edited by

Overhead Proiec::tor Demonstrations Doris K. Kolb

Bradley Universily
Tesr.
Peoria, Il 61625

Crystallization from a Supersaturated Solution A~

of Sodium Acetate Del
Jamil Ahmad submi
Department of Chemistry University of Botswana Private Bag 0022 Gaborone Botswana; ahmadi@mopipi.ub.bw

An eye-catching demonstration involving crystallization
from a supersaturated solucion uses the sodiurn acetate-water
system (1-4). A supersaturated aqueous soludon of sodium
acetate will keep indefinitely, but when it comes in contact
with even a tiny crystal of the salt, it starts crystallizing and
soon the whole liquid tums to a solido
There are a few variations of this demonstration all of
which involve preparing a solucion beforehand and seeding it
with a crystal of the salto The version described here can be
done on an overhead projector and is suitable for showing ro
a large class. In this variation the progress of crystallization
can be followed as it takes place.
Materials
30 g sodiurn acetate trihydrate
10 mL distilled water
overhead projector transparency
250-mL Erlenmeyer flask
500-mL beaker
Bunsen bumer
Procedure
The soluton should be prepared beforehand and set
aside to cool to room temperature at least half an hour tO an
hour before the demonstration. Once prepared, the super
saturated solution can be kept for days, provided care has
been taken ro remove or dissolve all the solid particles.
To make the solution, place 30 g of sodium acetate tri
hydrate and 10 mL of distilled water in a 250-mL Erlenmeyer
flask. Using a wet tissue paper, wipe away any cryStals of the
salt that might have stuck to the inside of the neck of the
flask. Meanwhile, heat about 200 mL of water in a 500-mL
beaker over a Bunsen bumer ro over 80 oC, and place the
Erlenmeyer flask in it. When the contents of the flask have
tumed into a liquid, remove it from the hot water and swirl
it gently to dissolve all the remaining partic1es of the salt that
may still be sticking to the sides. Cover the mouth of the
flask with aluminum foil or an inverted beaker and allow to
cool to room temperature.
For the demonstration, place a transparency on the stage
of the overhead, and carefully pour the solution onto it in
the shape of a canal about 1 to 2 cm wide, or in the form of
a circular puddle about 10 cm in diarneter. The canal canbe
roughly straight, wavy, or any other shape. Add a small crystal
of the salt to one end of the canal or ro the center of the
circular puddle as the case may be. Crystallization starts check.
immediatelyand s seen on the screen as a moving dark front,
which eventually replaces the clear image of the transparent
liquid by the dark image of the opaque solid mass. The
progress of the crystallization can be clearly fol1owed on the
M
that ap
screen. After the crystallization is complete, the transparency
tions aJ
may be lifted from the projector and tilted, or even tumed
Birk et
upside down, ro show that the liquid has solidified and will
rinsed i
not flow under gravty.
contain
If a wavy canal is used, individual crystals can be secn at
measun
the bends. In the case of a circular shape, the crystallization
one ane:
progresses in a circular front centered on the seed crystal, and
maybe
the formation of individual crystals is quite evident on the
in the 1
screen.
occasioJ
The experment works best with a conventional overhead
tion). C
projector that has its light source below the transparency. If
on oxid
a portable projector is used in which light shines from aboye,
chloride
the width of the canal may have to be increased to compensare
solucion
for the thick dark oudines of the image arising from the con
(9). All.
vexity of the canal. After the demonstration, the solid can be
One Ofl
scraped off the transparency and sto red foe reuse.
ment(J
Since the supersaturated solution crystallizes so easily,
ception
special care must be taken to eliminate all traces of the solid
(or no re
salt from the Erlenmeyer flask. It.is strongly recommended
that more than a single solution (preferably three or four) be Niti
unpairc<
kept ready for the demonstracion, in case crystallizacion starts
oftheO;
in one or more solutons before the seed crystal is added---or
reacts wi
even while the solution is being poured onto the transparency.
Hazards
The
cylinder
This demonstration poses no significant hazards.
filled wi
Literature Cited
1. Bacon, E. K. J. Chem. Educ. 1948,25, 251; Reprinted in
J. Chem. Educ. 1987,64,805.
2. Hiegel. G. A.l Chem. Educ. 1980,57, 152.
3. Gilbert, G. L.; Williams, L. G.; Shakhashiri, B. Z.; Dirreen, G. E.;
Juergens, F. H. In Chemical Demonstrations: A Handbook for
Teachers ofChemistry, VoL 1; Shakhasruri, B. Z. Ed.; University
ofWisconsin Press: Madison, 1983; pp 27-30.
4. Fun wth C'hemistry, Vol. 2; compiled and edited by Sarquis.
J.; Sarquis, M.; Institute for Chemical Education, University
ofWisconsin: Madison, 1993; pp 287-291.
,
Figure 1. ~

1446 Journal oF Chemical Education Vol. 77 No. 11 November 2000 JChemEd.chem.wisc.edu

 Tested Demonstrations - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -...............- - - - - - - -

r
Combustion Demonstration Using Updated Flame Tornado
submiHed by: Edward G. Senkbeil
Department of Chemistry, Henson School of Science and Technology, Salisbury State Universify,
Salisbury, MD 21801-6860; egsenkbei/@ssu.edu

checked by; Thomas P. Gonnella

Department of Chemistry, Mayville State Universify, Mayville, ND 58257

The combustion reaction is a significant topie of discus meter cylinder of screen in position. Velero strips are attached
for de sion in general chemistry, organic chemistry, and laboratory to the center of me turntable and bottom of a smalI mortar
safety components of most high school and undergraduate so mat me mortar will not move when the turntable rotates at
chemistry curreula. The following demonstration uses the higher speeds. A small rag (10 cm X 10 cm) placed in the
combustion of different forms of celIulose (1) and an updated mortar and soaked with lighter fluid is used as the flame
version of the "flame tornado" (2) as an ignition source to source. A rag is preferred over paper towels because it does
illustrate the factors affecting the combustion process. The not quekIy ash and disperse in a rotating flameo It is helpful
alO,) la objectives of the experiment are (i) to illustrate the factors if me rag protrudes aboye the top of the mortar for berter
(%) affecting the rate of a combustion reaction and (ii) to dem flame production.
0.63 onstrate the fuctors affecting the production of a flame by
0.63 using the flame tornado. The demonstration is utlized in an Procedure
0.63 interesting inquiry-based approach for asking students how The required components (ignition source, fuel, and an
0.63 nitrocellulose can be ignited if placed approximately one oxidizer) for a combustion process are discussed. Students are
0.63 meter over a flameo The demonstration is safe and inexpensive asked to predict the factors that would affect the rate of a
0.21 and gives reproducible results. combustion reaction. Factors such as the type and amount
1.04 of fuel are most commonly mentioned. To demonstrate other
0.63 The Demonstration factors, two cotton balls are displayed and the students are
0.21 asked to consider how one could alter their rate of combustion
MoleraIs in airo One corton ball is squeezed together into a small ball,
0.21
0.63 Corton balls (cellulose) and the other is puffed up to a larger volume. The two
0.63 NitroceHulose prepared from corton balls
0.63 Ring stand and ring
0.63 Lighter fluid
1.04 Cloth rag (lO cm X 10 cm)
1.04 Large tongue depressors
0.21 Small mortar
0.21 Velero strips
1.04 Portable phonograph
1.04 Butane igniter
Aluminum screening (1 m X 1 m)
0.63
ed %02 Setup
The nitrocellulose must be prepared in advance accord
ing to the directions provided by Shakhashiri (1).
The flame tornado setup as described by Becker in
Twenty Demonstrations Guaranteed to Knock Your Socks Off!
(2) utilizes an evaporating dish containing burning paper
soaked with a combustible fluid, wheh is set on a lazy Susan
with a one-meter cylinder of aluminum screen placed on it.
:5; p 45. Turning the lazy Susan causes the flame to suddenly grow to
oeJ';New
a taH vortex of fire. In this updated setup for the flame
tornado (Fig. 1), the lazy Susan is replaced by a portable
1.1965; phonograph of the type that is commonly found in the atte
or can be inexpensively purchased at flea markets, yard sales,
:..ondon, or pawn shops. The phonograph allows for a continuous ro
tation speed and for changes in me rotation speed by chang
t4-916.
ing the record type (16, 33.45,76 rpm). Tongue depressors Figure l. Updated selup for the flame tornado, utilizing a portable
are hot-glued to the sides of the turntable to hold the one phonograph.

JChemEd.chem.wisc.edu Vol. 77 No. 11 November 2000 Journal of Chemical Education 1449

corton balls are separately hdd with tongs and ignited. The It is noted that nitrocelIulose is a1so called gun cotton and is
difference in the speed of combustion is easily noted. Srudents used by magicians in many of their flame tdcks. At mis point, Te:
are asked to suggest reasons why there are differences in me a related discussion on the chemical properties of explosives
speed of combustion. and characteristics of exp10sive reactions (3) is also well
Students are then asked ro note any differences in the received by students. A
appearance of nitrocdlulose. The burning of a similar sized The use of me updated version of me flame tornado setup
piece of nitrocellulose is demonstrated. Srudents are asked ro ignite nitrocellulose from a distance has been a valuable Ce
to suggest why nitrocellulose burns so much faster than too1 to demonstrate the factors affecting flame production.
cellulose. Mer getting sorne consensus, strucrures of cellulose A continuous maintained speed provided by the turntable sub.
and nitrocellulose are displayed and me significance of having (as compared to a lazy Susan) provides betrer visualizarion
the oxidizer and fud within the same strucrure is explained. ofthe flame over an extended period of time while me students
Since students enjoy watching me combustion of nitro rry to explain rhe phenomena. The ability to change me
cellulose, a ring stand is set up and nitrocellulose is spread rotation speed by using the phonograph turntable is useful checl
on a small ring that is approximately 1.3 meters from the in demonstrating and describing the effect of rotation speed
ring-stand base. The mortar containing the lighter-fluid on rhe height of the flameo A flame is composed of hot gases
soaked rag is placed on a block approximatdy 15 cm (equal in and therefore extends upward, creating convection currents 1
height to turntable) aboye the base and ignited. The question around it. Owing to gravity, the cooler denser air aboye the in un,
is then posed, "How can one ignite the nitrocellu1ose with flame attempts to sink downward against rhe convecrion classes
the flame wimout lowering the nitrocellulose or raising the currents. When me flame is p1aced in a spinning frame of colore
morrar? The common response is to add more fud (lghter reference, the centrifugal force will act more on me cooler spectr<
fluid on me rag). The flame can be extinguished by covering denser air, pushing ir out away from the flame and toward limite<
with a large watch glass and more lighter fluid added, but ts me sides of the rotating screen. The outward movement of is desil
ignition does not produce a negligibly taller flame nor will it the cooler air aboye the flame creates a drop in pressure aboye appeal
ignite the nitrocellulose. The flame is again extinguished with the flame and mus a110ws me hot gases of me flame to move describ
the watch glass and the flame tornado apparatus is brought out upward more easily, creating the vortex of fire (2). Thus the kinetic
(from a previously concealed area) and set up. The phonograph nitrocellu1ose can be successfully ignited by a flame source Ca
is slid under the ring holding me nitrocellulose and me morrar . that is approximately one meter below it. The demonstration is in aerol
is fastened to the center of me turntable wim the Velero. The fun, but also provides valuable insights into the combustion drogen
fuel source in the mortar is ignited and the a1uminum wire process.
cylinder is placed on me rurntable. The top ofme wire cyInder
should be approximatdy 10 cm bdow the ring holding the Literalure Cited In
nitrocellulose. Students are asked to consider the effect of homogt
rotating the turntable. After a variety of srudent predictions, 1. Chemical Demonstratons, Vol. 1; Shakhashiri, B. Z., Ed.; The paper is
the phonograph is turned on at the slowest rotating speed University ofWiseonsin Press: Madison, 1983; p 43. solurioll
of 16 rpm. The vortex of fire is quickly produced, but is of 2. Becker, R. Twenty Demonstrations Guaranteed to Knock Your paper, al
insufficient height to ignite the nitrocellu1ose. The speed of Socks Off!; Flinn Seiencifie lne.: Batavia, IL, 1994; P 36. 1ase acti
rotation is increased on the phonograph and taller and taller 3. Meyer, E. Chemistry o[ Hazardous Materials; Prencice-Hall: soaked J
vortexes of fire are noted, until the vortex is of sufficient Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1989; P 446. concenn
height ro ignite the nirrocellulose attached ro rhe ringo as aLim
Note from Fealure Editor Vmaxfor
Discussion
1 use an analogy to explain me effect on the flame in Matericl
The comparison between combustion ofthe compressed the tornado, because it wasn't dear that students were really
cotton (cellulose) ball and the pffed cotton ball dearly dem understanding the typical explanarion for me flame tornado. 4gl
onstrates the effect of increasing the surface area between the If you half-fill a 1-L volumetric flask with water and inverr
500
fud and the oxidizer. The combustion of nitrocellulose is it, the water glugs out slowly and irregularly, as a flame burns.
7.01
a1ways an interesting demonstration for studenrs and can 1ead If you swirl the flask as you invert it, the water exits smoothly
1M
inro a discussion ofhow having both fuel and oxidizer in the because air enters mrough a long vortex. This is similar to
same structure significantly increases the rate of combustion. the effect on the flame in the tornado. -EV bien
500
dilul
Cm:
agt7fl
500
dilld
5001
dilum
5001
dillUl
5001
dilua

1450 Journal of Chemical Education Vol. 77 No. 11 November 2000 JChemEd.chem.wisc.edu

Using "Household Chemistry Projects" lo Develop Research
Skills and lo leach Scientific Writing
Michael H. Schmidt
Department of Chemistry, California State University, San Marcos, San Marcos, CA 92096-0001
I describe below a project implemented in Chemistry
300, a junior-Ievel library resources and scientific writing
course at California State University, San Marcos. This
project was originalIy designed to teach scientific writing,
but t also proved to be useful in teaching general research
skills.
Chemistry 300, The Literature of Chemistry, is a two
credit course, meeting once a week, which was designed to
teach both scientific information retrieval (1) and scientific
writing. In designing the scientific writing component, I was
concerned that the particular challenges of scientific writ
ing were missing if there was no original research about
which to write. Others voicing the same concern have ad
dressed it by incorporating varied writing assignments in
an upper-division laboratory (2). At California State Uni
versity, San Marcos, we chose a different approach, keeping
the scientific writing in a separate course that focuses on
writing. The writing assignments were based on a semes
ter-long independent research project that the students un
dertook outside of class. I asked the students to design and
perform their own research projects using common house
hold chemicals and equipment available at their homes. I
have found that the projects not only gave me a chance to
teach scientific writing, but also to teach the process of de
veloping research projects from vague ideas about interest
ing questions to finished manuscripts describing useful re
sults.
There has been much written about the value of incor
porating elements of research into the teaching laborato
ries of chemistry and other sciences (3), and research the
ses are becoming more common for undergraduates. A rec
ognition of the importance of a formal introduction to re
search (4) has led to a number of ntroductory courses and
programs (5). In most cases, however, the field of research,
if not the experimental approach itself, comes from the pro
fessor or advisor. In project-based teaching labs, the experi
mental approach and research area are circumscribed by
the course content and apparatus available in the lab.
Rarely do the students have the opportunity to find an in
teresting problem on their own, choose the methods to ad
dress the problem, and follow through to results and a writ
ten reporto The household chemistry projects described be
low are intended to provide this opportunity.
Structure of the Project
Because proposal writing is now an important part of
life both inside and outside of science, students were asked
to prepare a research proposal before beginning work on
their household chemistry project. Students were asked in
the assignment to explain the importance of the problem as
well as tbe methods to be used in investigating the problem.
Several weeks before the proposal assignment I gave
students sorne samples of research questions that could be
addressed, so that they would have sorne idea of the pos
sible size and scope of a successful project. My call for pro
posals included a request for justification of the project, an
experimental plan, budgets, "institutional support" (capital
Vol. 74 No. 4 April1997 . Journal of Chemical Education
equipment available at the students' residences), and "in
stitutional approval" of parents, roommates or other af
fected parties. I required that a quantitative result be ob
tained, that the expendables cost be less than $15.00, and
that no dangerous procedures or living subjects be em
ployed.
Writing ofthe research papers was spread over several
weeks, so that students could concentrate on one section (In
troduction, Experimental Section, Results, Discussion, Con
clusion and Acknowledgments) at a time. These were graded
and handed back to the ~tudents for revision and incorpo
ration into the fmal draft. Class time was used looking at
examples in the chemical literature and comparing them
with the prescriptions of the class text (6). It was hoped
that, with this kind of instrnction, the students' writing
style would be closer to that of real research papers rather
than the idealized and artificial style that students often
develop in introductory lab courses.
After corrected drafts of aH sections of the paper were
retumed to the students, a rewritten draft of the whole pa
per was submitted for peer review. Acting as editor, I dis
tributed the papers to students who were doing research
"in the same field"; thus the beer-brewing paper was sub
mitted to the author of the bread-rising paper, since both
students were concerned with the growing of yeast. The
peer reviews were also graded, so that students had an in
centive to do more than a cursory reading of their cIass
mates' papers.
Corrected manuscripts were coHected and published by
photocopying in The Journal ofHousehold Chemistry, whlch
was distributed to the students at the end of the semester.
Copies were saved for distribution to the nen Literature of
Chemistry cIass. The final assignment of the semester was
an oral presentation of the paper in a class seminar.
Pedagogy
There were several opportunities lo improve students'
writing and research skills throughout the project. One key
opportunity was in evaluation of the proposals, in which I
not only evaluated the writing, but also the design of the
experiments themselves. The proposals, like all other writ
ten assignments for this class, could be rewritten for a bet
ter grade after tbe initial evaluation. Through this feedback
process, I was able lo get students thinking about how to
design experiments lo get out the most information for the
least costo One student, for example, wanted lo try using
pudding mix in place of eggs in a cookie recipe. Her origi
nal plan was lo make two batches: one as a control, one with
pudding. I encouraged her to divide up the pudding batch
and use various amounts of pudding mix and water in each
part, so that a quantitative result (the optimum amount of
pudding mix and added water) could be obtained.
Introductions are often hard for students to write well
in most undergraduate laboratories, because students in
these courses must accept the instructor's judgment on the
relevance or methods of the laboratory. In the household
chemistry projects, students were writing about a research
393
Using "Household Chemistry Projects" lo Develop Research
Skills and lo leach Scientific Writing
Michael H. Schmidt
Department of Chemistry, California State University. San Marcos, San Marcos, CA 92096-0001
I describe below a project implemented in Chemistry
300, a junior-Ievel library resources and scientific writing
course at California State University, San Marcos. This
project was originally designed to teach scientific writing,
but it also proved to be useful in teaching general research
skills.
Chemistry 300, The Literature of Chemistry, is a two
credit course, meeting once a week, which was designed to
teach both scientific information retrieval (1) and scientific
writing. In designing the scientific writing component, I was
concemed that the particular challenges of scientific writ
ing were missing if there was no original research about
which to write. Others voicing the same concem have ad
dressed it by incorporating varied writing assignments in
an upper-division laboratory (2). At California State Uni
versity, San Marcos, we chose a different approach, keeping
the scientific writing in a separate course that focuses on
writing. The writing assignments were based on a semes
ter-long independent research project that the students un
dertook outside of ciass. I asked the students to design and
perform their own research projects using common house
hold chemicals and equipment available at their homes. I
have found that the projects not only gave me a chance to
teach scientific writing, but also to teach the process of de
veloping research projects from vague ideas about interest
ing questions to finished manuscripts describing useful re
sults.
There has been much written about the value of incor
porating elements of research into the teaching laborato
ries of chemistry and other sciences (3), and research the
ses are becoming more common for undergraduates. A rec
ognition of the importance of a formal introduction to re
search (4) has led to a number ofintroductory courses and
programs (5). In most cases, however, the field of research,
ifnot the experimental approach itself, comes from the pro
fessor or advisor. In project-based teaching labs, the experi
mental approach and research area are circumscribed by
the course content and apparatus available in the lab.
Rarely do the students have the opportunity to find an in
teresting problem on their own, choose the methods to ad
dress the problem, and follow through to results and a writ
ten reporto The household chemistry projects described be
low are intended to provide this opportunity.
Structure of the Project
Because proposal writing is now an important part of
life both inside and outside of science, students were asked
to prepare a research proposal before beginning work on
their household chemistry project. Students were asked in
the assignment to explain the importance of the problem as
weH as the methods to be used in investigating the problem.
Several weeks before the proposal assignment I gave
students some samples of research questions that could be
addressed, so that they would have some idea of the pos
sible size and scope of a successful project. My call for pro
posals included a request for justification of the project, an
experimental plan, budgets, "institutional support" (capital
Vol. 74 No. 4 April1997 . Journal of Chemical Education
equipment available at the students' residences), and "in
stitutional approval" of parents, roommates or other af
fected parties. I required that a quantitative result be ob
tained, that the expendables cost be les s than $15.00, and
that no dangerous procedures or living subjects be em
ployed.
Writing ofthe research papers was spread over several
weeks, so that students could concentrate on one section (In
troduction, Experimental Section, Results, Discussion, Con
clusion and Acknowledgments) at a time. These were graded
and handed back to the students for revision and incorpo
ration into the final draft. Class time was used looking at
examples in the chemical literature and comparing them
with the prescriptions of the class text (6). It was hoped
that, with this kind of instruction, the students' writing
style would be closer to that of real research papers rather
than the idealized and artificial style that students often
develop in introductory lab courses.
After corrected drafts of aH sections of the paper were
retumed to the students, a rewritten draft of the whole pa
per was submitted for peer review. Acting as editor, 1 dis
tributed the papers to students who were doing research
"in the same field"; thus the beer-brewing paper was sub
mitted to the author of the bread-rising paper, since both
students were concemed with the growing of yeast. The
peer reviews were also graded, so that students had an in
centive to do more than a cursory reading of their class
mates' papers.
Corrected manuscripts were coHected and published by
photocopying in The Journal ofHousehold Chemistry, which
was distributed to the students at the end of the semester.
Copies were saved for distribution to the next Literature of
Chemistry ciass. The final assignment of the semester was
an oral presentation of the paper in a class seminar.
Pedagogy
There were several opportunities to improve students'
writing and research skills throughout the project. One key
opportunity was in evaluation of the proposals, in which I
not only evaluated the writing, but also the design of the
experiments themselves. The proposals, like all other writ
ten assignments for this class, could be rewritten for a bet
ter grade after the initial evaluation. Through this feedback
process, I was able to get students thinking about how to
design experiments to get out the most information for the
least costo One student, for example, wanted to try using
pudding mix in place of eggs in a cookie recipe. Her origi
nal plan was to make two batches: one as a control, one with
pudding. I encouraged her to divide up the pudding batch
and use various amounts of pudding mix and water in each
part, so that a quantitative result (the optimum amount of
pudding mix and added water) could be obtained.
Introductions are often hard for students to write weH
in most undergraduate laboratories, because students in '
these courses must accept the instructor's judgment on the
relevance or methods of the laboratory. In the household
chemistry projects, students were writing about a research
393

Applications and Analogies
Intermediates, Transition 5tates, Butterflies, and Frogs
Trevor M. Kitson
Institute of Fundamental Sciences (Chemistry), Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand;
t.m.kitson@mossey.ac.nz
One of the most important points that students who are
beginning a study of organic reacrion mechanisms musr
understand is the difference berween an intermediate and a
transition state. Often they confuse an intermediate (such as the
carbocaton involved in an SN 1 racrion) wirh a transition
state (such as the represenration that they see drawn of the
pentacoordinate transition state in an SN2 reaction, involving
both the incoming nudeophile and the outgoing leaving
group). An illustration thar srudents may find very helpful,
and that ar least will be a brief and mildly entertaining
interlude during a lecture, is the following:
Caterpillars do SNl reactions, tadpoles do S~ reactions.
A caterpillar of course does not tum directly into a
burterfly; rather, ir changes firsr into a chrysalis (or pupa),
which subsequently undergoes a second meramorphosis
into the final butterfly formo This is analogous ro the rwo
steps in a typical SN 1 reaction-let's say, the solvolysis of 2
bromo-2-methylpropane in ethanol containing silver nitrate.
The chrysalis and the t-butyl carion are both intennediates.
They both have a finite lferime. Each has its own distinct
identity; a chrysalis looks quite different from its "startng
material" (caterpillar) and ts "product" (butterfly), just as a
carbocation is chemically a different beast from an alkyl
halde or an ether.
On the other hand, when a radpole turns nro a &og, we
do not have a name for any intermediare stage (analogous ro
the word "chrvsalis") because there is no distinct intermediate.
Instead, there' is a contnuous gradual transition from srart to
finish. The tadpole starrs to grow hind legs. and larer fronr
legs; its tal slowly shrinks and its body changes shape; lungs
are developing at the same time as gills are disappearing. One
day, it wakes up and realizes "Hey, I'm a &og!". This is like the
SN2 process involved in, say, the reacton ofhydroxide ion wirh
504 Journal of Chemical Education Vol. 78 No. 4 April 2001
..L
editad by
Ron Delorenzo
Middle Georgio College
Cochron, GA 31014 ~
o.
l-bromobutane. Like the tadpole-to-frog transition, this is a
single gradual concerted change: the nudeophile approaches
doser and doser to the carbon atom from which the leaving
group is simultaneously moving further and further. At
the approximate halfway point, the transition state, both the
nucleophile and the leaving group are partially attached,
so in this sense the transition state resembles both the original
alkyl halide and the final alcohol. Similarly, a transition state
in the amphibian world looks both a bit like a tadpole and a
bit like a frog.
Like al! analogies, this one has limitatons (1). For example,
the ionization of a tertiary alkyl halide is reversible, whereas
the change of a caterpillar ro a chrysalis is noto And the time
frame of chemical reactions is of course very different from
that of the biological changes described. However, 1 find this
illustration [which continues the tradition ofwhimsical analo
gies otten featUred in the pages of this Journal (2-8)] a useful
lighthearted way of getting students to think about some of
the key concepts in mechanism. By the time they are ready
to face the more advanced intricacies of nucleophic subst
tution [as discussed by Dale, for example (9)] they will
presumably have outgrown pictorial analogies such as this.
Literature Cited
1. Webb, M. J. School Sci. Math. 1985,85,645-650.
2. Slverstein, T. P.]. Chem. Educ. 1999, 76, 206-208.
3. Piepgrass, K. w.]. Chem. Educ. 1998,75,724.
4. Pimo, G.j. Chem. Educ. 1998,75,725-726.
5. Ryan, D.]. Chem. Educ. 1997,74,782-783.
6. Liu, R. S. H.; Asato, A. E.]. Chem. Educ. 1997, 74. 783-784.
7. Garrir:z, A.]. Chem. Educ. 1997,74,544-545.
8. Birk, J. P.; Abbassian, S.j. Chem. Educ. 1996, 73, 63~37.
9. Dale, J.j. Chem. Educ. 1998, 75, 1482-1485.
JChemEd.chem.wisc.edu
 & residues - -......- ..................----------.............- ......- - James O. ~~~er~~~
Rayon from Dryer Lint: ADemonstration
Mlchael A. Knopp
Miami University Middletown, 4200 E. University Boulevard, Middletown, OH 45042
" Chemists are respected for their skill at converting in
expensive raw materials into more valuable substances. Al
though turning lead into gold by chemical means was aban
doned long ago, the notion of converting waste materials
into more valuable commodities has an added significance
in this era of raw material recycling and conservation. In
this demonstration, dryer lint, obtained !'rom the launder
ing ofcotton-containing articles, was made into rayon by an
adaptation of the cuprammonium process (1) used to con
vert cellulose to rayon. ClearIy, this demonstration is not a
cost-effective means of preparing rayon. It is not economi
cal to collect several hundred tons of dryer lint for this pur
pose, nor would it be feasible to separate cellulose lint !'rom
non-cellulose Hnt.
This activity is best performed as a demonstration
by the instructor, rather than as a student experiment,
owing to the quantity of ammonia gas that would be
present in a room if 20-30 students were to perform the
activity. The necessity of properly disposing of a large
amount of copper-containing waste would also be a prob
lem if an entire cIass performed this experimento
Edward Schweizer was the first to report (2) that a
saturated solution of copper(lI) carbonate in concentrated
ammonium hydroxide would dissolve cellulose. This asser
tion, mentioned in a profile ofSchweizer (3) and subsequent
history ofrayon by Kauffman (4), suggested the use of a so
lution of copper(II) carbonate in concentrated ammonium
hydroxide to dissolve dryer lint. Kauffinan has depieted cel
lulose as having a puckered sheet structure held together
by hydrogen bonding between neighboring chains.
Kauffinan cited a paper by Reihlen (5) stating that the cel
lulose is held in solution by complexation of the Cu2+ ions
with the deprotonated hydroxyl groups of the cellulose
chain (eq 1).
This process requires a high pH to ensure the deprotona
tion of the cellulose hydroxYl groupS.
Other previous rayon preparation experiments (6, 7)
used'copper(I1) sulfate pentahydrate to prepare copper(I1)
hydroxide, which must be washed, filtered, and then added
to concentrated ammonium hydroxide to yield the solution
used to dissolve the celIulose. Summerlin and Ealy (8) made
copper(lI) hydroxide by titrating a saturated solution of
copper(I1) sulfate with concentrated ammonium hydroxide.
The procedure for the experiment outlined below is there
fore simpler, as no tedious filtration and washing is needed
when copper(lI) carbonate is used. Moreover, cellulose
containing dryer lint already has a high surface area; it can
be dissolved in the ammoniacal copper(lI) carbonate
solution without further treatment. The filter paper, which
was used by Summerlin and Ealy, needed to be tom into
pieces.
Vol. 74 No. 4 April1997 Journal of Chemical Education
University 01 Northern Colorado
Greeley. CO 80639
Procedure
CAUTION: The use of concentrated ammonium hydrox
ide requires the use of a fume hood in good working order.
,Avoid inhaling the dust !'rom powdered copper(lI) carbon
ate, as copper compounds are toxico Safety goggles and
gloves must be wom when working with sulfuric acid and
concentrated ammonium hydroxide, since both substances
can cause severe bums.
Into a lOO-roL beaker place basic copper(Il) carbonate
powder (2.27 g) and a magnetic stir bar. Concentrated am
monium hydroxide (50 mL) is added and the beaker is cov
ered with a watch glass. The mixture is magnetically stirred
for five minutes. The dark blue liquid is decanted from most
ofthe excess CuCOs into a loo-mL beaker. Dryer lint (0.7
g) from the laundering of cotton articles is stined into the
decantate with a glass stirring rod. Any insoluble material
is removed with the glass rod; the insoluble material is pri
marily hair. The resuIting solution is decanted into a small
plastic screw-cap jar and stored for ca. 2 hours before use.
For the demonstration, the mixture is drawn up into a medi
cine dropper. The tip of the dropper is placed below the sur
face of a dilute (3 M) solution of sulfuric acid (6) in a large
(190 x 100 mm) crystallizing dish. A small amount of the
blue viscous liquid is squeezed from the eye dropper and
held against the side of the dish with a glass roo. The drop
per is then pulled to the opposite side of the dish while
squeezing the bulb and holding the tip of the eyedropper
under the surlace of the acid. A thread several centimeters
in length can be pulled in this fashion. If too much liquid is
squeezed, some "blobbing" may occur. The thread loses its
blue color after a few minutes (6). The color disappears be
cause the Cu2+ ions diffuse from the thread into the sulfu
ric acid solution. This demonstration was performed using
an overhead projector (7) for three classes, each having
about 10 students.
The solutions must be disposed of in compliance with
local environmental regulations. The crystallizing dish con
taining the 3 M sulfuric acid and rayon threads should not
be passed around the room or handled by the students be
cause of the danger of a spill.
Literature Cited
1. Shakhashiri, B. Z. Chemical Demonstrations: A Handbaok for
Thachers ofChemistry; University ofW'1llOOnan: Madison. 1983; Vol.
1, p 247.
2. Schweizer, E. J. Prakt. Chem. 1859, 76, 344.
3. Kauffman, G. B. J. Chem. Educ. 1984" 61, 1095.
4. Kauffman, G. B.J. Chem. Educ. 1993,70,887.
5. Reihlen, H.Z.Anorg. Chem. 1948,257,340.
6. Tested Demonstrations in Chemistry, 6th ed.; Alyea, H. N.; Dutton,
F. B., Eds; ACS Division of Chemical Education: Easton, PA, 1965;
p 111.
7. Kauffman, G. B.; Karbassi, M. J. Chem. Educ. 1985,62, 878.
8, Summerlin, L. R. Ealy, J. L. Chemical Demonstrations: A
Sourcebook for Teachers; ACS: Washington, DC, 1985; Vol. 1, pp
126,178.
401
 Colligative Property of Walther Nemst
~hAl'" Beal!* and Patriek A. Rieeardino
....,...tr",,,,,,t of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA 01609; * hbea//@wpi.wpi.edu
The achievements of Walther Nernst (1864-1942)
him as one of the gianrs of late 19th and early 20th
chemistry. His famous equaton that relates cel!
r-'-""'''''' to electrolyte concenrrations and his work on the
of absolute enrropy stand out as milestones in the
of science. In this paper we would like to explore a
little known aspect of his wide range of achievements.
In 1890 Nernst described a colligative propeny that he
"reduction of solubiliry" as a method of determining
-''''~,Ul.1! masses (1), something different from the other
1fta1-1\HVW 11 colligative propenies. In his method, Nernst
a binary liquid phase mixture of an organic solvent and
which he shook and then determined the concentraron
me organic solvent in the water afeer equilibration had
lI'Xurred. A known mass of a substance of unknown molecular
was then dissolved in the organic phase of the liquid
system. Ir was necessary rhat this substance be soluble
me organic phase but only very slight!y soluble in che water
pbase. Afeer shaking and equilibration, the concentraron of
me organic phase in che water phase was again determined.
(In our determinatons we found that one hour was more
aban sufficient time for equilibrium ro be achieved.)
The presence of che unknown solute in the organic phase
'n:duces the mole fraction of the organic solvenr in this phase.
Assurning ideal solutions, since chere are fewer organic solvent
molecules per unir volume of organic phase ro cross me phase
boundary, there should be a proponional decrease in the con
centration of the organic solvent in the water phase of the
system. Assuming rhe ideal condirions ofRaoult's law,
C,olvent = CPolvem x:rolvent
where CPolvent is the concentraron of the organic solvent in
me aqueous phase before the unknown solute has been added,
Csolvent is the concentraron of the organic solvent in the
aqueous phase afeer the unknown solute is added, and X.olvenr
is the concentration in mole tracton of the organic solvent in
me organic phase. The molar mass of the unknown can be
determined in a manner exactly analogous to me calcularon of
molar mass used with Raoult's law. Sources of error indude
(i) nonidealiry of the soludon, (ii) dissolving of the organic
solvent in the aqueous phase, affecting me organic phase
volume and the concenrration of the unknown in the organic
phase, and (iii) dissolving ofthe unknown solute in (he aqueous
phase, affecting its concentra ro n in che organic phase.
One published modificaron to Nernst's procedure involved
using phenol and water saturated with NaCl as the twO phases
and ttrating the phenol concentraron in the aqueous phase
with standard base (2). Another modification employed ether
and a large volume of water as the twO phases and the ether
solubiliry in the aqueous phase was determined direct1y by
the change in volume of the water (3). Acceptance ofNernst's
method was limited. He certainly referred to his method in
his own textbook, and his method was described in at least
one monograph (4). We located one text in which the phenom
JChemEd.chem.wisc.edu Vol. 78 No. 4 April 2001 Journal of Chemical Education
enon of reduction of solubiliry was described but without
listing ir as a colligative properry capable of being used for
determinaron of molar mass (5). Other roughly contemporary
texts ignored his method and listed only the four familiar
colligative properties, osmotic pressure and the changes in
freezing point, boiling point, and vapor pressure (6).
Now, 110 years later, we revisited this experimenr to
examine its accuracy and its possible pedagogic use. In most
of his experiments Nernst used an organic acid as the non
aqueous phase, allowing hm ro titrate the concentration of
the acid in the water layer wth a standard base using an
indicaror. For nonacidic organic phases he rook an aliquot
of the aqueous layer and used the freezing-point depression
of the water ro determine the concentration of me organic
solvent in the aqueous phase (7). However, this method of
using one colligative properry ro determine another seems
redundant and would only compound errors if Nernst's
method were being used to determine molar masses.
Wim an organic acid as the aqueous phase, the molar
mass of the unknown can be calculated from the volumes of
st"andard base used to titrate the aqueous phase. Let VO be me
volume of standard base used to titrate the aqueous soludon
before the addition of unknown solute to the organic phase
and Vbe the volume of standard base used to titrate the
aqueous phase afeer addition of the unknown. The volumes
of standard solutions are proportional to the concentrations
of organic solvent in the aqueous phase before and after
addition of the unknown, and A Vis proportional to ACsoMW
the lowering of the concenrraton of the organic solvent in
the aqueous phase. Making the assumptions of Raoult's law,
the C,olvent and therefore V will be proportional to the mole
fracrion of organic solvent in the organic phase. That is, if
there is no solute in the organic phase, VI VO will equal one,
and if the organic phase is pure unknown solute, VIVO wiU
equal zero. If thec solution is ideal there should bea linear
relationship between these two extremes. Thus,
and
V = VO.K.olvent
AV = VO - V = VO - VOXsolvenr = V(l - X.nlvenr) = Vox:rolute
Now,
x _~ __~~u_te__
solure - n solute + n 50lvenr
where n represents the numbers of moles of solute and solvent
in the organic phase. This reduces to
n,olure
nsolvent
511
I
if the concentration of the solute is small compared ro the TabIe 1. Molar Mass of 50Iute Detennined from
concentration of solvent. The value of nsol ute s Concentrat1on of Valeric Acid in Aqueous Layer
Molar Mass Error i
msoi~~~.. Soure
I ._-
Average Actual (%) l
n,oJute Msolx~m Naphthalene -i26.8~~ 128~-17---r.o
where m,olute is the mass of the solute and M,olme is ts molar Menthol 150.1 156.27 4.0
mass. The amount and molar mass of the organic solvent s Isoborneol 150.7 154.24 2.3.
known, and so the value of n,olvent is known. Thus, Camphor 142.0 152.23 6.7
Phenanthrene 173.9 178.22 2.4
msolure
X,olute = M,olure n solvem
Substtuting this imo the equation for Ll V gives satisfactory base was found for molar mass determinaton by
Nernsr's method.
Thus Nernst's colligative property will likely remain a
VOm'OlUle
LlV= curiosity and serves as an example of the nature of scientific
Msolute n solven[ research, which ineludes large and small discoveries, some
times leading up blind alleys and sometimes opening vistas
Solving for Msolurt gives that change the nature of human exploraron and thought.
Clearly, Walther Nernsr's work spans the gamut of these
M _ VO msolute
solute - Ll Vn possiblities.
solvenr

If the assumption that n,olute is much less than n,olvem is not
made, the expression for the molar mass of the solute is
VOm mLlV
M
Ll Vn solvent
where m is m,olute' This reduces ro the previous expression
when m and Ll Vare both very small, and, therefore, mLlV
becomes negligible.
The organic acid Nernst employed was valeric acid, and
this was the one commonly available acid that we found to
be satisfactory-although the stench was a considerable
drawback. The molar masses of five solutes, naphthalene,
memhol, isoborneol, camphor and phenamhrene, were de
termined using valeric acid. The concentration of the valeric
acid in the aqueous layer was determined by titration with
standardized 0.5 M sodium hydroxide and phenolphthalein
indicator. On averaging three determinatons for each solute
the resuIts were as shown in Table L
These data demonstrate that Nernst's method does give
reasonable results, particularly considering the possible
sources of error. Extension of the method to other systems,
however, is not promising. The stench of valeric acid deters
its use. Searches for other commonly available compounds
satisfactory for the organic phase were not successful. An
organic base could be titrated in the aqueous phase, but no
Literature Cited
1. Nernst, W. Z. Phys. Chem. 1890,6, 16. Nernst, W. Theoreti
cal Chemistry; Codd, L. w., Translator; Macmillan: Londan,
1923; pp 312-313.
2. Kster, F. W. Berichte 1894, 27, 324, 328.
3. Tolloczko, Sr. Z. Phys. Chem. 1896,20,389.
4. Young, S. Stoichiometry; Longmans-Green: London, 1918;
pp 312-313,345-346.
5. Friend, J. N. A Text-Book ofPhysical Chemistry, Vol. 1; Griffin:
Lo ndon , 1932; p 360.
6. Whetham, W. C. A Treatise on the Theory ofSolution; Cambridge
Universiry Press: Cambridge, 1902; pp 95-164. Ostwald, W.
The Fundamental Principies of Chemistry; Longmans-Green:
London, 1909; pp 265-289. Ewell, A. W. A Tcxtbook ofPhysical
Chemistry, Theory and Practice; Blakiston: Philadelphia, 1909;
pp 150-180. German, F. H. Dutlines ofTheoretical ChemiJtry;
Wiley: New York, 1913; pp 165-202. Washburn, E. W. An
Introduaion tu the Principies ofPhysical Chemistry; McGraw-Hill:
London, 1915; pp 143-178. Lewis, W. C. Mce. A System of
Physical Chcmistry, Vol. 1; Longmans-Green: London, 1921; pp
162-187. Findlay, A. Practical Physical Chemistry; Longmans
Green: New York, 1923; pp 112-136. Partington, J. R..
Chemical Thermodynamcs; Van Nostrand: New York, 1924;
pp 94-105. Getman, F. H.; Danie/s, F. Dutlines of Physical
Chemistry; Wiley: New York, 1931; pp 162-178.
7. Nernst, W. Z. Phys. Chem. 1890,6, 573.

..
; .
512 Journal of Chemical Education Vol. 78 No. 4 April 2001 JChemEd.chem.wisc.edu
 edited by
Resources for Student Assessment - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -......--John Alexander
"of che University of Cincinnoli
!IItrarion Cincinnali, OH 45221
IIDIation, The Right Shift? A Problem in Chemical Equilibrium
rwould
Joao c. M. Paiva*
rmation
Department of Chemistry, Universily of Porto, R. Campo Alegre 687, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal; cpaiva@netcabo.pt
ropriate
Victor M. S. Gil
: signifi
Department of Chemistry, University of Coimbra, Portugal
ISOnable
Antnio Ferrer Correia
:of50%
Department of Chemistry, Universily of Aveiro, Portugal
pensive,
: patient
obtained from K,,6oo dK,,298 K together with the expression
the Problem
for K,. Step 5 considers either the result 1(,600KII(,298 K > 1 or
mtheses
The understandng of chemical equlibrium is sometimes the fact that PB,.600KIpB,.298K < PB600 KIpB29BK to conclude that the
c10uded by uncritical application of concepts and mechan equilibrium shifrs to the right on going from 298 K to 600 K.
zation (panicularly in the case of numerical calculations) (1,2). Finally, in step 6 such a conclusion conflicts with the generic
Wim this in mind, we devised the following problem appro statement that equlibria shifr to the lefr when the temperature
priare to a physical chemistry course or to an honors general is inereased if the reaction is exothermc. This same step offers a
chemisrry course. At rhis level, a surprising result is obtained, racionalizaton for such a deviation from the expecred resulr
187.
which can be explored to promote critical thinking and to (small absolure values for I1HO).
ies Co.:
acknowledge the importance of reference states when 1( and It has been stressed (3) that if !1Ho is small, K, and 1( can
1457
K, are being used. Here is the problem. vary in opposite ways with temperarure (except if !1ng '" O).
Consider a generic chemical reaction A(s) + 2B(g) ~ C(s) This stems from the use of two different cefecence states for
for which K, '" 1.0 at 298 K and K, '" 0.36 at 600 K. the equilibrium eonstants: 1 atm for K, and 1 mol dm-3 foc 1(.
l. From the e/fect oftemperature on the value of K, do you Should the reference state for l( be the same as for K, (1.0 atm
expect the reaedon to be exothermic or endothermic? is equivalent ro 0.041 mol dm-3 at 298 K and to 0.020 mol dm-3
i.
at 600 K), then 1( K, foc any rempecature. For example, in
2. Apply che Vallt Hoff equation, In K, '" -M-J"'IRT+ f:S>1 R,
the expression for 1(, the value to be used instead ofO.041
to find chat M-J'" = -5.0 kJ/mol (of A or C).
corresponding to the concentraron ofB at 298 K (PB = 1.0
1584. 3. Using K,(Rn-lin" show chat 1(,600 K11(.298 K 1.5 atm) would be 0.041 atm/0.041 atm 1.0 (activity of B);
yn and and compare with K,.6ooKIK,,298K = 0.36/1.0 = 0.36. hence 1( = 1.0. Similarly, for 600 K (PE 1.7 atm), insread
How can the former ratio be larger than 1 whereas the of 0.034 it would be 0.034 atm/0.020 atm 1.7 (act1vity of
D.;
lea,
t1:New
latter is smaller chan 1? B); hence 1( = 0.35 (which is me same as K" considerng the
4a. Taking account only the change of gas pressure with number of significant figures used). Omerwise, by referring
temperature, show chat PB600 J P B298 K = 2.0. !1HO to a reference state of 1 atm, the way 1( varies with T is
nomics
4b. In reality, the equilibrium posidon will also shift. Show given by (see, e.g., ref 4)
]ly pp
chat PB,,600K 1pB,,298 K = l.7. d(ln 1()/dT '" (l1H o RT!1n g)/RT2
5. On che basis of 3 and 4, condude that, on going from
ro be compared wim (van't Hoff equation)
298 K to 600 K at constant volume, the equilibrium
is shifted to che right. d(ln Kp)/dT =I1HO / RT2
6. Comment on this condusion, which seems strange The same discussion would apply should we use rhe SI
considering that the reaction is exothermic. Would you unir for pressure (bar instead ofatm), in spite of small ehanges
expect the same result if K, varied more drastically with in the equilibrium consrants (5).
T (a larger magnitude of ll.JlO)?
Acnowledgments
Discussion
We rhank the referees for their helpful suggestions.
Step 1 addresses a basic piece of knowledge. The answer
is confirmed quantitatively in 2 by making use of the van't Literature Cited
Hoff equation, which is given to show that no emphasis is
placed on memory. A similar approach is adopted in step 3 to J. C. Chem. Educator 1999, 4 (4),
1. Gil, Victor M. S.; Paiva,
calculate 1( from K,. The comparison required in 3 can be 128-130.
made at different levels: (i) the rarios are nor the same, (ii) the 2. Huddle, Benjamin P. j, Chem. Educ. 1998, 75, 1175.
ratio 1(.600 K 11(,298 K is larger than 1, whereas 1(,600KII(:l98K 3. Allsop, E.; George, N. Educ. Chem. 1984,3,54.
is smaller than 1, and (i) 1( inercases with temperature whereas 4. Glasstone, S. Thermodynamics flr Chemists; Van Nostrand:
x;, decreases. In step 4 the rario PB600 JPE298 K is calculated using New York, 1952; p 289.
5. Treptow, R. S.j. Chem. Educ. 1999,76,212.
the ideal gas equation and the ratio PE,'ooKIpB,,298K is to be

JChemEd.chem.wisc.edu Vol. 79 No. 5 May 2002 Journal of Chemical Education 583

 I
I
I
I
Chemistry ConcepTests: Considerations for Small Class Size I
Todd Wimpfheimer
Department of Chemistry and Physics, Satem State CoIlege, Salem, MA 01970; todd. wimpfheimer@salemstate.edu
:1_
I
I
Implementation of student active learning methods Another small matter arose when, during the discussion I
I
(SAL) is on the rise in the college classroom. One technique, portion, sorne of the class would eavesdrop on the two or
,
ConcepTests, has been used since it was first reported in the
mid-1990s by Mazur (1, 2). In this method, students vote
three "best" students and would simply vote as they did, with
out really thinking the exereise through themselves. This is ,
individually on the answers to multiple-choice questions, inherent in the smaUer setting where everyone can hear
discuss their answers with their peers, and then individually everyone else if they try. I found this problem to be self
I ..
re-vote (3, 4). Most instructors have used ConcepTests in correcting when early on the "best" students missed several ,
I .~.
large classes (100-300 students) as a way to engage the stu
dents and elicit feedback (3, 5). This paper reports on sorne
of the specal considerations that were necessary when
questions. Amazingly this gave the rest of the students more
confidence to vote their own mind.
Several consequences of the smalJ class size turned out
,!
,
, f
ConcepTests were used in a smaller class (15 students).

The Use of ConcepTests in o Smoll Closs

The class was a fourth-semester general chemistry class
usually taken by biology and chemistry majQrs immediately
afi:er two semesters of organic chemistry. In the spring of
2001, this class had 15 students. The class was run using
ConcepTests, with lecturing "around" them when necessary.
Sorne days only one or two Concep Tests were used, while
other days as many as four or five were used.
The benefits of using this SAL method (3, 4, 6) became
apparent immediately afi:er the first couple of classes and con
tinued throughout the semester. The class as a whole became
a more vibrant, active place. The students became engaged
to be positive. The class voted by holding up A, B, C, D
cards and the smalJ class size allowed easy and accurate
counting and tabulation by the instructor. In the absence
,1
,:9
of hand-held touch pads, this was a great benefit. When
students were called upon to give their reasoning, they
, .2
were easily heard by the others, which I'm not sure is al I
ways the case in a large lecture hall. Also, by the end of
the semester, every student had had a chance to "report
I
I
out" his or her answer. Because of the small class size, it ,
was easy for the instructor to take attendance daily. This
,
was important, as extra-credit points were awarded to stu
dents present during successful exercises. ,
Despite my initial concerns, the use of ConcepTests was
a great way to actively engage students in this smaller class
setting. Not only were the usual benefits of student active
:1_

in their work, rather than passively listening and recording

notes. Over the course of the semester, absenteeism dropped
learning obtained, there were other advantages that arose as
a reslt of the more intimate class size.
,I
when compared to past classes. The students appeared to be I
having a more enjoyable experience in the classroom, an Literolure Cited I
observation confirmed by student evaluations. As the instruc
tor, I found myself also enjoying the class thoroughly. I
1. Mazur, Eric. Peer Instruction: A User's Manual; Prentice Hall:
Much of the literature on ConcepTests describes how Upper Saddle River, NI, 1997.
I
they function in large classes. In a small class of 15, however, I
2. Project:Galileo; http://galileo.harvard.edu (accessed Feb 2002).
several situations arose that were a function of the smaller I
class size. 3. Landis, Clark R.; Ellis, Anhur B.; Lsensky, George c.; l..orenz, l-g
Students were initiall)' very self-conscous in the small Julie K.; Meeker, Kathleen; Wamser, CarI C. Chemistry
setting. If a student consistendy voted incorrectly against the Concep Tsts: A Pathway to Interactive Classrooms; Prentice Hall: I ~
majority of the class they couIdr "hide" as they couId in a big Upper Saddle River, NI, 200l. O
class. Sorne students would sneak peeks at how others were l't
4. ConcepTests; New Traditions Project, University ofWiscon I l
voting and in a class of 15, a swing of 1 or 2 votes is noticeable. sin: Madison, WI; http://www.chem.wisc.edul~conceptl (accesseil
In spite of these concerns, 1 discovered a remarkable thing: Mar 2002). I
student participation in these exercises was close to one
hundred percent! In nearly every class all semester, every 5. Kovac, Jeffrey D.j. Chem. Educ. 1999,76, 120. I
student voted and re-voted on every question. These students 6. Wrighr, John c.; Millar, Susan B.; Kosciuk, Steve A.; I
were much more engaged in the material than they wouId have Penberthy, Debra L.; WiIliams, Paul H.; Wampold, Bruce E. I
been had the material been deIivered as a traditionallecture. J Chem. Educ. 1998, 75, 986. I
I

_
592 Journal oF Chemicol Education Vol. 79 No. 5 Moy 2002 JChemEd.chem.wisc.edu
~u
.
g
34.4 alm

Salid
ture of-56.6 oC and pressure of 5.1 atm. This is the triple
point of carbon dioxide. As the syringe continues to warm
and aH the dry ice is melted, the point of equilibrium
moves up along the curve TpB where only vapor and liq
uid coexist in equilibrium. At point B, where the tem
perature s somewhere between -20 and -56.6 oC and
=inCJ1
thre
ofIJ!
mi'
pressure somewhere between 20 and 5.1 atm, ifyou re ce~
~ 5.' alm
lease the pressure on the plunger while still holding it, solo1
much of the liquid-gas mixture immediately bursts out
j in a near-adiabatic expansion, leaving behind in the sy
ringe snowflake-like solid carbon dioxide that completely
5%1
uid_
, alm
sublimes within 1 or 2 minutes. (for 4
'1 OOC
In conclusion, this experiment is simple and easy to
perforro and can be completed within minutes. For cIass
addl
agiu
,78.5 oC -56.6 oC
demonstration, the experiment could be perforroed on reOOJ
Temperature (not tu scale) an overhead projector with the use of a larger size plas and
Figure 1. Phase diagram of carbon dioxide. tic syringe. sholl
thell
sure of the gas-solid mixture increase; equilibrium con Literature Cited cona
ditions now exist between the two phases. This corre centi
sponds to points along Curve ATp. At point Tp, dry ice 1. Brescia, F.; Menta, J.; Meislieh, H.; Turk, A. General Chemistry, 5th OO.; Aea, spite
demic: San Diego, 1988.
begins to melt to forro liquid carbon dioxide. At this point, 2. Petrucci. R. H. Gemeral Chemi.8try: Principies and Mude,." Applieations. 4th
solid, liquid and vapor coexist at the unique tempera OO.; Macmillan: New York, 1982.
3. Kilkahl, N. K. J. Chem. EduCo 19114,12, 1052-1055.

1111
Cllff
Demonstration 01 the Catalytic Decomposition 01 Hydrogen Peroxide Cenit

Submitted by: Alfred R. Conklin, Jr.' and Angela Kessinger Wilmington College, Wilmington, OH 451n .!.
thatl
Checked by: Daniel T. Haworth Marquette University, Milwaukee, WI 53233 rierI
onsa
Hydrogen peroxide (H20 2) is used in many types of Prepare hydrogen peroxide solutions containing 20, use i
demonstrations-for example, as an oxidation agent in 10 and 5% H 202 usng the following relationship: tary1
the oxidation of lugigenin and luminol and in the prepa cohel
ration of oxygen gas (1). In the demonstration described, mLPr=mLdCd (2) tWIH
the decomposition ofhydrogen peroxide is catalyzed by io where mL r = mL of reagent needed; CE = concentration of sieve
dide (n releasingoxygen (eq l)with the production ofsoap reagent H 202 in g/lOO mL; mLd = mLofsolution to be pre sieve
bubbles. This demonstration is known as "Elephant's 'Iboth ing il
paste" as done by the Weird Science Group from lllinois.
r
pared; and Cd = desired concentration ofH20 2 in g/lOO mL.
As obtained from Aldrich, hydrogen peroxide has an
H 202 content of 30 to 32%. Thus, the concentration (eq 2)
spect
,
is tol
H 20 2(aq) ~ H 20 + 02(g) t (1) after dilution s only approximate. Even sealed and re
frigerated hydrogen peroxide decomposes with time. AlI place
Variations of this demonstration were investigated. solutions must be made up at the same time to obtain the magJI
The effects ofchanging the hydrogen peroxide concentra plisbj
tion, different cations and anions, and temperature on the diffn
reaction were examined. can~
Table 1. Hydrogen Peroxide Concentration Versus cm3 0f

Procedure F08m Produced under Various Conditions

cal.,.
ogyJ.,

Chemicals and equipment for aH tests are identical. Concentration Foam Produced the di
Temperature oC
8everal1000-mL graduated cylinders, a 10-mL graduated of H:P2 (%) (cm3 ) withl
cylinder, liquid dish-washing soap, food coloring (optional), tem,i
20 20 751 10 rayq
and a tray to catch the foam are needed. Reagents used
were: 30-32% hydrogen peroxide (Aldrich 21,676-3), po 20 10 348 52 sM
tassium iodide (J.T. Baker 1-3163), potassium chloride 1'hia1
(Fisher 9330-500), sodium iodide (Fisher 8-324), and po 20 5 178 33 ~
tassium bromide (J.T. Baker 2998). P'Wt!!
CAUTION: Concentrated hyd.rogen peroxide
can cause burns. Always wear goggles and
22
22
20
5
751
178
~~
leos1i
neoprene, butyI rubber, or vinyI gloves 1
when handling the reagents. 42 20 970 FTt.Ij

1Author to whom correspondence should be addressed. 42 5 242 tiny,

ing~

i
838 Journal of Chemical Education Vol. 73 No. 9 September 1996

j
 a

resulta shown here. The amount ofhydrogen peroxide so
lution added to the 1000-mL graduated cylinder can be
increased or decreased as needed so that foam fromall
three dilutions is less than 1000 cm3 Saturated solutions
of potassium iodide, potassium chloride, potassium bro
mide, and sodium iodide are prepared by adding an ex
cesa ofthe salt to distilled water. The supernate of these
solutions is used in carrying out the reactions.
In a 1000-mL graduated cylinder, add about 10 mL of
5% hydrogen peroxide solution, two or three squirts ofliq
uid dishwashing detergent, and two drops of food coloring
(for color). Swirl the contents of the cylinder and quickly
add 5 mL ofsaturated potassium iodide solution before the
agitation has subsided. The amount of foam produced is
recorded in cm3 Trus procedure is repeated with the 10%
and 20% ~02 solutions. The amount of foam produced ia
shown in Table 1. The same procedure was repeated with
the variations described below. A regression analysis of the
concentration of hydrogen peroxide vs. the average cubic
r
centimeters offoam produced gives an value of99.8. In
spite ofthe inaccuracy in the measurement offoam, there
is a good relationship between amount offoam and coneen
tration ofhydrogen peroxide. Thus, the effect of concentra
tion on the reaction is well demonstrated.
CAUTION: This reaction is exothermic.
Approximately the aame volume offoam is produced
when sodium iodide is substituted for potassium iodide;
however, no reaction takes place when potassium chlo
ride or potassium bromide is used. Trua demonstrates that
it ia indeed the r amon which is the effective catalyst for
this reaction.
The effect oftemperature on the reaction is given in
the tableo At higher initial temperatures more foam is
produced. Because the reaction lS exothermic, any initial
temperature effect is obscured by the increase in tempera
ture during the reaction.
Literature Cited
1. Shakhaslri, B.Z. Chemict Demonstratio1l3-AHandhook for 'Thache", ofChem
istry. Univeraity ofWisoonsin Presa: Madison, 1988; Voll, p 180; Vol 2, P 144.

IlIustrating Fourier Transforms

Cliff Bettis, Edward J. Lyons, and David W. Brooks
Center for Currculum and Instruction, University of Nebraska. Lincoln. NE 68588-0355

A number of artieles have appeared in this Journal

that speak to simulating x-ray diffraction and to the Fou
rier method ofx-ray crystallography (1-6). A kit for dem
onstrating this effect is available &om ICE (7), and its
_. - __ __ __ ___ o ,

Screen
.. ... .

use is described in a chapter in an exciting supplemen

tary text (8). When light from a low-power He-Ne laaer (a
coherent visible light source) strikes a lattice such as the
two-dimensionallattice offine wires found in a 100-mesh
sieve, the emergent light is the Fourier transform of the
1 IIIIII
sieve lattice. The projected result, a series of spots of vary ,. ,. ., <1'

ing intensity arranged inthe pattero of a plus sign, is

spectacular and visible throughout a large lecture hall.
The simplest means of deconvoluting the transform
is to use an appropriate lens. The properly focussed lens,
placed immediately after the sieve, produces an excellent
magnified image of the wire mesh. Focussing is accom
plished by moving the lens; it must be quite closeto the
diffracting element.A standard microscope objectivelens
can be used(borrow one from a microscope found in biol
ogy lab, and mount it using the gadgeta found in the opti
cal benches of a physica lab). Place it immediately after
the diffracting plane (such as a sieve or the slide provided
with the ICE materiala). An image of the diffracting pat
tero is projected. So, for example, a linear horizontal ar
ray of spota would be replaced by a series of uniformly Figure 1. (a) Schematic of diffraetion apparatus. (b) Sehematie of
spaced vertical.linea when these serve as the diffractor. diffraction pattern from Ilne grating. (e) Schematie of diffraetion
This is illustrated in Figure 1. Objective lenses with mag transforming apparatus [Iens added to (a)]. (d) Sehematie of dif
nifications in the range of 4 to 40 work. The larger the fraetion grating leading to pattern in (b) (grating obtained from ICE).
power, the larger the image, the lower the projected light (e) Photograph of diffraction transformng apparatus. (f) Photograph
intensity, and the cloaer the lena needs to be to the grat of sereen showing diffraction pattern from ICE grating. (g) Photo
ing. The distance needed between the diffractor and the graph of sereen showing image of ICE grating. (h) Photograph of
lens ultimately limits the lens size that can be used. sereen image of diffraction pattern from 100-mesh sereen. (i) Pho
We often teach our students only the applications of tograph of sereen image of 100-mesh wire sereen from
FT techniques to chemica1 instrumentation. In the weav deeonvolution of diffraction pattern (h) using lens. [In (f), the prin
ing industry, where synthetic fabrics are spun through cipal spot (eenter) was projected onto blaek ink to diminish its re .
tiny orifices that wear during manufacture, quality COn flective intensity relative to the other spots.]

Vol. 73 No. 9 September 1996 Journal of Chemcal Education 839