MATERIALS AT HIGH TEMPERATURES 28(3)

Advanced technology in creep life prediction and

damage evaluation for creep strength enhanced
ferritic steels
Fujimitsu Masuyama
Graduate School of Engineering, Kyushu Institute of Technology, 1-1, Sensui-cho,
Tobata, Kitakyushu 804-8550, Japan
E-mail: masuyama@tobata.isc.kyutech.ac.jp

ABSTRACT
Creep damage mechanisms of recently developed boiler and steam-turbine steels are not well clarified,
however, creep life prediction technology for such creep strength enhanced ferritic steels, grades 91,
92 122, etc. with tempered martensitic structure including welds has been strongly demanded by
power plant operators and equipment manufacturers. In this paper, the technologies related to the
creep life prediction and damage evaluation for creep strength enhanced ferritic steels being studied
from the various aspects in Japan will be surveyed and presented. The creep life prediction of this
type of steel must be grounded on the findings on microstructural degradation and creep softening in
martensitic structure composed of very fine martensite lath, block, packet and prior austenite grains,
and precipitation and dislocation structures. Physical properties response to the creep degradation and
measurement and detection of localized creep damageystrength would be useful tools to develop
diagnostic techniques for life prediction of creep strength enhanced ferritic steels. Other important
techniques to support the creep life prediction based on creep-strainyrupture data are creep modelling
and data analysis which have been successfully investigated to date.

Keywords: creep life prediction, damage evaluation, creep strength enhanced ferritic steels, martensitic heat
resistant steels, non-destructive damage detection

INTRODUCTION techniques are required for the appropriate life management

In fossil-fired thermal power plants, elevated steam tempera-
ture and pressure conditions are essential for increasing
efficiency, while frequent shutdowns and startups and load
swing operations are presently unavoidable in response to
daily and weekly changes in demand for electric power. Such
strenuous conditions require materials for high temperature
components in power plants having high creep strength, high
thermal conductivity, and a low thermal expansion coeffi-
cient. The creep strength enhanced ferritic steels such as
grades 91, 92, 122, etc. developed in the 1980s and 1990s
having a capability to respond to these requirements have
been introduced for practical application during the last
decade [1]. However, a number of creep failure experiences
with these steels used in superheateryreheater tubes, hot
reheat pipes and headers have been reported. It is essential
to evaluate the material conditions and remaining life of the
materials for long-term use in power plant components, but it
becomes apparent that these steels exhibit different degrada-
tion characteristics from conventional Cr Mo steels due to
the fine lath structure of the tempered martensite and its
complicated creep degradation mechanism in base metal and
welds. Accordingly, it is difficult to apply conventional
techniques for the diagnosis of remaining life, and new
of equipment using these steels and for the achievement of
life extension [2]. Although non-destructive damage
detecting techniques have been developed and extensively
studied with respect to creep damage in these steels, using
not only base metal and cross-weld standard specimens, but
also full-scale component test rigs in Japan, it is essential to
understand the actual creep damage mechanisms and to
accurately predict the long-term creep rupture strength at
100,000 h and service life. In the present paper, advances in
technology related to the creep life prediction and damage
evaluation for creep strength enhanced ferritic steels being
studied from the various aspects such as creep strength
extrapolation methods, microstructures, modelling, and
non-destructive and destructive testing in Japan are
surveyed.
2. PREDICTION OF LONG-TERM CREEP
RUPTURE LIFE
In order to develop design stress values, or allowable stresses
in the creep regime, it is necessary to predict 100,000 h creep
rupture strength. Also to conduct life assessment of compo-
nent materials, the service life must be accurately known at

234 doi: 10.3184/096034011X13123829786079

 Creep life prediction and damage evaluation: Fujimitsu Masuyama
Figure 1 Comparison between creep rupture lives of Gr.91 pre-
dicted by Larson Miller parameter with best fit constant value of
32 to 38 and value of 20 [7].
the given stress and temperature. To predict the 100,000 h
creep rupture strength or service life at operating conditions
the time-temperature parameter (TTP) technique, for
instance, the Larson Miller parametric method is commonly
used to extrapolate from shorter and higher temperature
databases. In the standard equation, T(C log tR), the
Larson Miller constant C was 20 when this method was
introduced for the aging or tempering of steels, but optimized
values from 10 to 40 have subsequently been found to be
suitable, depending on the material. A value of approxi-
mately 31 was used for Gr.91 steel [3], and 36 for Gr.92 and
Gr.122 steels [4], and most researchers and engineers were in
consensus for the use thereof. Recently, however, some
research results indicate that the parameter constant C must
be reduced to lower values ~20 from the mathematically
fitted value of around 31 or 36 for the respective steels at low
stress conditions [5,6], because the data obtained under lower
stress and higher temperature conditions do not meet the
predicted values, due to the unexpected degradation for creep
strength enhanced ferritic steels with martensitic structure as
shown in Figure 1 [7]. The design stresses for a welded joint
are usually developed by multiplying weld strength reduc-
tion factors, which are determined as ratio values of cross-
weld creep rupture strength to base metal rupture strength.
This means that the overestimated base metal strength gives
a higher design stress for a welded joint. In 2004, a Gr.122
longitudinally seam-welded hot reheat pipe experienced
steam leaking at the welds due to a Type IV failure
mechanism after 33,000 h service, and in the last decade
Gr.91 seam-welded hot reheat pipe elbows also leaked after
approximately 80,000 h service. The design stresses for these
steels were derived at that time from the extrapolated
100,000 h strength predicted by the use of a mathematically
best fit parameter constant for all creep rupture data, such as
36 and around 31 for Gr.122 and Gr.91 respectively.
The steam leakage accident with Gr.122 provided an
opportunity to start the recalculation of design stress for all
kinds of creep strength enhanced ferritic steels worldwide.
Re-evaluation of stresses in Japan was started in 2004 at the
JAPEIC Committee under the METIyNISA (Nuclear and
Industrial Safety Agency) sponsorship [8 12]. The creep
strength prediction method used in the re-evaluation of these
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Figure 2 Comparison of creep rupture data of Gr.122 to the
regression curves (solid lines) obtained from the solid data points
below half the 0.2% proof stress [20].
allowable stresses is based upon research results on the stress
dependence of degradation and creep rupture life of creep
strength enhanced ferritic steels. The studies found a break-
down in the stress-time to rupture diagram at a stress of half
the 0.2% proof stress, and the data calculated were separated
at this stress using a different Larson Miller parameter
constant such as 20 for the lower stress region (regional
splitting analysis method) to accurately predict the 100,000 h
strength which should be lower than a stress of half the 0.2%
proof stress at the temperatures [13 16].
As mentioned above in the regional splitting method [7],
the data set is simply separated at the stress of half the 0.2%
proof stress. From another point of view it is proposed that
the data set be divided into several regions (multi-regional
analysis method), because the apparent activation energy Q
for creep rupture life changes from a high value in the short-
term to a low value in long-term, while the conventional TTP
technique ignores the changes in Q, resulting in the over-
estimation of creep rupture strength [17 19]. Figure 2 [20]
shows the comparison of actual creep rupture data points for
Gr.122 against the regression curves (solid lines in Figure 2)
by the regional splitting method using the 0.2% proof stress
reported in the reference for this steel [4]. The dash-two
dots curve in Figure 2 indicates the critical stress of half the
0.2% proof stress; however this curve is located above the
dash dot curve which is determined by the multi-regional
analysis method. The horizontal dotted line also shows the
boundary of upper limit causing the static recovery during
creep with lower stress exponent n and lower activation
energy Q. This proposed method predicts a more conserva-
tive strength for all temperatures compared with single
region analysis or the regional splitting method, and provides
a fundamental understanding of creep degradation in terms
of creep activation energy [21,22].
The 100,000 h creep rupture strength predicted from
temperature-accelerated creep rupture test data gives design
stress or allowable stress multiplying the reciprocal of design
factors of 1.5 for average strength, however, in the 2001
edition of the ASME Code, an F average concept was
introduced to apply a multiplier Favg instead of the reciprocal
of design factors of 1.5, defining the Favg such that
log Favg
1yn (n is the stress exponent or the slope of
MATERIALS AT HIGH TEMPERATURES 235
Creep life prediction and damage evaluation: Fujimitsu Masuyama
Figure 3 Temperature dependence of the ratio sR (105) to sR (106)
and sR (104) to sR (105) [23].
the log time to rupture versus log stress plot at 100,000 h).
Assuming that the Favg is the ratio of the creep rupture
strength at 1,000,000 h (sR 106 ) to that at 100,000 h
(sR 105 ), Favg and the ratio sR (104) to sR (105) are
calculated against temperatures as shown in Figure 3 for
Gr.91 [23]. From Figure 3 it is evident that the maximum
temperature of design factor of 1.5 is applicable for the
welds at 540 C for the case of both parameter constants of 20
and 36.
3. MICROSTRUCTURAL DEGRADATION DURING
CREEP
3.1 Feature of microstructural degradation in creep
strength enhanced ferritic steels
Creep strength enhanced ferritic steels use primarily Cr, Mo
andyor W, V, Nb and N as the alloying elements, and since
they are tempered martensite, the as-received hardness is
around 220 HV. This hardness declines by only 5% when
subjected to thermal aging for 30,000 h at 650 C, and
declines by 20 30% due to creep after 10,000 to 30,000 h
exposure associated with microstructural degradation.
However, it is very difficult to determine the creep degrada-
tion and material conditions through the optical microstruc-
ture in the case of creep strength enhanced ferritic steels,
while for conventional Cr Mo steels with ferrite and pearlite
structures, or coarse-grained martensiticyfine-grained
bainitic structures for base metal or heat affected zones
respectively, their degradation rating and creep damage
percentage can be determined. Figure 4 illustrates the creep
damage progress for Cr Mo steels and creep strength
enhanced ferritic steels as well as the damage detecting
method applied to the first half of creep life. The micro
cracks and macro cracks in the latter half of stage III and
stage IV of the creep life are detectable by non-destructive
testing and replication techniques. In the case of Cr Mo
steels, microstructural changes (stage I) under the optical
microscope followed by creep cavitation processes (stage II)
can be classified against the creep damage rating, but both
stages in creep strength enhanced ferritic steels are not
distinguishable, and creep damage rating is impossible by
236 MATERIALS AT HIGH TEMPERATURES
Figure 4 Creep damage progress and damage detecting methods.
microstructural observation. Recently, microstructural
changes have been simulated employing the free energy
concept as a thermodynamic model for steels [24 26] and
Ni-based alloys [27]. Figure 5 shows the change in reduced
system energy, composed of a chemical free energy, an
interfacial energy and elastic strain energy [28]. The
system energies are reduced with creep time in both Gr.91
and Gr.92 towards the saturated values, which are higher
than those of the equilibrium state, and it is seen that there
are no marked differences between the grip portion and
gauge portion for Gr.91; and there is a larger drop in
energy for Gr.91 than Gr.92 due to the relatively greater
structural degradation. These results suggest that structural
simulation would be helpful in assessing the material condi-
tions and creep damage.
3.2 Precipitation behaviour in creep strength enhanced
ferritic steels
M23C6 and Laves phase can be observed as precipitates at the
tempered martensite grain boundaries using an optical
microscope, and TEM allows observation of MX as well.
MX is extremely fine, and does not show any major change
in particle size resulting from thermal aging or creep. In
contrast, M23C6 and Laves phase show coarsening due to
thermal aging and creep [29]. There are four kinds of grain
boundaries in the structure, i.e., prior austenite, packet, block
Figure 5 Changes in reduced system free energy with time [28].
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 Creep life prediction and damage evaluation: Fujimitsu Masuyama

strength enhanced ferritic steels, it is said that fine MX

Figure 6 Effect of creep exposure on precipitates diameter dis-
tribution for Gr.91 [31].
carbo-nitride particles strongly improve creep resistance by
precipitation hardening in the matrix [1]. Therefore the
precipitation behaviour of MX during the heat treatment
process and creep exposure has extensively been investigated
as well as Z phase formation from M2X or Cr(Nb, V)N after
long-term creep exposure [32 34]. Through the studies on
the effect of tempering temperature on the precipitation and
creep strength, M2X particles in the steel tempered at 680 C
disappeared during creep for about 20,000 h, being accom-
plished by the formation of VX which contributed to
maintain higher creep strength without any formation of Z
phase. On the other hand, Z phase formation was observed in
the steels tempered at 730 C and 765 C after 12,000
20,000 h creeping conditions, this promoting the creep
degradation [35].

and lath, while prior to the creep exposure, M23C6 is seen at

all grain boundaries and MX is observed at the lath grain 3.3 Stability of martensite lath structures
boundaries and within the lath. After creep exposure, new
Laves phase precipitation is seen at the grain boundaries. It is The creep strength enhanced ferritic steels are composed of
known that the sizes of these precipitates change due to very fine martensite lath structures with approximately 1 mm
heating and creep. According to particle size distribution width at normalized and tempered conditions, and the
measurement results [30] for MX, M23C6 and Laves phase morphology of lath structures correlates with the crystal-
on the grip and gauge potions of 10Cr 1Mo 1W V Nb lography. The morphology and crystallography of martensite
steel, average values on the grip portion are approximately lath structures have been extensively studied by use of
30 nm for MX, 80 nm for M23C6 and 350 nm for Laves metallographic instruments [36]. Particularly EBSD (electron
phase, while on the gauge portion these are approximately backscattering diffraction) technique has recently become a
50 nm, 130 nm and 400 nm, respectively. The distributions strong tool to reveal the crystallographic changes of marten-
are generally normal, with M23C6 demonstrating the greatest site lath structures during creep, as well as the conventional
decline in peak height, and with the peak particle size for techniques of TEM and SEM, because the crystallographic
MX and Laves phase moving in the direction of increase. orientation of the martensitic structures changes with
Looking at the precipitate size distribution measurement recovery and creep deformation. Measuring the mis-orienta-

results [30] in the case of thermal aging at 600 C, Laves tion angles is a way to know the information about grain
phase precipitation is not seen prior to thermal aging, with boundary changes due to creep degradation. Figure 7 [37]
distribution occurring due to the heating. With respect to the shows the changes in lath boundary length per unit area in
Laves phase size distribution, the peak location moves terms of creep strain under several creep conditions and
rapidly towards the maximum in conjunction with heating TEM structures observed at tytR 0:2 and 0.6 of crept
time. Specifically, the average size (that is 70 nm at around conditions. At the beginning of creep, the length of the lath
1,000 h) changes to 400 nm at around 33,000 h. In boundary increases a little corresponding to the generation of
contrast, the average sizes of MX and M23C6
(approximately 50 nm and 80 nm respectively),
do not exhibit any major changes due to heating.
From the above, Laves phase undergoes consider-
able coarsening even without the stress, while it
can be seen that growth without stress for MX and
M23C6 is quite limited, and that even the effect of
stress on MX is quite small. In this context, M23C6
appears particularly sensitive to the action of stress.
Figure 6 [31] presents the precipitate size distribu-
tions before and after creep (interrupted at 0.9 of
tytR ) performed on Gr.91. There is no change in
the average particle size for all precipitates, and
only the precipitates in excess of 100 nm are seen
to experience coarsening. Precipitates in excess of
100 nm correspond to M23C6 and Laves phase, and
it is considered that coarsening of Laves phase is
due to heating during creep, while that of M23C6 is
due to the action of stress during creep exposure. Figure 7 Relationship between lath boundary length and creep strain for Gr.91
Among the precipitates appearing in the creep [37].

www.materialshightemp.co.uk MATERIALS AT HIGH TEMPERATURES 237

Creep life prediction and damage evaluation: Fujimitsu Masuyama
Figure 8 Relationship between lath width and creep.
new boundaries within the lath shown in the TEM graph (a),
then it linearly decreases with creep strain due to the
recovery of lath structure with subgrain growth (TEM
graph (b)).
A TEM photograph [38] in Figure 8 [39] indicates the
structure of Gr.91 with 25% tensile strain at 820 C.
Normalized and tempered as-received material has an extre-
mely high dislocation density, with an approximately 1 mm
width lath structure, but deformation at high temperatures
results in a dramatic lowering of the dislocation density, and
substantial growth in lath size can be seen. Also, while it is
thought that precipitates originally exist at the lath bound-
aries or on other grain boundaries, the photograph clearly
shows that these are dispersed within the grains, and the
alignment of precipitates suggests that they had been at the
original grain boundaries. This type of structure is also
observed after creep [40], and it is considered to be caused
by movement of the lath boundaries or subgrain boundaries
during creep. It is already known that the grain size of this
lath (inclusive of subgrains) is related to creep resistance, and
as indicated in Figure 9 [38], creep resistance declines in
proportion to the cube of the lath width. The lath width is
also strain-dependent, and as shown in Figure 8 [39], this
increases proportionately with strain until the strain reaches
approximately 0.1. It appears that necking occurs in cases
where the strain is above ~0.1, and, although the lath width is
shown as a constant value in order to separate the location of
structural observation from the necking area, it is considered
that there is actually a wide range in which the proportional
relationship holds. It is clear that such lath boundary move-
ment or grain growth is induced by the action of stress and
the resulting strain. Based on considerations [39] of this
process, precipitates are strongly bound, with the dislocation
networks (serving to increase internal stress) moving as a
result of the action of stress and reaching the lath boundaries.
When these networks are swept by the movement of the lath
boundaries, it is thought that they are absorbed, thus
increasing the interface energy. Considering the growth of
the lath structure, given some form of change to the
precipitate or interaction between the precipitate and the
dislocation to which it is bound, the dislocation could shift
238 MATERIALS AT HIGH TEMPERATURES
Figure 9 Relationship between lath width and strain for Gr.91 [39]
minimum creep rate for Gr.91 [38].
away and reach the lath boundary, thus being the direct cause
of the boundary movement. The lath width would be
inversely proportional to the load stress (lath width being
greater with lower stress), and as a result the lath structure or
subgrains that had grown would have a major effect on
hardness. Especially in the case of ruptured material, it is
predicted that hardness will decline with lower stress. With
respect to the lath width distribution as well, while a normal
distribution applies to cases of high stress above approxi-
mately 100 MPa, the distribution in the case of low stress is
characterized by two maxima, and mixing of coarse and fine
grains is reported [41]. Hardness, on the other hand, is
proportional to the square root of the dislocation density
remaining after creep deformation, such that a relationship
can be established between hardness and lath width.
Accordingly, because lath growth behaviour differs
depending on stress, it is predicted that differences will
also occur in terms of changes in hardness. As a result of
investigations [40] into the influence of lath width and
dislocation density on the hardness of Gr.91, it has been
clarified that increased lath width and reduced dislocation
density cause hardness to decline. As lath width and disloca-
tion density are directly related to creep resistance, measure-
ment of hardness can be understood to enable estimation of
material creep resistance.
4. DIAGNOSTIC AND DAMAGE DETECTING
TECHNIQUES FOR CREEP LIFE PREDICTION
4.1 Applicability of replication technique
It is extremely difficult in the case of creep strength enhanced
ferritic steels with a martensitic structure to discriminate
structural changes corresponding to creep life fraction. As
these steels feature a fine martensite structure, such changes
cannot be ascertained on an optical microscopic level.
Furthermore, precipitate distributions obtained from extrac-
tion replicas do not indicate meaningful changes with respect
to life fraction, and, because influence is sustained from the
conditions associated with taking extraction replicas, they are
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 Creep life prediction and damage evaluation: Fujimitsu Masuyama
Figure 10 Microstructural observation of replica taken from OD surface of internal pressure creep test tube [42].
currently difficult to utilize in life assessment. Accordingly,
attention has focused on specific precipitates such as M23C6,
and new approaches such as EBSD analysis [37] using
samples taken from components as mentioned above are
needed in order to track changes in these structures. In
contrast, it has proven possible to observe creep cavities
using the replication method for components such as super-
heater tubes, whose surfaces are subjected to multi-axial
stress conditions, and the resulting cavity numbers clearly
indicate changes in comparison with life fraction. On the
other hand, almost no cavities are observed on the surface of
welded joints, and changes with exposure time are not
clearly evident; however sub-surface damage takes place
within the wall of welds. Figure 10 [42] represents observa-
tions using the replication method of creep cavities on the
surface of a Gr.91 tube internally pressurized for a creep test,
with the corresponding plot of cavity density number in
Figure 11 [42]. Clear correlation is seen between this number
density of cavities and life fraction, and this type of figure
can be used for life assessment of superheateryreheater tubes.
Figure 11 Number density of cavity versus creep versus creep life
fraction life fraction curve for Gr.91 [42].
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4.2 Potential drop method
Using an alternating current electrical resistance measure-
ment apparatus, the difference in potential was determined
between the surface of Gr.91 large-scale cross-weld creep
test specimens with the cross-section of 30 mm square [42]; a
frequency of 97 Hz was used to determine the difference in
potential between a damaged location (heat affected zone)
and a non-damaged location (base metal). Figure 12 [42]
shows the relationship between the potential drop ratio
between the damaged location and non-damaged location,
and life fraction as determined from measurement results
comparing with conventional Gr.22 Cr Mo steel: a clear
relational diagram was obtained for both steels. Thus, by
measuring the potential drop ratio, and using the relational
diagrams obtained for the potential ratio and the life fraction,
life assessment is possible. However the life fraction depen-
dency of potential drop ratio for Gr.91 is less than that for
Gr.22.
Figure 12 Potential drop ratio curve for Gr.91 [42].
MATERIALS AT HIGH TEMPERATURES 239
Creep life prediction and damage evaluation: Fujimitsu Masuyama
Figure 13 Anodic polarization curve and relation between peak
current density versus creep life fraction [44].
4.3 Electrochemical method
An example of the conditions for electrochemical polariza-
tion measurements is introduced as follows [43]. The
measurement surface of specimens is polished to a
0.1 mm diamond finish. The surface area exposed to the
test solution is 0.3 to 0.5 cm2 and the remaining surface is
electrically insulated using paraffin. The electrochemical
polarization measurements are performed in a 1 M-KOH
solution at a temperature of 30 + 1 C. The potential of the
specimens is scanned from the rest potential ( 400 mV
versus SCE) at a sweep rate of 0.5 mVys to obtain anodic
polarization curves. In this case, it was seen that the peak
current density Ip for Gr.92 increased with thermal aging
and creep, and corresponded to the selective dissolution
volume of M23C6 and Laves phase. Figure 13 [44] shows
electrochemical measurement results for Gr.122 under
similar test conditions indicating two peak current densities
at around
250 mV and 250 mV, respectively, and
increase of these peaks in terms of creep life fraction.
However there is no effect of stress for the Ip1 which
should be the thermally dominant factor, in contrast the
effect of stress is significantly observed for Ip2 if the data
are compared between grip portion and gauge portion.
According to other examples of test results for an
internally pressurized creep test specimen and a cross-
weld creep specimen [42], and as correlation was recog-
nized between peak current density Ip and creep life
fraction with respect to base metal, this method was
considered to be applicable for life assessment. It should
be noted, however, that, because there is inhomogeneous
structural change in the weld heat affected zone, there will
be many cases in which there is not a consistent structure
within the measurement region. Thus, it will be difficult to
apply this method to welded joints.
240 MATERIALS AT HIGH TEMPERATURES
4.4 Measurement of lattice defect response to creep
degradation
The positron annihilation method has a capability to measure
the atomic-scale defect in solids, and is used for in-situ
measurements of the thermal equilibrium defect in some
metallic materials [45]. Recently this technique has been
applied to fatigue damage evaluation by measuring positron
lifetime [46], and also to creep damage evaluation devel-
oping equipment for high performance and accurate positron
annihilation life monitoring combined with a high tempera-
ture creep test machine (Shirai, Y. unpublished work). The
equipment has the capability of measuring the changes in
dislocation density and lattice defect due to very fine particle
precipitation during the creep exposure of creep strength
enhanced ferritic steels. The hydrogen desorption profile
analysis method has been developed to evaluate material
conditions and creep damage for creep strength enhanced
ferritic steels [47]. This is basically a technique to use
hydrogen as a tracer of changes in lattice defects including
precipitation in the material. The steels aged or crept at high
temperature are charged with hydrogen by cathodic electro-
lysis and then subjected to thermal desorption spectroscopic
analysis. Experimental results revealed that the amount of
hydrogen desorbed CH , decreased monotonously as ageing
proceeded and there was a relatively good correlation
between CH and hardness. It was suggested that the
changes in decomposed profiles due to ageing might reflect
the dislocation density conditions and precipitation of
M23C6, etc. [48].
4.5 Hardness method and model for creep life prediction
Consideration thus far clearly indicates that hardness drop is
due to creep, and that the amount of decline is strongly
related to life consumption or creep degradation, and that the
hardness of tempered martensitic structure is influenced by
the structural conditions of grain boundaries, subgrain size,
precipitates, dislocation density and creep strain [48 50].
The effect of these microstructural parameters upon hardness
is investigated by use of not only macro-ymicro-hardness but
also on the nano-indentation technique [51,52]. The creep
strength enhanced ferritic steel in the present context experi-
ences reduced hardness due to thermal aging, but the amount
of decline is small, and is actually extremely large under the
action of stress. That is, reduced hardness in the crept
materials is based on structural changes dependent upon
stress, and there is no doubt that the assessment of life
from hardness measurement values has a firm basis in
materials science. The hardness drop measured for Gr.91,
both thermally aged and creep-interrupted for base metal and
welds (minimum hardness in the heat affected zone), taking
the Larson Miller parameter as a variable, can be demon-
strated as shown in Figure 14 [50]. It is found from Figure 14
that, for the hardness data from the higher stress tests at
98 MPa and above, there is scatter at relatively lower values
of the Larson Miller parameter, while for the data from the
lower stress tests, there is scatter at higher parameter values,
thus being divided into two parts (including the weld data).
The reason why the hardness versus Larson Miller para-
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 Creep life prediction and damage evaluation: Fujimitsu Masuyama

Figure 14 Relation between hardness drop and hardness ratio and

Larson Miller parameter [51]. Figure 15 Relation between creep life fraction [51].

meter plot can be divided into two parts is considered to be measured are input to calculate the creep life fraction
(i) strain-oriented softening for the higher stress test and (ii) consumed.
stress-oriented softening for the lower stress test, without any
tytR 1y0:150:98
HyH0
dependence of temperature and time. The hardness measured 
on the grip portion corresponds well with that of the aged 1y0:15f0:98
Hgy H expKs6T20 log t
specimens. The hardness (H) measured for the creep 4
specimen linearly reduced with the creep life fraction, and
Using this hardness model, creep lives of creep specimens
there is a linear relationship between hardness and creep life
were predicted, and compared with the observed creep life
fraction of 0.2 to 0.9 for base metal and welds. When the
fractions, and it was found that predicted lives are longer
initial hardness (H0) for base metal and welds is defined as
than the observed ones in an approximate range of factor of 2
the hardness of the grip portion of the base metal and that of
for high stress softening and factor of 3 for low stress
the base metal of the welded joint respectively, the hardness
softening [50].
ratio is shown as being linear against the creep life fraction as
indicated in Figure 15 [50]. The hardness ratio (HyH0) can
be expressed as below. 4.6 Simplified tertiary creep modelling method

In order to assess the creep damage or creep life, a tertiary

HyH0 0:98
0:15tytR 1 creep modelling method, the so-called Omega method [53] is
adopted by API 579, and the logarithm of the strain rate is
where tytR is creep life fraction. well expressed by the following equation over a wide range
The hardness drop (DH) due to creep and thermal aging of tertiary creep, irrespective of stress and temperature.
can be demonstrated as a function of the Larson Miller
ln e ln e 0 Oe or e e 0 exp Oe 5
parameter as shown in Figure 14. Three lines represent the
hardness drop due to creep or ageing for the high stress creep where e is the creep rate, e0 is the initial creep rate, and O is
test, low stress creep test, and thermal aging test respectively. the strain rate acceleration factor (dlneyde).
The logarithmic hardness drop is expressed by following When the duration of primary creep is short enough, the
equation. creep life and creep strain can be expressed by the terms O
and e0 , and the remaining creep life is expressed by
ln DH ln DH0 Ks6LMP 2 following equation.
tR
ti 1yOei 6
where DH is the hardness drop; DH0 is the initial hardness Therefore to obtain the remaining life, the values of O and
drop; Ks is the coefficient for high stress (98 MPa and the instantaneous true creep strain rate ei are needed at the
115 MPa), low stress (71 MPa) and ageing, LMP: given time ti , however these values are sometimes difficult to
T(20 log t); T is the absolute temperature in K; t is the be determined. In order to simplify the remaining life
time in hours. ln DH0 is assumed to be 0. Therefore Eqn (2) prediction by the Omega method it was considered that the
can be expressed in the following form. instantaneous true creep strain rate ei could be estimated
from the average creep rate, eavg , which should be the ratio of
ln DH KsLMP Ks6T20 log t 3 the creep deformation to the operating duration, and thus the
parametric expression of the value of O could be developed.
As the creep life fraction tytR is given by Eqn (4), the initial In this sense, ei is expressed by aeavg (a is the coefficient),
hardness H0 is not necessary, but only the temperature and and O is expressed by the parametric function of stress and
operating hours as well as the hardness value instantaneously temperature as mentioned below [50]. To express the para-

www.materialshightemp.co.uk MATERIALS AT HIGH TEMPERATURES 241

Creep life prediction and damage evaluation: Fujimitsu Masuyama

3 mm diameter and 0.25 mm thickness for creep tests [57].

Figure 16 [57] shows the results of the small punch creep
rupture test of the base metal plotted in terms of the Larson
Miller parameter compared with data for a uniaxial standard
creep test. Correlating between the load and the stress to
convert the result of the small punch creep test into that of a
standard creep test, the ratio of load to stress was calculated
as 0.43 so that the curves for the small punch creep test and
standard creep test overlapped each other [58].

5. CONCLUSIONS

The creep strength enhanced ferritic steels, grades 91, 92

Figure 16 Results of mall punch creep test and uniaxial standard
creep test [58].
122, etc. with a tempered martensitic structure including
welds has been extensively used in fossil-fired power plant
worldwide for the last decade or so, and development of
creep life prediction technology is strongly demanded
metric expression of the value of O, the Larson Miller
because of several experiences of premature creep failures
parameter is employed and the time to rupture in the
with these steels. Technologies related to creep life predic-
equation is converted to KMG em (the Monkman Grant
tion and damage evaluation for these types of steel are being
relationship), where KMG is the Monkman Grant constant,
studied from several aspects in Japan (such as creep strength
and em is the minimum creep rate. Then since the minimum
extrapolation methods, microstructures, modelling, and non-
creep rate em is expressed by Nortons law i.e. em Asn ,
destructive and destructive testing) and each has been
KMGem becomes KMG Asn . Accordingly the temperature-
surveyed. As a result, it was recommended that the creep
stress parameter, F T; s) is expressed by the following
life prediction of creep strength enhanced ferritic steel must
equation.
   be grounded on the findings of microstructural degradation
FT; s T C log KMG yAsn 7 and creep softening in martensitic structures, composed of
very fine martensite laths, block, packet and prior austenite
where C is the parameter constant.
grains, and precipitation and dislocation structures.
The magnitude of the O value increases with decreasing
Mechanical, physical and chemical property response (hard-
both the stress and temperature at temperatures of 500 C and
ness, potential drop, electrochemistry, lattice defect, cavita-
above. The O values can be expressed in terms of the
tion, etc.) to creep degradation, and measurement and
temperature-stress parameter F T; s, and the linear rela-
detection of localized creep damageystrength would be
tionship between both the O value and F T; s estimates
useful tools to develop diagnostic techniques for life predic-
the O value thus predicting the remaining creep life.
tion of creep strength enhanced ferritic steels. Creep life
Accordingly, the deformation record of the equipment for
prediction based on creep strain modelling and creep rupture
given operating hours, and the data bases of the material used
data (including small punch creep test data) analysis would
(such as the Monkman Grant constant and Nortons stress
also be promising.
exponent as well as the operating stress and temperature)
simply provide the remaining creep life.
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