9AN41 Aircraft instruments-II

Chapter 4
AIRSPEED INDICATOR

Introduction and purpose:

The airspeed indicator or airspeed gauge is an instrument used in

the aircraft to display the aircraft speed, typically in knots, to the pilot.
Light aircraft indicator markings use a standardized color bands and
lines on the face of instrument. The white range is the normal range of
operating speeds for that aircraft with flaps extended for landing/ take
off. The green range is the normal range of operating speeds for that
aircraft without flaps extended. The yellow range is the range in which
aircraft may be operated in smooth air, with condition to avoid abrupt
control movement. A red mark line indicates VNE. This is the maximum
safe air speed that the aircraft must not exceed under any
circumstances.
Such operating instructions by the manufactures of aircraft are
given in operating manual or aircraft handbook. In case of heavy and
high performance aircraft, airspeed indicators have number of movable
pointers known as bugs which may be preset by the pilot to indicate
appropriate V-speeds for the current condition. Some aircraft have an
ASI and mach meter combined. Usually an alternate single instrument is
provided having movable pointer also known as barber pole (red &
white striped) to indicate maximum allowable speed, which changes
with altitude to avoid the onset of transonic shock waves on the wing.
Modern aircraft employing glass cockpit instrument system employ two
airspeed indicator, an electronic indicator on primary flight data panel
and a traditional mechanical instrument for use if the electronic panel
fails.

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Airspeed terminology:

Indicated airspeed (IAS): The readings of an airspeed indicator

corrected only for instrument error, i.e. the difference between
true value and indicated value.

Computed airspeed: The IAS corrected for position errors(PE) The

term computed applies specifically to air data computer system in
which PE corrections are automatically applied to an airspeed
module via electrical correction network.

Calibrated airspeed (CAS): This is also associated with air data

computer system and the computed airspeed is compensated for
non-linear or square law response of airspeed sensing module.

Equivalent airspeed (EAS): This is the airspeed calculated from

measured pressure difference P when using constant sea level
value of density . In ADC system, CAS is automatically
compensated for compressibility of air at pitot probe.

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True airspeed (TAS): The EAS is compensated for changes in air

temperature and density at various flight levels. This is also done
automatically in air data computer system.

Principle of operation:

An aircraft stationary on ground, is subjected to static pressure

which acts equally on all parts of aircraft structure. In flight the aircraft
experiences an additional pressure on its leading edges due to a buildup
of the air through which the aircraft is travelling. This additional
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pressure due to the forward motion is known as dynamic pressure

which is directly proportional to the aircraft forward speed and density
of air according to the formula:
Pt= v2 + Ps
Therefore the difference between Pt & Ps = v2

The ASI measures this pressure difference and provides a display

indication graduated in units of speed. Thus ASI is a sensitive differential
pressure gauge. It is operated by pressure picked up by Pitot tube and
static vent.

When moved through air, Pitot tube will pick up the air pressure
made up of dynamic pressure + static pressure. This pitot pressure is fed
through a pipeline to one side of a sealed chamber, divided by thin
flexible diaphragm. The static tube is not affected by the dynamic
pressure as its end is closed, but small holes at the sides will pick up
local static pressure. The static pressure is fed through a second pipeline
to other side of diaphragm. Static pressure in both the chambers
balances out each other. Only the dynamic pressure moves the
diaphragm. This movement is transmitted through a mechanical linkage
to a pointer on the face of ASI in terms of speed.

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Construction of pitot tube:

Typically Pitot tube and static tube may be combined i.e. Pitot tube
inside static tube. A heater is incorporated between pitot and static
tube to prevent the formation of ice causing blockage. Drain holes are
provided to remove moisture and condensed water vapor.

Construction of ASI:

ASI in current use has a capsule instead of diaphragm. The principle

of operation is similar to diaphragm type. The aneroid capsule acts as a
sensing element is mounted in an air tight case. Pitot pressure is fed
into the capsule and the static pressure is fed into the interior of the
airtight case. The dynamic pressure in excess of static pressure will open
out the capsule, and it is proportional to it. The deflection of capsule is
transmitted through links, quadrant and pinion to the pointer which
moves over a dial calibrated in knots.

Square law and compensation

Since airspeed indicators measure a differential pressure which
varies with the square of the airspeed. So the linear displacement of
capsule and its magnification would result in non-uniform dial markings
due to the square law characteristics of air.
Dynamic pressure = v2

This non uniformity on dial poses a problem of inaccuracy of

reading the speed, especially at lower speed range.
Square law compensation is the next level of designing ASI which
compensates the square law effect. The desired uniformity on dial can
be achieved by controlling either the capsule characteristics or
dimensioning the element conveying capsule deflection to the pointer.
The later is more preferred.
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Methods of square law compensation:

a. Dimensioning of transmission media :- It is intended to increase

pointer deflection initially for less capsule deflection and less
pointer deflection when capsule deflection is more at higher speed
range. Such an objective is achieved by varying the lever length
progressively.
b. Another type of square law compensation devices uses a special
tuning spring which bears against the capsule and applies a
controlled retarding force to capsule expansion.

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c. Some servo operated indicators have specially profiled cam and

roller assyemblies.

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Safety precautions:

1. Necessary procedure is to be followed to ensure pitot tube is not

blocked on ground by insects, paints, grease or wax during
maintenance of the airplane.
2. Also its heating system must be serviceable.
3. In general aircraft instruments are are delicate and are to be to
be handled carefully as specified.
4. The pitot/ static probe and static vents are to be covered/
blanked always using specified covers/ blanks of red color and
having suitable streamers.

Servicing errors:

Following points are to be observed before suspecting the ASI

gauge.

i. It must be verified that Pitot tube is in straight line into the wind
i.e. neither up/ down or left/ right. The tube end should be 3 and
7/8 inches away from the wing as specified. During test flight it is
always advisable to fly 1.3 times the air speed requirement.
ii. The pipelines/ union may seem to be perfect, still a leak test must
be carried out to ascertain a leak proof pipeline circuit.
iii. Make sure that pitot/ static tube and static vents are clean and
dust free. No attempt should be made to clean the holes which
could enlarge it or make it rough. Surrounding of the static holes is
usually of brass plated, secured flush, which must be cleaned/
polished as specified.
iv. Dismantling of aircraft instruments, replacements of gears and
calibration/ certification is performed by a certified person.
However removal/ fitment of instruments, pitot/ static probe,
pipelines/ unions and leak checks can be performed in the field.
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