Cell biology (formerly called cytology, from the Greek , kytos, "vessel") is a

branch of biology that studies the different structures and functions of the cell and focuses
mainly on the idea of the cell as the basic unit of life.

Cell biology explains the structure, organization of the organelles they contain,
their physiological properties, metabolic processes, Signaling pathways, life cycle, and
interactions with their environment. This is done both on a microscopic and molecular level as it
encompasses prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells. Knowing the components of cells and how
cells work is fundamental to all biological sciences; it is also essential for research in bio-
medical fields such as cancer, and other diseases. Research in cell biology is closely related
to genetics, biochemistry, molecular biology, immunology, and developmental biology.

Internal Cell Structures

Chemical and molecular environment

The study of the cell is done on a molecular level; however, most of the processes within the
cell are made up of a mixture of small organic molecules, inorganic ions, hormones, and water.
Approximately 7585% of the cell's volume is due to water making it an indispensable solvent
as a result of its polarity and structure. These molecules within the cell, which operate as
substrates, provide a suitable environment for the cell to carry out metabolic reactions and
signaling. The cell shape varies among the different types of organisms, and are thus then
classified into two categories: eukaryotes and prokaryotes. In the case of eukaryotic cells
which are made up of animal, plant, fungi, and protozoa cells the shapes are generally round
and spherical while for prokaryotic cells which are composed of bacteria and archaea the
shapes are: spherical (cocci), rods (bacillus), curved (vibrio), and spirals (spirochetes).

Cell biology focuses more on the study of eukaryotic cells, and their signaling pathways,
rather than on prokaryotes which is covered under microbiology. The main constituents of the
general molecular composition of the cell includes: proteins and lipids which are either free-
flowing or membrane-bound, along with different internal compartments known
as organelles. This environment of the cell is made up
of hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions which allows for the exchange of the above-
mentioned molecules and ions. The hydrophilic regions of the cell are mainly on the inside and
outside of the cell, while the hydrophobic regions are within the phospholipid bilayer of the cell
membrane. The cell membrane consists of lipids and proteins, which accounts for its
hydrophobicity as a result of being non-polar substances. Therefore, in order for these
molecules to participate in reactions, within the cell, they need to be able to cross this
membrane layer to get into the cell. They accomplish this process of gaining access to the cell
via: osmotic pressure, diffusion, concentration gradients, and membrane channels. Inside of the
cell are extensive internal sub-cellular membrane-bounded compartments called organelles.

Organelles

Centrosome an associated pair of cylindrical shaped protein structures (centrioles) that

organize microtubules and aid in forming the mitotic spindle during cell
division in eukaryotes
Cell membrane (plasma membrane) the part of the cell which separates the cells from the
outside environment and protects the cell, as well as regulating what goes in and out of the
cell
Cell wall extra layer of protection and gives structural support (only found in plant cells)
Chloroplast key organelle for photosynthesis (only found in plant cells)
Cilium motile structure of eukaryotes having a cytoskeleton, the axoneme.
Cytoplasm contents of the main fluid-filled space inside cells, chemical reactions also
happen in this jelly-like substance.
Cytoskeleton protein filaments inside cells (microfilaments, microtubules, and intermediate
filaments)
Endoplasmic reticulum (rough) major site of membrane protein synthesis
Endoplasmic reticulum (smooth) major site of lipid synthesis
Endosomes vesicles that traffic membrane and intra and extra cellular contents for
recycling or degradation by lysosomes
Flagellum motile structure of bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes
Golgi apparatus site of protein glycosylation in the endomembrane system
Lipid bilayer fundamental organizational structure of cell membranes
Lysosome acidic organelle that breaks down cellular waste products and debris into
simple compounds (only found in animal cells)
Microvilli increases surface area for absorption of nutrients from surrounding medium
Mitochondrion major energy-producing organelle by releasing energy in the form of ATP
 Nucleus contains chromosomes composed of DNA, the building block of life. Nuclear
Architecture is important for dictating nuclear function.
Organelle term used for major subcellular structures
Peroxisomes a very small organelle that uses oxygen to breakdown and detoxify long fatty
acids and other molecules
Pili also called fimbria is used for conjugation and sometimes movement
Ribosome RNA and protein complex required for protein synthesis in cells
Starch grain found in the cytoplasm of a typical plant cell, it stores chemical energy of the
plant.
Vacuole contain cell sap or other storage material.
Vesicle small membrane-bounded spheres inside cells which transport substances.

Growth and development

The growth process of the cell does not refer to the size of the cell, but instead the density of the
number of cells present in the organism at a given time. Cell growth pertains to the increase in
the number of cells present in an organism as it grows and develops; as the organism gets
larger so too does the number of cells present. Cells are the foundation of all organisms, they
are the fundamental unit of life. The growth and development of the cell are essential for the
maintenance of the host, and survival of the organisms. For this process the cell goes through
the steps of the cell cycle and development which involves cell growth, DNA replication, cell
division, regeneration, specialization, and cell death.

The cell cycle is divided into four distinct phases, G1, S, G2, and M. The G phases which is
the cell growth phase makes up approximately 95% of the cycle.The proliferation of cells is
instigated by progenitors, the cells then differentiate to become specialized, where specialized
cells of the same type aggregate to form tissues, then organs and ultimately systems.The G
phases along with the S phase DNA replication, damage and repair are considered to be the
interphase portion of the cycle. While the M phase (mitosis and cytokinesis) is the cell division
portion of the cycle.The cell cycle is regulated by a series of signaling factors and complexes
such as CDK's, kinases, and p53. to name a few. When the cell has completed its growth
process, and if it is found to be damaged or altered it undergoes cell death, either
by apoptosis or necrosis, to eliminate the threat it causes to the organism's survival.
Other cellular processes

Active transport and passive transport The movement of molecules into and out of cells.
Autophagy The process whereby cells "eat" their own internal components
or microbial invaders.
Adhesion Holding together cells and tissues.
Cell movement Chemotaxis, contraction, cilia and flagella.
Cell signaling Regulation of cell behavior by signals from outside.
Division By which cells reproduce either by mitosis (to produce clones of the parent cell)
or Meiosis (to produce haploid gametes)
DNA repair Cell death and cell senescence.
Metabolism Glycolysis, respiration, photosynthesis, and chemosynthesis.
Signalling The process by which the activities in the cell are regulated
Transcription and mRNA splicing Gene expression.

Eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound organelles, including a nucleus.Eukaryotes can be

single-celled or multi-celled, such as you, me, plants, fungi, and insects. Bacteria are an
example of prokaryotes. Prokaryotic cells do not contain a nucleus or any other membrane-
bound organelle.

Mary Ann Bernadette Z. Esguerra BIO 3Y1-1

Organic chemistry is a chemistry subdiscipline involving the scientific study of the
structure, properties, and reactions of organic compounds and organic materials, i.e., matter in
its various forms that contain carbon atoms
Organic compounds form the basis of all earthly life and constitute a significant part of human
endeavors in chemistry. The bonding patterns open to carbon, with its valence of fourformal
single, double, and triple bonds, as well as various structures with delocalized electronsmake
the array of organic compounds structurally diverse, and their range of applications enormous.
They either form the basis of, or are important constituents of, many commercial products
including pharmaceuticals; petrochemicals and products made from them
(including lubricants, solvents, etc.); plastics; fuels and explosives; etc. As indicated, the study
of organic chemistry overlaps with organometallic chemistry and biochemistry, but also
with medicinal chemistry, polymer chemistry, as well as many aspects of materials science.

Aliphatic compounds
The aliphatic hydrocarbons are subdivided into three groups of homologous series according to
their state of saturation:

alkanes (paraffins): aliphatic hydrocarbons without any double or triple bonds, i.e. just C-C,
C-H single bonds
alkenes (olefins): aliphatic hydrocarbons which contain one or more double bonds, i.e. di-
olefins (dienes) or poly-olefins.
alkynes (acetylenes): aliphatic hydrocarbons which have one or more triple bonds.

The rest of the group is classed according to the functional groups present. Such compounds
can be "straight-chain", branched-chain or cyclic. The degree of branching affects
characteristics, such as the octane number or cetane number in petroleum chemistry.
Aromatic Compounds
Aromatic hydrocarbons contain conjugated double bonds. This means that every carbon atom in
the ring is sp2 hybridized, allowing for added stability. The most important example is benzene,
the structure of which was formulated by Kekul who first proposed
the delocalization or resonance principle for explaining its structure. For "conventional" cyclic
compounds, aromaticity is conferred by the presence of 4n + 2 delocalized pi electrons, where n
is an integer. Particular instability (antiaromaticity) is conferred by the presence of 4n
conjugated pi electrons.
Heterocyclic compounds
The characteristics of the cyclic hydrocarbons are again altered if heteroatoms are present,
which can exist as either substituents attached externally to the ring (exocyclic) or as a member
of the ring itself (endocyclic). In the case of the latter, the ring is termed
a heterocycle. Pyridine and furan are examples of aromatic heterocycles
while piperidine and tetrahydrofuran are the corresponding alicyclic heterocycles. The
heteroatom of heterocyclic molecules is generally oxygen, sulfur, or nitrogen, with the latter
being particularly common in biochemical systems.

Heterocycles are commonly found in a wide range of products including aniline dyes and
medicines. Additionally, they are prevalent in a wide range of biochemical compounds such
as alkaloids, vitamins, steroids, and nucleic acids (e.g. DNA, RNA).

Polymers
One important property of carbon is that it readily forms chains, or networks, that are linked by
carbon-carbon (carbon-to-carbon) bonds. The linking process is called polymerization, while the
chains, or networks, are called polymers. The source compound is called a monomer.

Two main groups of polymers exist: synthetic polymers and biopolymers. Synthetic polymers
are artificially manufactured, and are commonly referred to as industrial polymers. Biopolymers
occur within a respectfully natural environment, or without human intervention.

Since the invention of the first synthetic polymer product, bakelite, synthetic polymer products
have frequently been invented.

Common synthetic organic polymers

are polyethylene (polythene), polypropylene, nylon, teflon (PTFE), polystyrene, polyesters, poly
methylmethacrylate (called perspex and plexiglas), and polyvinylchloride (PVC).

Both synthetic and natural rubber are polymers.

Biomolecules
Biomolecular chemistry is a major category within organic chemistry which is frequently studied
by biochemists. Many complex multi-functional group molecules are important in living
organisms. Some are long-chain biopolymers, and these include peptides, DNA, RNA and
the polysaccharides such as starches in animals and celluloses in plants.