 NSCA COACH 2.4 | NSCA.COM
4. Difiori, JP, Benjamin, H, Brenner, J, Gregory, A, Jayanthi, N,
Landry, GL, and Luke, A. Overuse injuries and burnout in youth
sports: A position statement from the American Medical Society
for Sports Medicine. Clinical Journal of Sports Medicine 24(1):
3-20, 2014.
5. Ferguson, B, and Stern, PJ. A case of early sports
specialization in an adolescent athlete. Journal of the Canadian
Chiropractic Association 58(4): 337-383, 2014.
6. Hensch, LP. Specialization or diversification in youth sport?
Strategies: A Journal for Physical and Sport Educators 19(5):
21-27, 2006.
7. Johnson, J. Overuse injuries in young athletes: Cause and
prevention. Strength and Conditioning Journal 30(2): 27-31, 2008.
8. Kutz, M, and Secrest, M. Contributing factors to overtraining
in the adolescent multi-season/sport athlete. Strength and
Conditioning Journal 31(3): 37-42, 2009.
9. Oliver, JL, Lloyd, RS, and Meyers, RW. Training elite child
athletes: Promoting welfare and well-being. Strength and
Conditioning Journal 33(4): 73-79, 2011.
10. Wiersma, LD. Risks and benefits of youth sport specialization:
Perspectives and recommendations. Pediatric Exercise Science
12(1): 13-22, 2000.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Thomas Caruso holds a Bachelor of Science and Education degree,
with a concentration in Athletic Training, from the University of
Arkansas. Caruso has been the Wellness Director/Strength Coach
for the Providence Day School since 2009. In addition to teaching
ninth grade health courses, his responsibilities comprise planning
and implementing strength, conditioning, and agility programs for
all the mens and womens sports teams, including golf, football,
soccer, basketball, lacrosse, baseball, volleyball, wrestling, softball,
swimming, field hockey, and track and field.
EXTRINSIC FACTORS
Improper training methods
Poor technique
Improper surface for practice and competition
Excessive pressure from peers, coaches, and parents
Inappropriate equipment
 NSCA COACH 2.4

TABLE 2. SYMPTOMS OF OVERTRAINING

SYMPTOMS DURING TRAINING PHYSICAL SYMPTOMS NONPHYSICAL SYMPTOMS

Normal workouts feel more difficult Persistent fatigue Difficulty sleeping

Early fatigue during workouts Ongoing muscle soreness Feelings of irritation or anger

Faster heart rate with less effort Loss of appetite Feelings of depression

Decreased strength Increased aches and pains Lack of motivation

Decreased coordination Increase in overuse injuries Fear of competition

Physical challenges seem too hard Frequent colds or infections Difficulty concentrating

Decreased performance on strength,

Lower resistance to common illnesses Increased sensitivity to emotional stress
speed, or endurance testing

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HOW CONDITIONING TRAINING AFFECTS GAME DAY PERFORMANCE
CHRIS MCQUILKIN, MS, CSCS
A
strength and conditioning coach should be able to help
an athletes performance beyond what he or she could do
alone. However, many coaches in the current sport culture
limit themselves to training for isolated tests that have stood
the proverbial test of time, like the 40-yard dash and maximum
repetition bench press using 225 lb. While these tests are meant
to show progression or evidence of improvement through that
individuals strength and conditioning program, oddly, what can
be neglected through this testing protocol is the athletes on-field
performance on game day.
Sports present physical tasks to which the non-athletic body is
unaccustomed (3). Set plays rehearsed with perfected action are
foundational components for almost every sport, but things rarely
go as planned and an athlete must be able to work outside the
confines of those rehearsed actions. An athlete must quickly react
using the central nervous, neuromuscular, and muscular systems
to solve and react to these unpracticed problems. A determining
factor of performance success is how quickly and efficiently
an athlete is able to call upon these abilities to accomplish the
unplanned action.
This article will describe how conditioning affects game day
performance, identify crucial components of field and court sport
training, lay the groundwork for replicating training abilities
that translate to the field, and reinforce the responsibility of the
strength and conditioning professional.
26 NSCA COACH 2.4 | NSCA.COM
TRAINING AND PREPARATIONTRAIN TO TRAIN
Work capacity has been referenced as the duration for which
power can be maintained (1). However, many strength and sport
coaches see work capacity as a level of conditioning.
For beginner athletes or athletes returning from an injury,
increased work capacity can hasten the kinesiological pattern
development. Training work capacity consists primarily
of perfecting parts of the bodys involuntary functions (3).
Experienced athletes that are returning from time off may
see benefits from training work capacity. Primarily programmed
in the first month of off-season training, the exercises used to
train work capacity should elevate necessary traits required
within the sport to create, or reestablish, a base level of
fitness that allows them to train for competition (3). While
aerobic fitness can be an important component to competition
in field and court sports, testing only conditioning levels may
not be the best course of action for strength and conditioning
professionals. It is important for strength and conditioning
coaches to evaluate the physiological needs of the athlete based
on the demands of the sports in order to develop optimal
training programs for performance.
For example, when the Canadians first lost their stranglehold
on international hockey to the Russians, it appeared that the
Russian team was better conditioned and faster when it counted.
The Canadian coaches thought the Russians had better aerobic
fitness. Naturally, during the next off-season training the Canadian

players rode stationary bikes until they were blue in the face and
skated hard following each practice. Despite the additional work,
the Russians still outperformed them on the ice. Eventually, free
flow of information recommenced between Eastern Europe and
North America and amazingly, Russian VO2max scores were nearly
ten points lower than those of the Canadians. The Russians were
beating the Canadians by skating faster. Instead of training aerobic
fitness, the Russians had been training speed and power rather
than aerobic fitness (2).
This example demonstrates the importance of matching training
and testing to the demands of the sport. It will not matter
how well athletes fare on their conditioning tests if they are
consistently overpowered, sped past, or are behind by a step when
the game is on the line.
WORK EFFICIENCY
Increasing work capacity and improving maximum strength,
power, and speed are some important focal points for strength
and conditioning coaches. The connection between these
components and directing the purpose of training to skill
transfer can be the difference between good training programs
and great ones. One way this can be accomplished is in the
form of work efficiency.
Work efficiency can be thought of as the interaction among
the various responses of the athletes systems (central nervous,
neuromuscular, and muscular systems) to quickly display force
specific to a sporting action, and then replicate these play after
play. Another definition of work efficiency is the proportion of the
additional energy expenditure during steady state work which
is expended on physical work (4). As stated earlier, sport is a
series of complex problems that the athlete experiences and must
solve quickly with movement. While in competition, the athlete
must use instincts to determine how much force to apply to the
complex tasks presented in their arena with accuracy and finesse.
Work efficiency can help the athlete react to these problems
optimally. Integrating work efficiency training into a program can
be implemented in two different ways:
SPORTS PRACTICE
This is already in place for most athletes, and there is no better
way for them to coordinate the strength, power, and speed they
have developed in the weight room. During sports practice, they
can practice their instincts and use of abilities as close to game
speed as one can get, and then replicate the coordination specific
to each demand.
ATHLETIC CREATIVITY BUILT INTO TRAINING
With only so much time to train athletes, the process of increasing
work efficiency needs to be accelerated if it is to be integrated into
training as well as sports practice. Speed and agility work alone in
training is limited to only one or two stimuli like a whistle to start
and a point to change direction. Applying unscripted agility work
and tasks following weight training or speed work is a method to
include this into training. Examples include:
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Partner tag which forces athletic creativity and competition.
Pursuit drills that allow the calculation of an opponents speed
and angle.
Chaos training which puts the athlete in a fatigued state, as
they have to perform reactive tasks.
After all, in basketball for example, a person who owns the
boards is not the player with moderate strength who can jump
reasonably high a thousand times in rapid succession, or a player
who cant control the volume of their large vertical jump. Rather,
the strongest player, who would own the boards is the one who
jumps the highest when it is required (2).
Work capacity training is a valuable tool when preparing for the
strength, power, and speed training that will benefit an athlete
most in competition. However, during this preparation phase, a
coach must also remember each individual displays a different
rate, degree, and efficiency of response to the same training,
so it is not optimal to hold a whole team to a single standard
conditioning test. Following this pre-competition training phase,
test work capacity, but avoid simply labeling athletes as in-shape
or not. Instead, use this as a measurement of an athletes ability
to recover between bouts of maximal velocity, maintain technique
under fatigue, and challenge their ability to replicate their abilities
in a chaotic environment. Just like the finesse of a jump shot, this
will not be measureable by anything but a trained coachs eye.
TRAIN FAST, BE FAST
Athletes never rise to the occasion; they always fall to the level of
their training. Training cyclic movements at sub-maximal levels will
not expand an athletes top end abilities or train their efficiency
in calling upon the range of task specific abilities in sports that
require strength, power, and speed at irregular intervals.
Conversely, only relying on maximal efforts in single lifts or
sprints as a test of game day preparation is a fallacy. Sport can
be thought of as a problem-solving activity where movements
produce the solutions (3). Single maximal effort lifts or sprints
mean little if an athlete is only good for one attempt per game or
does not have the neuromuscular control to complete the task in
their arena.
In conclusion, coaches should avoid an over application
of conditioning training that can negatively affect the top
end abilities of athletes and their ability to replicate them in
competition of field and court sports. When training field or
court sport athletes, it is the strength and conditioning coachs
responsibility to look to the sporting arena for the demands of the
sport and determine where improvements can be made through
training. Focusing on improving an athletes ability to not only use
their full motor potential specific to the task to achieve success,
and more importantly, replicate in competition, is the mark of a
great strength program. Strength and conditioning coaches should
focus on what the athletes are training for, and develop their
programs accordingly for optimal performance on game day.
27
HOW CONDITIONING TRAINING AFFECTS GAME DAY PERFORMANCE
REFERENCES
1. Bosch, F, and Klomp, R. Running: Biomechanics and Exercise
Physiology Applied in Practice. Philadelphia: Elsevier; 102, 2005.
2. Francis, C. Key Concepts: Elite Edition. www.CharlieFrancis.
com; 13, 2008.
3. Siff, M, and Verkhoshansky, Y. Supertraining. (6th ed.) Denver,
CO: Supertraining International; 32, 96, and 105-107, 2009.
4. Sloan, AW, Koeslag, JH, and Bredell, GAG. Body composition,
work capacity, and work efficiency of active and inactive young
men. European Journal of Applied Physiology 32(1): 17-24, 1973.
28 NSCA COACH 2.4 | NSCA.COM
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Chris McQuilkin is a member of Power Athlete, LLC, and has
traveled teaching coaches how to teach proper movement and
how to identify performance limitations. He has coached strength
and conditioning at the college level with Georgetown University,
including working with the football, mens and womens lacrosse,
and womens crew teams. McQuilkin has interned with University of
Texas at Austin in the football program. While there, he apprenticed
under Raphael Ruiz of AXIS training systems and studied proper
implementation of science-based, performance-driven training
systems. He received a Bachelors degree in Health Sciences in
2008, and a Masters degree in Health Promotion from Marymount
University in 2010.
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REFRAMING INFLAMMATION IN THE TENDON REPAIR PROCESS
GABRIELLE SMITH, MA, AND BRIAN GEARITY, PHD, CSCS
A
thletes, coaches, and strength and conditioning
professionals often view inflammation as if it is an
opponent or obstacle to overcome. A widespread idea
is that athletes should fight against inflammation in order to
get rid of it. However, contrary to popular belief, inflammation
is the first stage in tissue repair, and it should be viewed and
treated as such. This article will explain the physiological process
of tendon tissue repair and compare the effects of various
responses to tendonitis.
THE TENDON TISSUE REPAIR PROCESS
The tissue repair process varies according to the type of body
tissue affected. The majority of research on tendon repair has
explored the healing process of tendon rupture as opposed to
tendonitis (1). However, it can be assumed that the repair process
for both tendon ruptures and tendinitis are similar (1).
The tendon repair process occurs in three stages: the
inflammatory, proliferative, and remodeling stages. Because this
article primarily focuses on the inflammatory stage, the other
stages will not be elaborated on as much in this article.
THE INFLAMMATORY STAGE
Michael Gross defines inflammation as when the body tissues
are injured by physical trauma, intense heat, irritating chemicals,
or infection by viruses, fungi, or bacteria, (2). Inflammation of
a tendon, commonly referred to as tendonitis, is caused by the
physical trauma that results from overuse. It is estimated that
30 NSCA COACH 2.4 | NSCA.COM
about 30% of running injuries and about 40% of elbow injuries
in tennis players can be attributed to overuse of certain tendons
(3). Tendonitis is common in strength and conditioning settings
because repetitive physical actions may to lead to overuse.
In the inflammatory stage of tendon tissue repair, a hematoma,
or blood clot, forms at the affected site (4). The hematoma
activates the release of vasodilator chemicals, which cause the
tissues blood vessels to dilate, or widen. This allows for more
blood flow to the affected area, causing the redness and warmth
often seen and felt with tendonitis. Vasodilator chemicals also
make the tissues capillaries significantly more permeable, which
allows important fluids to flood the area, causing the swelling
seen with inflammation. This swelling then presses on the nearby
nerve endings, which results in pain (2). These fluids that flood
the area contain erythrocytes (oxygen-delivering red blood cells),
neutrophils (protective white blood cells of the immune system),
and monocytes (protective single-nucleus white blood cells)
(2). Next, protective macrophage cells initiate the phagocytosis
process, which rids the area of damaged and dead tissue cells.
Lastly, new blood vessels are formed through angiogenesis
and new tendon cells (tenocytes) move towards the area of the
affected site (3). Inflammation sets the stage for the remainder
of the tissue healing process, which includes the proliferative and
remodeling stages (2).

THE PROLIFERATIVE STAGE
In the proliferative stage, fibroblast cells, which form the fibers of
connective tissue, initiate the synthesis of collagen (4). Type III
collagen, which is the main structural protein in tendons, bones,
cartilage, and other connective tissues, is most abundant in this
stage. Additionally, high amounts of water are present at the site
during the proliferative stage (3).
THE REMODELING STAGE
In the final stage of tendon tissue repair, type I collagen fibers,
which are present in scar tissue, are organized along the tendon
axis. These type I fibers are primarily responsible for generating
mechanical strength in the tissue (4). The repaired tissue becomes
stiffer and stronger throughout this stage.
COMMON RESPONSES TO INFLAMMATION
There are several ways that individuals respond to inflammation.
The three most common responses to inflammation include:
neglect, icing the injured area, and using nonsteroidal anti-
inflammatory drugs (NSAID). When choosing the response, it is
important to take into consideration both the costs and benefits.
NEGLECT
Neglecting inflammation might seem necessary if a coach or an
upcoming competition leads to an athlete feeling pressured to
play through an injury. However, in many cases it may be better
for the athlete to allow their body to rest and complete the innate
repair response. Neglecting acute inflammation could contribute
to the onset of chronic inflammation or more serious injuries (5).
ICE
Icing, or cryotherapy, has long been accepted as a beneficial
response to inflammation. Researchers have concluded that
cryotherapy is an effective way to relieve short-term pain (6).
A systematic review of the effects of cryotherapy showed that
applying ice through a wet towel for periods of 10 min is the most
effective method (7).
NSAID
NSAIDs, such as aspirin or ibuprofen (e.g., Motrin, Advil, etc.),
are effective at reducing the pain caused by inflammation (9).
However, NSAIDs should be used judiciously because they reduce
pain by inhibiting the bodys innate inflammatory and repair
responses (2). In addition, excessive use of NSAIDs can cause
a number of negative side effects such as nausea, vomiting,
heartburn, bleeding, and diarrhea (6,7,10).
CONCLUSION
Inflammation is the first stage in the tissue repair process and
sets the stage for the remainder of the healing process. Instead
of viewing it as a foe to be fought and conquered, inflammation
should be viewed as a helpful and necessary process to promote
healing. There are several common responses to inflammation
including neglect, icing, and using NSAIDs. Athletes and strength
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NSCA COACH 2.4
and conditioning coaches, in consultation with the sports medicine
team, should address and monitor inflammation to alleviate
symptoms and return athletes to participation.
REFERENCES
1. Bleakley, C, McDonough, S, and MacAuley, D. The use of ice in
the treatment of acute soft-tissue injury: A systematic review of
randomized controlled trials. American Journal of Sports Medicine
32(1): 251-261, 2004.
2. Gross, MT. Chronic tendinitis: Pathomechanics of injury,
factors affecting the healing response, and treatment. Journal of
Orthopaedic Sports Physical Therapy 16(6): 248-261, 1992.
3. James, R, Kesturu, G, Balian, G, and Chhabra, AB. Tendon:
Biology, biomechanics, repair, growth factors, and evolving
treatment options. Journal of Hand Surgery 33(A): 102-112, 2008.
4. Marieb, EN, and Hoehn, K. Human Anatomy and Physiology
(10th ed.). New York, NY: Pearson Education, Inc.; 2016.
5. Nordqvist, C. What is inflammation? What causes
inflammation? 2015. Retrieved March 18, 2015 from http://www.
medicalnewstoday.com/articles/248423.php.
6. Ogbru, O. Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs).
Medicine Net. 2015. Retrieved April 18, 2015 from http://www.
medicinenet.com/nonsteroidal_antiinflammatory_drugs/article.
htm.
7. Ong, CKS, Lirk, P, Tan, CH, and Seymour, RA. An evidence-
based update on nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Journal of
Clinical Medicine Research 5(1): 19-34, 2007.
8. Sharma, P, and Maffulli, N. Tendon injury and tendinopathy:
Healing and repair. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery
American87(1):187-202, 2005.
9. Takagi, R, Fujita, N, Arakawa, T, Kawada, S, Ishii, N, and Miki,
A. Influence of icing on muscle regeneration after crush injury to
skeletal muscles in rats. Journal of Applied Physiology 110(2): 382-
388, 2011.
10. Wilson, JJ, and Best, TM. Common overuse tendon problems:
A review and recommendations for treatment. American Family
Physician 72(5): 811-818, 2005.
31
REFRAMING INFLAMMATION IN THE TENDON REPAIR PROCESS
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Gabrielle Smith recently earned a Master of Arts degree in Sport
and Performance Psychology from the University of Denver. During
her time at the University of Denver, Smith served as an extern
in the United States Olympic Committees Sport Performance
Division. She provided biofeedback and neurofeedback training
services to athletes in the psychophysiology lab at the Olympic
Training Center located in Colorado Springs, CO. She also served as
a Sport and Performance Psychology Consultant at the Center for
Performance Excellence, where she provided services to middle and
high school athletes and coaches. She currently serves as Mental
Skills Trainer and Club Coach for Colorado Premier Basketball Club.
Prior to attending the University of Denver, Smith graduated from
Vanderbilt University in Nashville, TN with a Bachelor of Science
degree in Cognitive Studies.
32 NSCA COACH 2.4 | NSCA.COM
Brian Gearity was recently named the Director of the Master of
Arts degree in Sport Coaching at the University of Denver. He
recently served as Guest Editor for a special issue of the Strength
and Conditioning Journal on coach education. He was an Assistant
Professor in Sport Coaching Education at the University of Southern
Mississippi and a volunteer strength/football coach at Purvis
High School. He was the strength and conditioning coach for the
Cleveland Indians Major League Baseball (MLB) organization, the
University of Tennessee, and John Carroll University. His research
interests include coach quality, coach-athlete relationships, and
coaches use of power-knowledge and its effects on athletes.
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START EARLYTHE KEY TO PREPARING ATHLETES FOR THE RIGORS OF HIGH SCHOOL
STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING
RICK HOWARD, MED, CSCS,*D, USAW
H
igh school strength and conditioning coaches can play a
pivotal role in increasing levels of fitness and athleticism
in children (ages 6 11) and adolescents (ages 12 18).
Evidence shows that all fitness attributes are trainable across
childhood and adolescence (1,3,7). Aspiring young athletes can
start resistance training as young as age eight, which has been
shown to enhance athleticism and reduce the risk of injury (3,4).
This article suggests how high school strength and conditioning
coaches can not only prepare high school athletes for sports and
fitness, but also help with the process of improving fitness and
athleticism of all youth.
HIGH SCHOOL IS TOO LATE
Introducing high school freshmen to strength and conditioning
is often a primary responsibility of a high school strength and
conditioning coach. The position statement regarding youth
resistance training from the National Strength and Conditioning
Association (NSCA) recommends that youth begin a strength and
conditioning program at around the same time they begin playing
youth sports (approximately at eight years old) (1). Students who
have not participated in strength and conditioning before high
school are at a disadvantage compared to those who already have
strength and conditioning experience prior to high school.
Recent advances in research on long-term athletic development
(LTAD) highlight the importance of engaging youth in
developmentally appropriate strength and conditioning activities
across the developmental continuum (3,4). Lloyd et al. outlines
the Youth Physical Development Model for Females and the
Composite Youth Development Model for Males in the Journal of
Strength and Conditioning Research (3,4). Additionally, strength
and conditioning should include integrative neuromuscular training
(INT) to ensure that fundamental movement skills, sport-specific
movement skills, and muscle strength are developed (5). INT is
an approach to strength and conditioning programing designed
to maximize general and sport-specific skills through motor
skill mastery and muscle strength activities while addressing
movement deficiencies to promote successful participation in
sports and physical activity across the lifespan, in concert with the
principles of physical literacy (8).
WHAT CAN HIGH SCHOOL STRENGTH AND
CONDITIONING COACHES DO?
High school strength and conditioning is an integral component
of youth strength and conditioning, and is the link between youth
sports and collegiate sports and lifelong fitness. Many high school
strength and conditioning coaches are responsible for the middle
school program and act as physical educators within the entire
school district. The job of a high school strength and conditioning
coach can be optimized by attending or participating in strength
and conditioning clinics or conferences and creating LTAD
programs that span from youth through adulthood (2).
34 NSCA COACH 2.4 | NSCA.COM
ATTENDING OR PARTICIPATING IN CLINICS AND CONFERENCES
A plethora of professional development opportunities exist for
high school strength coaches. Nationally accredited organizations,
such as the NSCA, provide clinics at the state and regional level,
as well as a High School Coaches track at the NSCA National
Conference and an annual Coaches Conference. The High
School Coaches Special Interest Group (SIG) conducts meetings
and forums to meet the needs of high school strength and
conditioning coaches. Getting involved with the Youth SIG and the
College Coaches SIG may help to bridge the gap between program
design for primary, secondary, and postsecondary students.
CREATING LTAD PROGRAMS FROM YOUTH
THROUGH ADULTHOOD
High school strength and conditioning coaches are in unique
positions to provide outreach on both ends of the sports and
fitness continuum. By providing consultation to youth sports
programs, and coaches and students at feeder schools (as long as
it is within the guidelines of the appropriate state interscholastic
athletic association), high school strength and conditioning
coaches can further increase the level of athleticism and help
reduce injury rates in youth athletes (1). Likewise, high school
strength and conditioning coaches should identify common
exercises required of college strength and conditioning programs
and include the developmental progressions for these exercises
so the athletes will be better prepared when they reach that
level. High school strength and conditioning coaches should
create a program template based upon expectations for incoming
freshmen and work backwards to create goals for each athlete
while adhering to youth training guidelines to ensure that all
fundamental motor skills and fitness attributes are included
(1,2,3,4,5,7,8).
It is important for high school strength and conditioning coaches
to remember that each level of high school strength and
conditioning should be assigned a different training age and not
every athlete will be at the same training age. Programs should
be personalized for each athletes level of skill and motor mastery,
rather than generalized for the best athletes or based on more
advanced program design. Additionally, not every high school
student pursues college, plays college sports, or is mandated to
take a wellness course, so high school may be the last opportunity
to teach them lifelong health and wellness habits. The program
design should also include instruction for all students to be able
to participate in strength and conditioning to meet physical
literacy-based national standards for their essential health and
fitness needs (6). This also is in keeping with the tenets of physical
literacy to develop all students to their potential given their
natural endowment.
 NSCA.com

HIGH SCHOOL STRENGTH COACHES HAVE AN

IMPORTANT JOB
It is clear that high school strength and conditioning coaches
can have a significant impact on students of varying ages and
abilities, both on and off the field. Principles of LTAD, including
recommendations for strength and conditioning, practice and
game ratios, and time off between sport seasons, should help
guide high school strength and conditioning coaches as they work
with athletes. High school strength and conditioning coaches
can influence youth to gain motor skill competence, which may
encourage them to participate in high school sports and continue
to be physically active into adulthood (7).
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Rick Howard helped start the National Strength and Conditioning
Association (NSCA) Youth Special Interest Group (SIG) and served
this year as Immediate Past Chair. In addition, Howard serves on
the NSCA Membership Committee and is the NSCA State/Provincial
Program Regional Coordinator for the Mid-Atlantic Region. Howard
is involved in many pursuits that advance knowledge, skills, and
coaching education to help all children enjoy lifelong physical
activity and sports participation.

REFERENCES
1. Faigenbaum, A, Kraemer, W, Blimkie, C, Jeffreys, I, Micheli,
L, Nitka, M, et al. Youth resistance training: Updated position
statement paper from the National Strength and Conditioning
Association. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
23(Suppl 5): S60-S79, 2009.
2. Howard, R, and Faigenbaum, A. Issues in training youth that
impact high school athlete preparation. Strength and Conditioning
Journal 31(3): 55-57, 2009.
3. Lloyd, R, Oliver, J, Faigenbaum, A, Howard, R, De Ste Croix,
M, Williams, C, et al. Long-term athletic development Part 1:
A pathway for all youth. Journal of Strength and Conditioning
Research 29(5): 1439-1450, 2015.
4. Lloyd, R, Oliver, J, Faigenbaum, A, Howard, R, De Ste Croix,
M, Williams, C, et al. Long-term athletic development Part 2:
Barriers to success and potential solutions. Journal of Strength and
Conditioning Research 29(5): 1451-1464, 2015.
5. Myer, GD, Faigenbaum, AD, Ford, KR, Best, TM, Bergeron, MF,
and Hewitt, TE. When to initiate integrative neuromuscular training
to reduce sports-related injuries in youth? Current Sports Medicine
Reports 10(3): 155-166, 2011.
6. SHAPE America. National standards and grade-level outcomes
for K-12 physical education. Reston, VA: Author, 2013.
7. Stodden, D, Gao, Z, Goodway, J, and Langendorfer, S.
Dynamic relationships between motor skill competence and health
related fitness in youth. Pediatric Exercise Science 26(3): 231-241,
2014.
8. Whitehead, M. The concept of physical literacy. European
Journal of Physical Education 6(2): 127-138, 2001.

NSCA COACH 2.4 | NSCA.COM 35

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