Personality and Individual Differences 50 (2011) 742746

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Personality and Individual Differences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/paid

The relationship between adult romantic attachment anxiety,

negative life events, and compliance
Kim E. Drake , David Shefeld, Deborah Shingler
Department of Psychology, University of Derby, UK

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This study investigates the role of attachment anxiety and the experience of intense life adversity in the
Received 5 October 2010 development of compliance. It also seeks to specify which types of negative life events may be especially
Received in revised form 16 December 2010 relevant in encouraging compliant behaviour, and whether gender may moderate this effect. Participants
Accepted 24 December 2010
(N = 125) completed the Gudjonsson Compliance Scale, the Life Events Questionnaire and the Relation-
ship Scale Questionnaire. Contrary to previous research, attachment anxiety and the reported experience
of intense negative life events appear to be associated with signicantly lower compliance scores. Gender
Keywords:
appears not to moderate this relationship. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses show that inter-per-
Psychological vulnerability
Psychological resilience
sonal negative life events and attachment anxiety together predict lower compliance scores. This is the
Compliance rst study to show that adult romantic attachment anxiety and the experience of intense negative life
Attachment anxiety events can also lead to psychological resilience, reducing the probability of false confessions and state-
Life adversity ments during police interview.
2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The Memorandum of Good Practice (1992) and the Home Ofce
guidelines on Achieving Best Evidence (2002, 2008) have lead to a
gradual shift in interviewing practice within England and Wales.
Despite this change for the better though, psychological vulnera-
bility during police interview may still be an issue (Kebbell &
Gilchrist, 2004). Concern has also been expressed regarding the
use of external pressure during police questioning in countries be-
yond the United Kingdom (e.g. the interviewer indicating that
some responses are wrong; Milne & Bull, 1999). While some of
the police forces are now trying to reduce the use of inappropriate
tactics, robust questioning/interviewing linked to compliant
behaviour and false statements and confessions may still be com-
monplace in many countries (Bull & Milne, 2004; Kassin et al.,
2010a, 2010b).
Compliance can be a serious psychological vulnerability dur-
ing interview (Gudjonsson, 2003; Gudjonsson, Sigurdsson, Lyds-
dottir, & Olafsdottir, 2008). Research into understanding the
pathways to and specic indicators of compliance is required,
as such work will open up avenues for the development of im-
proved interventions and psychological assessment methods for
the police and courts. Suspects scoring high on compliance,
who ended up being wrongfully convicted, have presented them-
selves throughout history (e.g. Birmingham Six, Guildford Four,
Corresponding author. Address: University of Derby, Department of Psychology,
Kedleston Road, Derby DE22 1GB, UK.
E-mail address: k.drake@derby.ac.uk (K.E. Drake).
Judith Ward, and Alfred Allen among others), yet are the least
well understood in terms of how such individuals have come
to be malleable and less able to cope with the pressure of ques-
tioning (Gudjonsson, 2010).
The aim of this paper is to investigate the background factors of
interviewees that may increase the risk of developing compliant
tendencies. It specically focuses on investigating the relationship
between attachment anxiety, the reported experience of intense
negative life events and compliance, and examines which types
of negative life events may be especially relevant (e.g. indepen-
dent, dependent and/or personal negative life events). This will
add to previous research into compliance (see Gudjonsson et al.,
2008) and allow environmental factors, important in the develop-
ment of compliant tendencies, to become more specied (Jaffee &
Price, 2007).
Research shows that psychologically vulnerable individuals
(including those scoring high on interrogative suggestibility and
compliance) seem to have an endogenous tendency towards
heightened distress and to score high on attachment anxiety (see
Donnellan et al., 2007; Drake, 2010b; Gudjonsson et al., 2008).
Attachment behaviour is mainly concerned with the maintenance
of emotional, psychological and physical closeness with a signi-
cant other person (Bowlby, 1988). Attachment anxiety (manifest
in high preoccupied-anxious attachment and fearful-avoidant
attachment scores; see Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991; Grifn &
Bartholomew, 1994) is related to low self-esteem, a negative
self-perception and high levels of inter-personal difculties
(Cyranowski et al., 2002; Feldman Barrett, 1997; Simpson, Rholes,
& Phillips, 1996).

0191-8869/$ - see front matter 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.12.034
 K.E. Drake et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 50 (2011) 742746
Attachment anxious behaviour can draw out negativity from
the environment and increase the likelihood of individuals experi-
encing negative life events (Jaffee & Price, 2007; Scarr & McCartney,
1983). Genetic studies have shown that these adverse experiences
can subsequently reafrm such characteristics culminating in the
anticipation of (and sensitivity to) adverse environments (see Re-
iss, 2010 for a review of the literature). Compliance may be a
coping mechanism, employed by such individuals, during tasks
or dyadic interactions perceived as stressful (Costa & McCrae,
1992).
Attachment anxiety and the experience of negative life events
have already been implicated in the development of a suggestible
character. Signicant correlations have been reported between
attachment anxiety, the reporting of intense negative life events,
and interrogative suggestibility (Drake, 2010b) and between the
report of intense negative life events and interrogative suggestibil-
ity (Drake, 2010a; Drake, Bull, & Boon, 2008). Studies in this area so
far suggest that attachment anxiety and the experience of intense
negative life events may contribute to a lesser ability to cope with
the pressure of police questioning. Therefore attachment anxiety
and the experience of intense negative life events may also relate
to compliant behaviour. To date no research has investigated the
relationship between attachment anxiety, the experience of in-
tense negative life events and compliance.
The specic types of negative life events most associated with
attachment anxiety and conducive to bringing about compliant
behaviour will also be investigated. Negative life events can be
split into categories: independent, dependent, and inter-personal
negative events (see Jaffee & Price, 2007). Independent negative
events include the death of a loved one, losing ones home in a nat-
ural disaster; whilst dependent negative events are heritable, con-
trollable, and dependent upon a persons behaviour (e.g. losing
your job, getting divorced). Inter-personal negative life events are
specic type of dependent negative events and refer solely to in-
ter-personal difculties (i.e. relationship issues, conicts with
friends, co-workers, and family).
Dependent and inter-personal negative events (compared with
independent negative events) are associated with a range of psy-
chological vulnerabilities such as depression, anxiety, and a lesser
ability to cope with social challenge (Eley et al., 2004; Jaffee &
Price, 2007). Individuals who score high on attachment anxiety
(neuroticism and negative emotionality being a feature of this)
may be prone to the experience of dependent and inter-personal
stressful life events (e.g. conict within romantic relationships,
with colleagues and with friends).
Characteristics (such as attachment anxiety) can have a lasting
effect on the social environment, evoking hostile and critical re-
sponses and [negatively] inuencing life choices. Inter-personal
negative experiences can amplify those attachment anxious char-
acteristics, conrm negative self-perceptions, and encourage a fear
of abandonment (Brennan & Shaver, 2002; Brown, Harris, & Biful-
co, 1986; Reiss, 2010). This fear of abandonment and emotional
rejection, encouraged through the experience of negative inter-
personal events, may lead to an increased risk of compliance
(Gudjonsson et al., 2008). No research exists investigating this par-
ticular issue.
The study by Gudjonsson et al. (2008) suggests however that
the relationship between adult romantic attachment anxiety and
avoidance and compliance may be specic to females (by virtue
of recruiting a female sample). Males scoring high on attachment
anxiety also experience problematic relationships, negative events,
and are stress-sensitive (Kirkpatrick & Davis, 1994). Studies show
that men are more sensitive to the effects of divorce or separation
and work problems (Kendler, Thornton, & Prescott, 2001). There-
fore research suggests that men can also become psychologically
vulnerable as a result of the experience of [dependent] personal
743
negative life events. This gender effect needs therefore to be
investigated.
1.1. Predictions
Attachment anxiety (manifest in preoccupied-anxious attach-
ment and fearful-avoidant attachment scores) and the experience
of intense negative life events will correlate with and predict com-
pliance in both males and females.
The reported experience of dependent and inter-personal nega-
tive life events will be more strongly related to attachment anxiety
and compliance (compared with independent negative life events).
2. Method
2.1. Participants
The sample consisted of 125 participants, 61 females and 64
males (mean age = 40.27, standard deviation = 11.61, range = 18
64 years). Participants are an opportunity sample, consisting of
staff and students within a UK university.
2.2. Instruments
2.2.1. The Gudjonsson Compliance Scale (GCS) (Gudjonsson, 1989)
This 20-item, true/false, instrument measures the extent to
which individuals tend to comply with others requests. Scores
range from 0 to 20. The scale was originally developed for two rea-
sons: (i) to identify those individuals who may be more likely to
make false confessions under pressure during interview; and (ii)
to identify individuals who are more likely to be coerced into crime
by peers and others. Scale validity is well documented (see
Gudjonsson, 2003), with Cronbachs alpha coefcient in past stud-
ies ranging from 0.71 to 0.75.
2.2.2. Life Events Questionnaire (LEQ) (Norbeck, 1984)
The LEQ contains 82-items in total and is a modication of the
instrument developed by Sarason, Johnson, and Siegel (1978), in
that it has nine items of particular relevance to women. These in-
clude items such as Major difculties with birth control pills or
devices. The nine additional items in the LEQ were introduced
to reduce the gender bias in the Sarason et al. (1978) version.
The 82 different life events can be categorised into the follow-
ing: independent life events, dependent life events, and inter-per-
sonal life events. Independent negative events include the death of
a loved one, losing ones home in a natural disaster; whilst depen-
dent negative events are heritable, controllable, and dependent
upon a persons behaviour (e.g. losing your job, getting divorced).
Inter-personal negative life events are a particular type of depen-
dent negative events, and include adverse events that occur during
dyadic interaction (e.g. inter-personal conicts, relationship break-
ups) (Jaffee & Price, 2007).
Participants were required to go through all the events listed,
and if they had experienced them at any point of their life, to circle
whether it had been a good experience or bad experience. They
were then instructed to rate the extent to which those events had
an effect on their lives at the time. The ratings went from 0 (no
effect) to 3 (large effect). The LEQ has good testretest reliabil-
ity, with testretest reliabilities of 0.780.83 and is a signicant
predictor of measures of (unfavourable) psychological and psychi-
atric symptoms.
The questionnaire was originally designed to examine life
events experienced over the past year. However, research has
shown the importance of studying life events during adolescence,
as this period is characterized by many physical, social and
744 K.E. Drake et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 50 (2011) 742746
cognitive changes (Cohen, Burt, & Bjorck, 1987). In view of this and
past research (Drake, Bull, & Boon, 2008; Drake, 2010a, 2010b), it
was deemed more appropriate to examine events spanning the en-
tire life of the individual. Participants were instructed to read
through the events listed, and mark the ones that have occurred
throughout your whole life, not just the past year.
2.2.3. The Relationship Scales Questionnaire (RSQ) (Grifn &
Bartholomew, 1994)
The RSQ contains 30-items. For each item on the RSQ, partici-
pants have to rate on a ve point scale the extent to which each
statement best describes their behaviour in close relationships.
Out of the 30-items, ve contribute to secure attachment, ve to
dismissing attachment patterns (high scores denoting attachment
avoidance), four to fearful-avoidant attachment patterns (indicat-
ing high levels of both attachment anxiety and avoidance), and
four to preoccupied-anxious attachment patterns (high attach-
ment anxiety).
Attachment avoidance is shown by the degree of discomfort
with inter-personal closeness and relationships and a propensity
towards self-reliance. Attachment anxiety is characterised by a
preoccupation with relationships. Attachment anxious individuals
are prone to jealously, clinging behaviour with partners, and a fear
of abandonment. In view of past research showing the role of
attachment anxiety in particular in predicting interrogative sug-
gestibility (Drake, 2010b) and compliance (Gudjonsson et al.,
2008), this study focuses on the preoccupied-anxious (high attach-
ment anxiety) and fearful-avoidant (high attachment anxiety and
avoidance) subscales of the RSQ. Table 1 shows good internal reli-
ability scores for both subscales.
3. Procedure
Participants completed an online questionnaire survey consist-
ing of the GCS, LEQ and RSQ. The hyperlink to the questionnaire
study was distributed via email and through online forums within
the University. Participants had to click on the hyperlink which
took them to the consent page. Once consent had been given, par-
ticipants gained access to the questionnaires. Only those who com-
pleted the consent form were taken to the questionnaires. This
method has been used successfully by other studies collecting data
online (such as those reviewed in the study by Meyerson & Tryon,
2003).
Meyerson and Tryon (2003) demonstrated in a study into the
psychometric equivalency of web-based research that computer
and uncontrollable administration of questionnaires does not seem
to adversely affect the quality of results. Data collection via the
web is benecial for a number of reasons: (1) it is reliable, (2) valid,
(4) cost effective, and (5) efcient.
Table 1
Means, standard deviations, Cronbach Alpha, and zero order correlation coefcients among observed variables.
M SD 1 2
GCS 10.5 4.07 0.19
NLE 25.6 17.9
INLE 11.9 8.69
DNLE 32.9 22.3
IPNLE 21.1 15.5
PAA 10.8 3.16
FAA 9.94 3.73
Cronbach alpha 0.80 0.79
Note: N = 125. M = mean; SD = standard deviation; NLE = negative life events (in general); three specic negative life event variables: INLE = independent negative Life events;
DNLE = dependent negative life events; IPNLE = inter-personal negative life events. PAA = preoccupied-anxious attachment; FAA = fearful-avoidant attachment. p < .05,
p < .01, and p < .001.
4. Results
4.1. Descriptive statistics
Tables 1 and 2 presents the means and standard deviations for
the observed variables. The normality of the data was checked,
revealing univariate normality for the GCS, LEQ and RSQ scores.
4.2. Pearsons correlations
Table 1 shows the zero order correlations between the mea-
sured variables. Results indicate signicant negative relationships
between compliance scores and the reported experience of more
intense negative life events (total), the reported experience of more
intense dependent negative life events, and the reported experi-
ence of more intense inter-personal negative life events. The re-
sults show that compliance scores are most strongly correlated
with the reported experience of intense inter-personal negative life
events. Compliance scores also relate negatively to preoccupied-
anxious attachment scores (high attachment anxiety) and fearful-
avoidant attachment scores (both high attachment anxiety and
avoidance scores).
Considering the Gudjonsson et al. (2008) study suggesting a
gender difference (through testing only female participants) and
in view of the evidence provided in the current introduction that
males may also be susceptible to the [adverse] effects of the expe-
rience of inter-personal negative life events (Kendler et al., 2001;
Kirkpatrick & Davis, 1994), the issue of gender difference was
investigated. A formal test of difference between independent cor-
relations was conducted. Table 2 shows the resultant chi-square
values, demonstrating that the differences in correlation magni-
tude across gender are not statistically signicant. There is no evi-
dence of a gender difference in these relationships.
4.3. Hierarchical multiple regression analysis
To investigate the extent to which the reported experience of
IPNLE and attachment anxiety contributed to the variance in com-
pliance scores, a hierarchical multiple regression analysis was con-
ducted using forced entry methods. Preliminary analyses were
conducted to ensure no violation of the assumptions of normality,
linearity, and homoscedasticity. The collinearity diagnostics were
adequate (minimum tolerance = .36) in all of the regression analy-
ses. Age was entered into the rst block, PAA into the second and
IPNLE into the third. Table 3 shows that both models 2 and 3 are
statistically signicant. Preoccupied-anxious attachment, fearful-
avoidant attachment and the experience of intense inter-personal
negative life event scores together contribute to the variance in
compliance scores. This effect is in the negative direction.
3 4 5 6 7
0.11 0.19 0.21 0.24 0.19
0.82 0.97 0.93 0.32 0.25
0.76 0.63 0.21 0.20
0.95 0.29 0.21
0.31 0.22
0.32
0.78 0.79 0.79 0.83 0.81
 K.E. Drake et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 50 (2011) 742746 745

Table 2 ture (see Beasley, Thompson, & Davidson, 2003; Reiss, 2010):
Zero order correlation coefcients across gender with corresponding chi-square Cognitive hardiness within a proportion of participants scoring
values.
high on attachment anxiety and negative life events may explain
M SD GCS NLE INLE DNLE PNLE PAA FAA this resilience. Resilience to adversity is also seen in individuals
Females scoring high on trait anxiety (Kashdan & Kane, 2011). A polymor-
GCS 10.1 3.99 .263 .142 .306 .323 .267 .348 phism in the serotonin transporter gene has been found to moder-
Males ate the effect of life stress on subsequent psychological
GCS 10.9 4.12 .089 .030 .063 .095 .219 .049
{2 .973 .390 1.92 1.72 .093 2.94
vulnerability (Caspi et al., 2003). There is therefore theoretical evi-
dence supporting these contradictory ndings and a [genetic] het-
Note: For females: N = 61; for males N = 64. M = mean; SD = standard deviation; erogeneous response to adversity. This could account for the lower
GCS = Gudjonsson compliance scale [scores]; NLE = negative life events (in general);
compliance levels in a proportion of individuals.
three specic negative life event variables; INLE = independent negative life events;
DNLE = dependent negative life events; IPNLE = inter-personal negative life events. The second nding to emerge is that the experience of intense
PAA = preoccupied-anxious attachment; FAA = fearful-avoidant attachment. inter-personal negative life events (e.g. family dynamics, bullying,

p < .05, p < .01, and p < .001. romantic relationship and friendship breakdown; see Jaffee &
Price, 2007), preoccupied-anxious attachment and fearful-avoidant
Table 3 attachment scores together contribute signicantly to the variance
Hierarchical multiple regression analysis for psychological variables predicting in psychological resilience. This notion is consistent with evidence
compliance. from the clinical psychological and developmental psychopatho-
Predictor variable Beta t-value Adjusted R2 logical literature (for examples see Eley et al., 2004; Kim &
Cicchetti, 2006). High attachment anxiety correlates with the expe-
Block 1
Age .017 .190 .008
rience of stressful inter-personal events (which reinforces the
F(1, 122) = .036 attachment anxious behaviour) leading to, in a proportion of indi-
Block 2 viduals, a greater resilience and a lesser tendency to become com-
Age .009 .104 .049 pliant during dyadic interactions (i.e. a police interview).
PAA .197 2.13 F(3, 120) = 3.12
It seems therefore that the reported experience of inter-per-
FAA .131 1.41
sonal negative life events is also important in the development of
Block 3 psychological resilience (see Table 3). This effect occurs in both
Age .006 .073 .059 males and females. The current ndings provide no evidence of
PAA .160 1.67 F(4, 119) = 2.92 gender moderating the relationship between attachment anxiety,
FAA .111 1.18
IPNLE .139 1.49
the experience of inter-personal negative life events and
compliance.
Note: N = 125. IPNLE = inter-personal negative life events. PAA = preoccupied-anx-
ious attachment; FAA = fearful-avoidant attachment. p < .05, p < .01, and

p < .001. 5.1. Limitations and tentative conclusion

In model 2 PAA scores make a signicant contribution to the
variance in compliance scores; this is not the case in model 3. In
model 3 none of the variables make a statistically signicant un-
ique contribution to the regression model.
5. Discussion
The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship be-
tween the experience of intense life adversity, attachment anxiety
and compliance. It also sought insight into which types of negative
life events may especially be relevant to encouraging compliant
behaviour. Some interesting albeit unexpected ndings emerged:
First, results demonstrate that attachment anxiety, the experi-
ence of intense negative life events and compliance are signicantly
correlated. This seems to resonate with the Gudjonsson et al. (2008)
study showing a signicant relationship between romantic attach-
ment anxiety and avoidance and compliance. What was interesting
though is that the signicant relationship emerged in the opposite
direction. Attachment anxiety and the reported experience of in-
tense negative life events appear to have signicantly increased
the risk of psychological resilience (i.e. lower compliance scores).
Research up until now has shown that individuals scoring high
on attachment anxiety who then experience intense negative
events become psychologically vulnerable (e.g. Drake, 2010a,b;
Drake, Bull, & Boon, 2008; Gudjonsson et al., 2008). This study is
the rst to now provide contrary ndings. Web-based research
has been shown to yield reliable ndings (Meyerson & Tryon,
2003). The instruments used also demonstrate good internal reli-
ability coefcients.
Although these ndings are unexpected, there is evidential sup-
port from the social psychological and behavioural genetics litera-
There are some limitations to this study. First, the online nature
of the data collection may raise questions as to the quality of the
data; studies show though that web-based research is as reliable
as in person research (Meyerson & Tryon, 2003). Despite the con-
trary ndings, this study managed to replicate the positive correla-
tion between attachment anxiety and the reported experience of
more intense negative life events (this relationship was found in
a previous study where participants completed the questionnaires
within a controlled environment and in person; Drake, 2010b).
This corroborative nding suggests that the online data collection
method may not have had a detrimental impact on the quality of
the data. An additional source of limitation may be the use of staff
and students within the University, which Caspi (1998) remarked
is potentially the Achilles heel in psychology.
Although the effect sizes are small to medium, the ndings
within this study are important. They suggest that attachment anx-
iety and the experience of intense negative life events (those of the
inter-personal nature in particular) may also lead to psychological
resilience during police interview. These current ndings resonate
with studies within the social psychological and behaviour genetic
eld (Beasley et al., 2003; Caspi et al., 2003; Kashdan & Kane, 2011;
Reiss, 2010). Genetically informed studies should now be con-
ducted to investigate the theories that have emerged from these
contrary results, in order to further inform our understanding of
what drives the heterogeneous reaction to negative life events, to
uncover the valid indicators of compliant behaviour.
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