c HAPT EA 8 Modeling the Forces and Moments on the Vehid e

Here mg is the vehicle weight, and Sw = 169 ftl. Note that since the reference value of
the propulsive moment is zero, the reference value of the aerodynamic moment must
be zero as well. So the reference values of all aerodynamic moments (and side force) are
zero. This is a normal result for straight and level flight if the propulsive moment is zero.

6.6 FORCES AND MOMENTS DUE TO

TRANSLATIONAL VELOCITY
PERTURBATIONS
The forces and moments acting on the vehicle are affected when the vehicle
undergoes motion. That is, changes in the vehicle's translational and rotational
velocities relative to the air mass affect both the aerodynamic and propulsive
forces and moments. In Sections 6.6 and 6.7, we will address the effects of three
translations and three rotations, plus the rate of change of angle of attack. In each
case, the analysis procedure will involve:
Describing the mechanisms by which the motion affects the forces and
moments.
Expressing the forces and moments in appropriate terms, including their
nondirnensional coefficients.
Deriving expressions that capture the effects of the particular motion on
these forces and moments.
Determining the partial derivatives of the forces and moments with respect
to the motion variables.
Let's first address, in general, the effects of perturbations in translational
velocity. Figure 6.16, which is critical to understanding the effects of these
motion perturbations, shows the vehicle's stability and fuselage-reference axes,

U0 +rt Xg

Figure 6.16 Translational velocity perturbations.

 8.8 Forces and Moments Due to Translational Velocity Perturbations 289

along with the reference and the instantaneous free-stream velocity vectors, V"'o
and V"''respectively. Also shown are the lift Land drag D at the perturbed tlight
condition. The side-forceS is not shown for clarity.
Recall that the components of V "'o in the stability axes are

(6.92)

since due to the definition of the stability axes W0 will always be zero. With no
sideslip Y0 will also be zero, so then
(6.93)
Also, the components of the perturbed velocity vector V"' in the same axis sys-
tem are defined by

(6.94)

In the perturbed flight condition, the vehicle's angle of attack becomes ~ + a,

while the sideslip angle becomes 130 + {3.
From Figure 6.16 one can see that the perturbation angle of attack a can be
expressed in terms of the perturbation plunge velocity w, or
w
tana =~-:- (6.95)
U0+u
Assuming a is sufficiently small, and u is small compared to U0 , the above may
be approximated as

(6.96)

Likewise, the sideslip angle may be expressed in terms of the lateral compo-
nent of velocity, or
Y 0 +v
tan(l3 0 + f3 )= ~~ (6.97)
u0 + u
Again assuming 130 + f3 is sufficiently small, and u is small compared to U 0, we
can write
Y 0 +v
13o + f3 ""' -Uo- (6.98)

and thus the reference and perturbation sideslip angles may be expressed in terms
of the lateral velocities a~

(6.99)
280 c HAPT EA 8 Modeling the Forces and Moments on the Vehide

Perturbations in the magnitude of free-stream velocity affect the dynamic

pressure q"'' and thus the magnitudes of the aerodynamic forces and moments
as well. The dynamic pressure, written in terms of the reference and perturba-
tion velocities, is given by

(6.100)

Perturbations in the direction of the free-stream velocity vector, or perturba-

tions a and /3, affect both the magnitudes as well as the orientation of the lift,
drag, and side force with respect to the stability axis. Recall that lift is always
defined as acting normal to the free-stream velocity vector and lying in the XZ
plane of the vehicle (and thus the XsZs plane). Likewise, drag always acts along
the free-stream velocity vector, and side force is mutually orthogonal to both lift
and drag. Although the lift and drag shown in Figure 6.16 may appear to be act-
ing in the same directions as L0 and D0 in Figure 6.15, that will not be the case in
general due to the velocity perturbations.
To aid in the following analysis, let us recall the wind axes introduced in
Chapter 2, with unit vectors iw, iw and kw. And letiw act in the direction opposite
to V"'' iw in the same direction as the side force S, and kw in the direction oppo-
site to lift L. From Figure 6.16 we can see that the orientation of this velocity-
fixed frame relative to the stability axis will be defined by the perturbation angle
of attack a and the total sideslip angle (130 + /3). Note that a is a rotation about
the is axis, while (13 0 + /3) is a rotation about the k w axis. Therefore, following
the techniques presented in Chapter 1, the unit vectors of these two frames may
be related through a direction-cosine matrix T 1v, s Or

nT.,r:} (6.101)

Jr ]
where

Tw.s=
r(jl, +p)f3) ,;,(jl, + p)/3) 0
sin(l3o cos(l3o 0 0 1
0 sin a
0
0 0 1 sina 0 cos a
(6.102)
rooo(!l.J sin (13 0 + f3) sin a cos (13 0 + f3 )
= cos sin 0
+ p)
a (13 + f3)
- sin a
cos (130 + f3 )
0
-sin a sin (130 + f3)
cos a ]
Now the total aerodynamic force vector FA acting on the vehicle may be
expressed as
(6.103)
 8.8 Forces and Moments Due to Translational Velocity Perturbations 281

Or

f,, F~ F~] n (-D S -L ] {: } (6.104)

So, using Equation 6.101, we have

Therefore,
f,, F,, F,,] t} t } (-D S -L]r(;, (6.105)

t }Tw, ~:}
and the components of the total aerodynamic force in the stability axes are
(6.106)

F11x = Cxq~ = -Dcosacos(13o + {3 ) - Scosasin(l3o + /3)+ Lsina

F11 r= Crq"'S = -Dsin(l30 + /3)+ Scos(l3 0 + /3) (6.107)

FAz= CzqwS = -Dsinacos(13o + f3)- S sinasin~0 + f3)- Lcosa

By total forces we mean reference plus perturbation. For example, for the total
drag we have D = D0 + 8D. Also note that by using the appropriate direction-
cosine matrix, the aerodynamic-force components in any coordinate frame may
be determined by performing an analysis similar to that above.
In Equations (6.1 07) we have also expressed these force components in coef-
ficient form, introducing the coefficients Cx, Cy, and C2 . We will use Equations
(6.1 07) frequently in the foUowing sections. Note .also that setting both perturba-
tion angles a and {3 to zero in these equations leads to the results given in Equa-
tions (6.87) for the force components in the reference condition.
Perturbations in translational velocity may also affect the propulsive forces
and moments acting on the vehicle. Referring back to Section 6.3 and the
sketches in Figure 6.14, we found that for the turbojet, the change in thrust due
to a perturbation in axial velocity is
aT aT
ovAxJal --
1
a oM,
(6.108)

where a is the sonic velocity in the oncoming flow. We also found that the change
in thrust due to a perturbation in axial velocity foe a fixed-pitch propeUer device
may be expressed as
aT SHPTJp SHP ilTJp T T oTJp
-K + K --:--- - - + ---- (6.109)
()vAxial V~ V"' tlV Axial v"' TJ P ()vAxial
282 c HAPT EA 8 Modeling the Forces and Moments on the Vehide

where it is assumed that the throttle setting is fixed, and hence the shaft power is
constant. Finally, we found that the change in thrust due to a perturbation in axial
velocity for a variable-pitch propeller device was
aT -T (6.110)
()vAx.ial

Considering the effects of a perturbation in transverse velocity AvTransve.se we

noted that in tenus of the flow turning angle a P

(6.111)

where methods for estimating this effect for propeUer-driven devices are pre-
sented in Ref. 4. And we had the change in normal force due to a change in
transverse velocity for a turbojet engine given by

(6.112)

where the mass-flow rate must be obtained from the engine data. We will use
Equations (6.108-6.112) in the sections to follow.

6.6.1 Surge-Velocity Perturbation u

Perturbations in the surge velocity u affect the dynamic pressure qoo and the flight
Mach number M,.,, both of which affect the aerodynamic forces and moments in
general.
From Equations (6.1 07) we have

FAx = Cxfj,.,S
FA r= Cyq~ (6.113)

where

Cx = - C 0 cosacos(J30 + 13 )- C5 cosasin (J30 + 13 )+ Ct. sin a

Cr = - Cosin(l3o + 13)+ C5 cos(l3o + 13) (6.114)

Cz = - Cpsinacos(J3o + 13 )- Cssinasin(J3o + 13 )- C,, cosa

Now Jet the effect of surge perturbations on these three force components be
quantified in terms of the partial derivative ()FA f()u, evaluated at the reference
condition. So then we have

(6.115)
 8.8 Forces and Moments Due to Translational Velocity Perturbations 283

And from Equation (6.100) we have

~
iJu
b= Pco(uo + u )b = PooUo (6.116)

Note that we can also express iJC.IiJu, the effect of surge velocity on the
three force coefficients, in terms of the effect of Mach number M,., on these coef-
ficients. That is, we may write

-iJC. =- iJC. --=

i)u
1 iJC.
--,
iJC.
Moo
=X, Y,
1
a i)m"'
1
a i)
orZ (6.117)

where a is the sonic velocity in air, and m"' is the perturbation in Mach number
due to the perturbation in surge velocity. The last equality in the above equation
reflects the fact that a derivative is defined in terms of infinitesimal variations in
the variables.
Interpreting u!a as the perturbation Mach number m"' in Equation (6.117) is
justified by the following analysis. First, we write the Mach number in terms of
its reference value plus the perturbation, or
M., = Mco0 + m"'
Then using a Taylor-series expansion, we can write the perturbation Mach
number as
iJM,., bu+--
m.,=-- iJM., bv + - - bw
iJM"'
i)u i)v i)w

where Mach number is defined as

M"' A !:..=
a
~v'(uo
a
+ u J + (Vo + v J+ (wo + w J (6.118)

Therefore, we have the perturbation in Mach number due to the perturbation in

surge velocity given by

iJM"' bu = !,_Do+ u \ u= !_ Uo u""' ~ (6.119)

iJu ~ V"' J a V"' a
thus proving the original assertion. It may also be noted that by following a simi-
lar analysis one finds that

iJMco
- i)v
bv ""' 13o-V (6.120)
a
and

-iJM"' bw=O
iJw
since W 0 is always zero in the stability axes.
284 c HAPT EA 8 Modeling the Forces and Moments on the Vehide

Therefore we have the effect of surge-velocity perturbation on the aerody-

namic force components given as

a~.- b= ~a~
- -Mqoo Sw + C.SwPoo (uo + u ) )
au a 00 (6.121)

If 130, and therefore V0, equals zero, this expression reduces to

To evaluate Equation (6.121), we can again refer back to Equations (6.114), from
which we find that

Cx0 = -C0 0 cosl3o- Cs0 sinl3o

Cy0 = -C00 sinf3o + Cs0 cosl3o (6.123)

Czo = -CL.o
and that

(6.124)

where

A ac. b
C... = - - = a - -
ac. b.:~.= aC. , C. = CL, Co, Cs, Cx, Cy, or Cz (6.125)
~ aM"' au " . .
Note that all these partial derivatives are evaluated at the reference condition, at
which perturbation a and f3 are zero. Therefore, Equations (6.121-6.125) quantify
the effects of surge-velocity (u) perturbation on the aerodynamic forces.
It is worth noting that since the effect of surge velocity on the force coef-
ficients is inversely proportional to sonic velocity a, this effect will be small
unless the effect of Mach number on the lift, drag, or side force coefficient is
large. But the effect of Mach number may, in fact, be quite large in the transonic
speed range, especially in the case of drag. Shown in the sketch in Figure 6.17 is
 8.8 Forces and Moments Due to Translational Velocity Perturbations 286

M~ = 1

Figure 6.17 Effect of Mach number on drag coefficient.

the qualitative effect of Mach number on vehicle drag coefficient. It is clear that
when the reference Mach number is near M,0 = 1, not only may the magnitude
of C0 be large, but the sign of C0 " may also quickly change if the reference
Mach~wnber changes only slightly.

IdeaJJy, wind-tunnel data would be available to evaluate the effects of Mach

number on the lift, drag, and side-force coefficients. But if such data is not a vail-
able, one may develop simple estimates of the Mach effect by recalling the
Prandtl-Glauert compressibility factor from Chapter 5. This factor retlects the
effect of compressibility on the pressure distribution over a 2-D airfoil. Applying
this factor to the vehicle lift coefficient, we may write

C
/. = vCL1 ~1=0
- Mco2'
M
co
< 1 (6.126)

Therefore, for subsonic free-stream velocities we have

(6.127)

where CL.o is the reference value of the vehicle's lift coefficient. For vehicle drag
and side-force coefficients we may likewise use (for subsonic velocities)

(6.128)

Attention now turns to the effect of perturbation surge velocity on the aero-
dynamic moments acting on the vehicle. The components of the total aerody-
namic moment MA in the stability axes are defined by Equation (6.88), or
MA = LAis + MAjs + NAks
288 c HAPT EA 8 Modeling the Forces and Moments on the Vehide

And in terms of nondirnensional coefficients we have

LA = CL Roll q"'Swhw
MA = CMqcoS wC..v (6.129)

NA = CNqcoSwhw
The effects of perturbation in surge velocity u on these moments are quanti-
fied by the partial derivatives
iJLA 1 iJMA b iJNA b
- - Kl - - 'and - -
iJu iJu iJu
all evaluated at the reference flight condition. And just as in the case with the aero-
dynamic forces, the effects of perturbations in surge velocity u on the moments
arise due to the effect of u on dynamic pressure and the effect of Mach number
on the nondirnensional moment coefficients. Therefore, following the approach
taken previously when dealing with the aerodynamic forces, we find that

(6.130)

The above expressions, therefore, quantify the effect of perturbation in surge

velocity u on the aerodynamic moments acting on the vehicle.
Note that frequently reference conditions will result in the reference values
of rolling-, pitching-, ;md yawing-moment coefficients being equal to zero. In
such cases the second terms in parentheses on the right-hand sides of Equations
(6.130) will vanish. Also, since the effects of surge velocity u on the moment
coefficients (the first tenus in parentheses on the right-hand sides of Equations
(6.130)) are inverse!y proportional to sonic velocity a, these first terms will be
small unless the moment coefficients are very sensitive to Mach number. Such
may be the case with pitching-moment coefficient when reference flight velocities
 8.8 Forces and Moments Due to Translational Velocity Perturbations 287

are in the transonic speed range. The reason for this is the shift in location of
the aerodynamic center of the lifting surfaces, and hence the shift in location
of the vehicle's aerodynamic center. As discussed in Chapter 5, as the free-stream
velocity increases from subsonic to supersonic, the aerodynamic center of an
airfoil shifts from around the quarter-chord to near the mid-chord. As a result,
though difficult to estimate, in the transonic speed range the change in pitching
moment with Mach number, that is, CMM , may become quite large in magnitude
and either positive or negative. When a large negative value occurs, it is referred
to as a Mach tuck condition since the vehicle tends to pitch down.
Attention now turns to the effects of perturbations in surge velocity on the
propulsive forces and moments. Consistent with Equations (6.2), the compo-
nents of the propulsive force vector in the stability axes are defined by
(6.131)
And, as with the aerodynamic forces, we may express these forces in terms of
nondimensional force coefficients defined here.
Fp, = Cpxq,Sw
F Py = cPyq,SIV (6.132)
Fp2 = Cp2 q,Sw
Consistent with Equations (6.115) and (6.116), the effects of surge velocity on
these propulsive forces are then expressed as

()FP.
-b=
()u
(6.133)

Now by referring to Figure 6.13, and noting that it has been assumed that the
thrust force(s) are symmetric with respect to the X:Z plane of the vehicle, we will
write the components of the total propulsive force (Equation (6.131)) in terms
of their reference values plus perturbations in surge velocity u, thrust 8T, and
normal force on the engine 8FN. Or

Fp, = Fp, o + CpxoSw ()q"'

()u
bu + 8T cos(cf>r + CX(l ) - 8FN sin (47 + CX(l)

Fpr= O (6.134)

Fp2 = Fp2o + Cp.oSw ()q"'

2 ()u
bu - 8Tsin(cf>r + exo) - 8FNcos (cf>r + txo)

Note that since we are considering surge-velocity perturbations, any propulsive

normal force FN will lie in the vehicle's XZ plane; hence the side force Fpr will
remain zero.
288 c HAPT EA 8 Modeling the Forces and Moments on the Vehide

The force perturbations 8T and 8FN in Equations (6.134) may now be

expressed as
oT
8T = - u =
oT ov AJ<lal
......;..;.;;....u
i}u (}vAxial i}u
(6.135)
oFN oFN OVTrausverse
8FN =- u = -:--------:--u.
0U O~rausverse 0U
To address the partial derivatives of thrust and normal force in the above equations,
we may refer to the earlier discussion of the effects of changes in axial and trans-
verse flow velocities on the thrust and nonnal force associated with the propulsive
devices. Then we must deal with the geometry of the flow- the orientation of the
axial and transverse tlow perturbations arising due to the surge perturbation.
From Figures 6.14 and 6.16 we can write

.ivAxial = ucos{1>r + C4J)

(6.136)
.ivTra.nsverse = usin(c/>r + ~)
Therefore,
aT
8T= cos(c/>r+ C4JP
i}vAx.ial
(6.137)

Consequently, the partial derivatives of the propulsive force components with

respect to surge velocity are given by

aF
~6=0 (6.138)
(}u

iJFpz oT .
-(}u b= CpZoP.,UoSw- ovAxial bcos(cf>r + C4J)sm(cf>r + C4J)
- oFN bsin (c/>r + C4J) cos {1>r + C4J)
(} VTrausverse.

Typically the angle (1>1.+ exo) is small, and the above equations may be simpli-
fied accordingly.
The partial derivatives of thrust and normal force in the above expressions
may be evaluated using Equations (6.108- 6.112), depending on the type of
 8.8 Forces and Moments Due to Translational Velocity Perturbations 289

propulsion system(s) installed on the vehicle. Also, by comparing Equations

(6.133) with Equations (6.138), and assuming the angle (cf>t. + ao)is sufficiently
small, we find that in terms of coefficients we have

1 aT
Cp = - b
x. q,S w ()vAx.ial
Cp =0 (6.139)
'
1
Cp = - - -
z. q"'Sw

The changes in propulsive pitching moment due to velocity perturbations

can be important if the engines are mounted far forward or far aft on the vehicle.
The changes in propulsive rolling and yawing moments will be negligible if the
thrust and propulsive normal force is symmetric with respect to the vehicle's XZ
plane and with the engine-installation geometry assumed here.
To address the pitching moment, we draw from Equations (6.134) and Figure
6.13 to write the propulsive moment Mp as

M p = Mpo + c PM SwCiv aq,

o ()u
bu + oT ftlr cos c/>r- Xr sincf>r)
- oFN~T COS c/>r + dr Sin c/>r) (6.140)
= Cp,.q,Swcw
So, consistent with Equations (6.130), we have the effect of surge-velocity per-
turbations on the propulsive pitching moment given by

Again, all the zero subscripts indicate the reference values of the corresponding
parameters.
Following the approach taken above in analyzing the perturbation propulsive
forces, we find that the effect of surge-velocity perturbation on the propulsive
pitching moment may also be expressed as

(6.142)
270 c HAPT EA 8 Modeling the Forces and Moments on the Vehid e

'JYpically the angle (<Pr + ao )is small, and the reference value of propulsive pitching-
moment coefficient is also frequently small or zero. Consequently, Equation
(6.142) can often be significantly simplified. Again, the partial derivatives of
thrust and normal force in Equation (6.142) may be evaluated using Equations
(6.108-6.112), depending on the type of propulsion system(s) installed on the
vehicle. By comparing Equations (6.141) and (6.142), and assuming angles <Pr
and (<Pr + ao) are sufficiently small, we find that in terms of the propulsive--
moment coefficient we have

tdr - Xr</Jr) iJT b - (xr + dr</Jr) oFN b(</Jr + CX())

\ cvAx.iaJ OVTraosverse

(6.143)

Effects of Surge-Velocity Perturbations on the Forces and Moments

Again consider the vehicle described in Examples 6.1-6.4. Detennine the effects of surge-
velocity perturbations on the aerodynamic and propulsive forces and moments acting on
the vehicle. Assume the flight Mach number M,. = 0.2, as in the previous examples.
Solution
From Equations (6.121), with no sideslip we have

~ iJC.
ilFA,
-.
au
~= -~ + -
iJM,.
2C. 0
0o kSw=
C(..+
\
2C. 0
-U ~Sw. =X,Y,orz
o )_
From Example 6.4 and Equations (6. 23) we find that the reference values of the force
coefficients are
To -mg + T0 sin2
Cx., = -Coo = - - S ' Cr.,= C:~o = 0, and Cz,, = -Cr, = S
q,., w q,. w
And from Equations (6.124) with no sideslip angle we have
iiCx
aM;; ~ = - Co,v,. cos f3o - Cs,v,. sin f3o = -Co"~

iiCv .
-- L
aMoo JJ
= -Co~-w smf30 + Cs.11 Q;
cos f3o = Cs, w ""0
aCz _ -c
iJM,. P- L,v~
But from Equations (6.127) and (6.128) we have
 8.8 Forces and Moments Due to Translational Velocity Perturbations 271

Therefore, with U0 = 0.2a the effects of surge-velocity perturbations on the aerodynamic

forces are given by

aFAz ~ aCx 2Cx., 1 10.21

- b= -M b+ -U ~Sw = --(0.21 + 10)CD0qoeSw = - - - CD0 qoeSw
au a oe 0 ) a a
aFA, ~ aCy 2Cy0
-b = -b + - ~Sw=O
au aM" Do )
aFAz ~ aC2 2Cz 10.21
- p= - p+ ~0 ~Sw= - - -Cr..,qoe Sw
au aM" Uo ) a
where Cr.., and CD., were determined as a function of thrust and weight in Example 6.4.
With regard to the effects on the aerodynamic moments, Equations (6.130) state that
iiMA l iiCM _ _ . 2CM(,
- '" = - - ' " q Swcw + C~t0SwcwP.,Uo = C(M + -U
iJu ~~ a aM" ~~ " \ 0

and that
aLA aNA
Tu'" ~ "" 0 and -;;;;- p "" 0
Furthermore, since the flight Mach number of 0.2 is likely well below the critical Mach
number for the lifting surfaces, little or no shift in the aerodynamic center is expected.
Consequently,
eM"~ "" o
Therefore we have the effect of sutge-velocity perturbations on the aerodynamic pitching
moment given by
aMA 10 ~
-au b = -a CAt<>qoeSwcw = 0
where Cu., was found to be zero in Example 6.4.
The effects of sutge-velocity perturbations on the propulsive forces are given by
Equations (6.138), or, including the more significant teimS, we have
aFPz aT
au io= avAxial b
-
aFp, aFpz
-iiup =O and - au b ""0
But from Equation (6.108) we have
aT 1 aT
-:--- p= - - p
avAxiat a (!Moe
where the change in engine thrust with respect to flight Mach number would be evaluated
from the engine test data.
Finally, the effect of sutge-velocity perturbations on the propulsive pitching moment
is given by Equation (6.141), which is
272 c HAPT EA 8 Modeling the Forces and Moments on the Vehid e

while the effects on propulsive rolling and yawing moments are negligible. And from
Equation (6.143) we have

1 iiT iiFN
Cp" = S _ (for- xr<Pr), . ~ - (Xr + dr<Pr), ~ />r +no ) )
qoo WCW \.. <7VAJ<,a] "Vfr""'""""
which with <Pr = dr = 0, a 0 = 2 deg, and Xr = 2Cw reduces to
-2 iJFN
Cp, =-qt.~:;s-W ~ ~ (2/57.3))
u \Vrra.nS\'eniC

Since in Example 6.4 we found that Cp"<>= 0, the effect of surge velocity on the propul-
sive pitching moment is given by
iiMp aF.,
-~ = -2c "
au ..,., JJ (2/57.3)
av,;...,.-.

6.6.2 Plunge-Velocity Perturbation w

The effect of plunge-velocity perturbation won the aerodynamic and propulsive
forces and moments arises due to the concomitant change in vehicle perturbation
angle of attack a (see Equation (6.96)).
As in the previous analysis dealing with surge velocity u, we will quantify
the effects of plunge-velocity perturbations on the aerodynamic forces in terms
of the partial derivatives iJFA.fiJw, evaluated at the reference flight condition.
From Equation (6.96) we found that the perturbation angle of attack may be
expressed as
w
a~ -
Uo
And from Equations (6.113) we have the components of the aerodynamic force
expressed as
FAx= Cx<JooS
FAy= CyqooS
FAz = Czq,.,S
where, from Equations (6.114), we have the force coefficients in the stability
axes given by

Cx = - C0 cosacos(J3 0 + !3)- C5 cosasin(J3 0 + f3 ) + CLsina

Cr = - C0 sin(l3o + /3) + Cscos(l3o + {3 )

Cz = - C0 sinacos(l3o + /3) - C5 sinasin(l30 + {3 ) - C1 cos a
Therefore, for each of the three components in Equations (6.113), we have
the effect of plunge-velocity perturbations given by
 8.8 Forces and Moments Due to Translational Velocity Perturbations 273

iJFA.
iJC. iJq"'
-b=
iJw
-bq,.,Sw +C.0 Sw-b, =X,Y,or Z
iJw iJw
(6.144)

From Equation (6.100), we find that

()q
- b= Poo (w0+ W) b= 0
()w
(6.145)

This result follows from the facts that in the stability axis W0 = 0, plus all
perturbations vanish at the reference condition. Therefore, Equation (6.144)
reduces to

where, from Equations (6.114), we find that

-iJCx
()a
b= - iJCo
-()a
bcosl)0 + C1- b= -Co.a cosl)0 + C1-o

-iJCy iJCo . .
()a
b= - -()a
bsml)0 = - C 0 sml'o
a
(6.147)

Note here that we have assumed that iJCsliJa = 0. So Equations (6.146-6.147)

quantify the effects of plunge-velocity perturbations on the aerodynamic force
components in the stability axes. And Equations {6.18) and (6.31) may be used
to evaluate C,_, and C0 ,, respectively.
In a similar fashion we will quantify the effects of plunge-velocity perturba-
tion on the aerodynamic moments acting on the vehicle. The components of the
aerodynamic moment MAare again defined by Equation (6.88), or
MA= LAis + MJs + NAks
And in terms of nondirnensional coefficients, we have from Equations (6.129)
LA = Cr.rw,1q,.,Swbw
MA = CMqooSwcw

NA = CNqooSwbw
The effects of perturbation in plunge velocity won the aerodynamic moments are
quantified by the partial derivatives

-iJLA b, -iJMA b,and -iJNA 6

ow iJw iJw
274 c HAPT EA 8 Modeling the Forces and Moments on the Vehid e

all evaluated at the reference flight condition. And just as in the case with the
aerodynamic forces, the effects of perturbations in plunge velocity w on the
moments arise due to the change in angle of attack a.
Typically, due to the symmetry of the vehicle about its XZ plane, a change in
vehicle angle of attack has little effect on its rolling or yawing moment. There-
fore, we will focus attention on evaluating the effect of angle of attack on pitch-
ing moment. In terms of the pitching moment coefficient, we may write the effect
of plunge-velocity perturbation on pitching moment as

(6.148)

where Equation (6.56) may be used to evaluate the vehicle's angle-of-attack

pitching-moment effectiveness CMa
Attention now turns to the effects of perturbations in plunge velocity on the
propulsive forces and moments. Recall that the total propulsive force expressed
in terms of its components in the stability axes was given in Equation (6.131).
Referring to Figure 6.13, and noting that it has been assumed that the thrust
force(s) are symmetric with respect to the XZ plane of the vehicle, we will write
the components of the total propulsive force in terms of their reference values,
plus perturbations in the thrust STand the normal force on the engine SFN. Or,
consistent with Equation (6.134), we now have

Fpx = Fpx + ST cos&>r + CX{)) - SFNsin &>r + CX{))

0

Fpr =O (6.149)

Fp2 = Fpx0 - ST sin&>r + CX{)) - SFN cos &>r + CX{))

Note that since we are only consideling plunge-velocity perturbations, any pro-
pulsive normal force FN will also lie in the XZ plane; hence the side force Fpr
will remain zero. Consistent with Equation (6.146), the effects of plunge velocity
on these force components are .expressed as

The force perturbations STand SFN in Equations (6.149) may now be expres-
sed as
aT aT avAxial
ST= -w= w
aw avAxial aw
(6.151)
aFN aFN avTransverse
SFN= - w= w
aw a\l>rransverse aw
To address the partial derivatives of thrust and normal force in Equations (6.151),
we may refer to Equations (6.108-6.112). Here, then we simply must deal with
 8.8 Forces and Moments Due to Translational Velocity Perturbations 276

the geometry of the flow-that is, the orientation of the axial and transverse
flows due to the plunge velocity perturbation.
From Figures 6.14 and 6.16, and including the effect of wing upwash or down-
wa~h at the engine inlet or propeller shaft on the local plunge velocity, we can write

<iVAx.ial = -wiQletSin~r + ao)= -w J:+ dS;oJet )in(f/>r+ Uo)

\ daw
(6.152)
,iVTram;verse = WjoJet COS ~T + U()) = W { + deiJJJet )os (f/>r + U())
\ daw
In Equations (6.152), the positive signs on the down wash gradient are used if the
propulsive device is located ahead of the wing, and the negative signs if located
aft of the wing. Therefore, we may write the perturbation forces as

8T = - iJT sin (f/>r + Uo) { + de;oJet ~

avAxial \ da )
(6.153)

As a result, we have the effects of plunge velocity on the propulsive fo_rce

components given in terms of the following partial derivatives, evaluated at the
reference fight condition.

Note that typically the angle (f/>r + ao) is small, and the above expressions may
be simplified accordingly. Finally, by comparing Equations (6.150) and (6.154),
and assuming the angle ~r + ao) is sufficiently small, we find that

Cpr,. =0 (6.155)
278 c HAPT EA 8 Modeling the Forces and Moments on the Vehide

Typically, the effects of plunge-velocity perturbations on the propulsive

forces are not large. However, again, if the propulsion devices are located on
the vehicle such that they have a sufficiently large moment arm relative to the
moment-reference point, the changes in pitching moment due to these forces can
be significant.
Under the assumed installation geometry of the propulsive devices, and since
here we are dealing with only plunge velocity perturbation, the perturbation forces
8T and 8FN both lie in the XZ plane of the vehicle. Hence they will generate no
yawing or rolling moments. To address the pitching moment, we again draw from
Figure 6.13 and note that the equation for the propulsive pitching moment, con-
sistent with Equation (6.140), is

Mp = Mpo + oT(drcosc/>r - XrSinc/>r ) - 8FN(xrcosc/>r + drsinc/>r)

-- cPw.q"' sWCW
- (6.156)

Therefore, consistent with Equation (6.148), we find that the effect of pertur-
bations in plunge velocity on the propulsive pitching moment is

(6.157)

Furthermore, following the approach taken above in analyzing the propulsive

forces, we find that the effect of plunge-velocity perturbations on the propulsive
pitching moment may also be expressed as

(6.158)

Again, the partial derivatives of thrust and normal force in Equation (6.158) may
be evaluated using Equations (6.108-6.112), depending on the type of propul-
sion system(s) installed on the vehicle. Also, recall that if the line of action of the
thrust passes close to XRef then
(dr cos c/>r - Xr sin c/>r)""' 0
Finally, by comparing Equations (6.157) and (6.158), and assuming that cf>r and
<Xo are sufficient! y small, we find that

{ + dT'I'T
+ \XT _,, ) iJFN
iJvTransverse
b X
+ dS;JJJet
__;:=. )
da
(6.159)
 8.8 Forces and Moments Due to Translational Velocity Perturbations 277

Effects of Plunge-Velocity Perturbations on the Forces and Moments

Again consider the vehicle described in Examples 6.1-{).5. Detennine the effects of
plunge-velocity perturbations on the aerodynamic and propulsive forces and moments
acting on the vehicle.
Solution
From Equations (6.146) we have the effects on the aerodynamic forces given by
aFA. ac. 1
- . - L- = - "' q,.,Sw = C. q,.,Sw = . C q,.,Sw, =X, Y, or Z
aw ~' aw '' "' 00
where from Equations (6.147) with no sideslip angle
aCx acD
Cia ~ = - aa pcos flo+ CL ~ =-CD+ CL0
iiCy iiCD .
Ta ~ =-a;- p smf3o=O

i1Cz iiCL
-~
iia
= - -p
iia
- CD pcosf3o = -CLa - Cn..
-u
In Example 6.4 we determined the vehicle's reference lift and drag coefficients
CL 0 and CDo in tenus of the reference propulsive thrust and vehicle weight, while the vehi-
cle's angle-of-attack lift effectiveness was determined in Example 6.1 to be CL = 4.59 Irad.
From Equation (6.31), the vehicle's angle-of-attack drag effectiveness is given by

c - 2 {L"" c CLHoc qlf sll 1( de ))

D - ;;: wew L,."' + AneTl L,.tt q"' Sw \- da

=
2 4 19
( . ) f{, + C lfl.9)~lfl.43) \x:r radian
1T (5.33)(0.85) \Lwo LHo~- 169 ~- }
Now for the wing and horizontal tail we may write

CLw = Cr,.w (aw- O'ow)

CLtt -_ CL,.a de
f{- da de .
J - da ) .
~w - aow + !TJ- aott
)

So for a reference angle of atta~~ of 2 deg, a wing iw = 2 deg, and a wing zero-lift angle
of attack a 0 = 1.33 deg, we have

cLwo = 4.19 + 257.3 3

t
- 1.3 'r 0.195
}
And with a tail zero-lift angle of attack a 0 = 0 we have
CLH = ~~~~ ((1 - 0.57Y, - 0.57 (2 - 1.33 ) + 0) = O.Q35

(Note that we have assumed that tail incidence ill = 0 here.)

Consequently, CDa =
1T
(
2(4.19)
)fl
5.33 ~0.85
) q:'195 + 0.035(0.9)
\
f! W.43 )
69 )
'f
)
0.117/rad
278 c HAPT EA 8 Modeling the Forces and Moments on the Vehid e

Therefore, from Equations (6.146), the effects of plunge-velocity perturbations on the

aerodynamic forces are

ilFAz 1 , 5 5 mg - 0.03To
- p= -'!'"'Cx q Sw= - - (CD - Cro Sw= - - C(.ll7-
ilw Uo " " a " f'" a \ q" Sw
iJFA, 1
- p= - Cr q" Sw=O
iJw Uo "
ilFAz 1 1 5 To
- p= -CZv,qceSw= --fC'-cr + CDo ,.Pw= - - 4{59 + - - ~Sw
ilw Uo Uo ~ f' a \ qceSw }
Regarding the effect of plunge-velocity perturbations on the aerodynamic pitching
moment, Equation (6.148) indicates that
iJMA 1 iJMA 1 _
- p = ---~ = -CM q Swcw
iJw Uo iJa Uo " "
while the effects on rolling and yawing moments are negligible. From Example
6.2 we found that the vehicle's angle-of-attack pitching-moment effectiveness was
CM" = - 1.59 lead. Therefore, the effect of plunge velocity on the aerodynamic pitching
moment is

The effects of plunge-velocity perturbations on the propulsive forces are indicted by

Equations (6.154), which for this vehicle become

iJF Pz iJFN de;nlet

-iJw p=- iJVrronsv""" ~ 1(- - )
\ da
If the engines are mounted 2Cw aft of XR.r and XR.r = 0.5cw aft of the wing apex, then
the engine inlets are approximately 2.5cw- Craft of the wing's trailing edge. Figure 5.35
shows the downwash gradient at a normalized distance ll(b/2) aft of the wing's trailing
edge. And here
t 2.5cw-cr 2.5(5.825 ) -7.5
-bf-2 = _...;;15
----_;_ 0.47
15

From Figure 5.35 we find that

de;nleL ""' _
0 62
da
And from Equation (6.112) we have

ilFN 1 1i?p
iJVTronsv"""
---
Uo p.,A;n
 8.8 Forces and Moments Due to Translational Velocity Perturbations 279

where the inlet area and mass-flow rate must be obtained from engine data. Therefore, the
effects of plunge-velocity perturbations on propulsive forces are
aFPz ()Fpy
a;;- p "" 0, a;;-lo = 0
aF 2
9 2
~lo=-~~(1-0.62)= _1. ~
ilw a PocAin a PocAin
The effect of plunge-velocity perturbation on the propulsive pitching moment is indi-
cated by Equation (6.158), while the effects on propulsive rolling and yawing moments
are negligible. Here, Equation (6.158) becomes

-- dB;nieL

da
-2Cw

6.6.3 Sideslip-Velocity Perturbation v

The efiects of sideslip-velocity perturbation von the aerodynamic and propulsive
forces and moments arise due to the concomitant change in vehicle perturbation
sideslip angle /3.
Similar to before, we will quantify the effect of sideslip-velocity perturba-
tion on the aerodynamic forces in terms of the partial derivatives oFA.fov, evalu-
ated at the reference flight condition. From Equation (6.99) we have
v
f3 ""' -
Uo
And from Equations (6.113) we have the components of aerodynamic force in
the stability axes expressed as
FA,= Cx<J.,S
FAy= Cyq,S
FAz = Czq"'S
where, from Equations (6.11 4 ), we have the aerodynamic force coefficient<; given by

Cx= - C 0 cosacos(13o + /3) - Cscosasin(13o + /3) + C 1_sina

Cr = - Cnsin(l3 0 + /3) + C5 cos(13o + /3)
Cz = - C0 sina cos(13 0 + f3 )- Cssinasin(130 + /3) - CLcosa
Therefore, for each of the three force components in Equations (6.113), we
have the effect oflateral-velocity perturbations given by

(6.160)
280 c HAPT EA 8 Modeling the Forces and Moments on the Vehide

where, from Equation (6.100), we have

(6.161)

Plus, from Equations (6.114), we have sideslip effectivenesses given by

.11.. aCx ()Cs . .

CxfJ- (){3 b= - (){3 bsml30 = - C5fJ sml3 0

A ()Cy
CrfJ = (){3 b= CsfJ cos l30 (6.162)

A acz
CzfJ = (){3- b= 0
1n obtaining the above three expressions we have assumed that perturbation
sideslip angle has no effect on lift or drag coefficient. Therefore Equations
(6.160-6.162) quantify the effects of sideslip-velocity perturbations on the aero-
dynamic force components in the stability axes. Finally, Equation (6.25) may
be used to evaluate Csw while Equations (6.123) may be used to evaluate Cx0,
Cro and Czo
Similarly, we can quantify the effects of sideslip-velocity perturbation on
the aerodynamic moments acting on the vehicle. The components of the total
aerodynamic moment MA are defined in Equation (6.88). And in terms of nondi-
mensional coefficients, from Equations (6.129), these components are

= c,'lWl q,.,Swhw
LA

MA = CMqooSwC'w
N A = CNq,.,Swhw

The effects of perturbations in sideslip velocity v on these moments are quanti-

fied by the partial derivatives

()LA b, ~ b, and ()NA b

()v ()v ()v

all evaluated at the reference condition. And just as in the case with the aerody-
namic forces, the effect<~ of perturbations in sideslip velocity von these moments
arise due to the change in sideslip angle /3.
Typically, a change in a vehicle's sideslip angle has little effect on its pitching
moment. Therefore, we will focus attention on evaluating the effects of sideslip
angle on the rolling and yawing moments. 1n terms of the moment coefficients,
we may write
 8.8 Forces and Moments Due to Translational Velocity Perturbations 281

and (6.163)
aNA acN aq,., 1 aq"'
-()v b= -
()v
6q"'Swbw + CN0 Swhw -()v b= -
Uo
CN.qooSwhw + CN0Swhw -
" ()v
b
We had previously determined in Equation (6.161) that

So then we have

and (6.164)

Furthermore, Equations (6.44) and (6.68) may be used to evaluate CtfJ and CNfJ'
respectively.
So Equations (6.163) and (6.164) quantify the effects of sideslip-velocity
perturbation v on the aerodynamic rolling and yawing moment, while the effect
of this velocity perturbation on pitching moment is usually negligible. Note that
frequently the second terms on the right sides of Equations (6.164) are small
compared to the other terms, since 130 will be smalft and/or the reference values of
rolling and yawing moment coefficients will be zero.
Attention now turns to the effects of perturbations in lateral velocity on the
propulsive forces and moments. Recall that the total propulsive force expressed
in terms of its components in the stability axes was given in Equation (6.131).
Referring to Figure 6.14, and noting that it has been assumed that the thrust
force(s) are symmetric with respect to the XZ plane of the vehicle, we will write
the components of the total propul~ive force in terms of their reference values,
plus perturbations in the normal force on the engine 8FN Since we're dealing with
only lateral-velocity perturbations here, instead of the results given in Equation
(6.134) we now have

(6.165)
282 c HAPT EA 8 Modeling the Forces and Moments on the Vehide

where the normal-force perturbation may be expressed as

(6.166)

Note that this normal force FN is now acting Jaterall y on the vehicle, rather than
vertically.
To address the partial derivative of propulsive normal force in Equation
(6.166), we may refer to Equations (6.111) or (6.112), depending on the type of
propulsion system. Plus, from Figures 6.14 and 6.16 we can see that here

(6.167)

where the effect of side wash (analogous to downwash) has been ignored. There-
fore, we have

(6.168)

Consistent with Equations (6.160), the effects of lateral-velocity perturba-

tion on the propulsive forces may be expressed as

iJFPx ()q"'
a;- b= Cpx/w i!v b= CpXoPooSwUol3o
iJFp, iJCp, iJq"' 1
a;;- b= a;;- bq,Sw + Cp, Sw Tv'"' b= Do (cP,P + 2Cp,po }z.,.Sw
0
(6.169)

iJFpz iJq,.,
a;- b= CPzlw iJv b= Cp21JP,SwUol3o
Finally, using Equations (6.165), (6.168),and (6.169), we find that

(6.170)

Typically, the effects of sideslip-velocity perturbations on the propulsive

forces are not large. However, if the propulsion devices are installed such that
they have a large moment arm relative to the moment reference point, the changes
in propulsive rolling or yawing moments due to this force can again be signifi-
cant. Under the assumed installation geometry of the propulsive devices, and
since here we are dealing with only lateral velocity perturbation, the petturba-
tion force BFN acts along the negative Y axis of the vehicle for positive sideslip.
Hence it generates no pitching moment.
To address the rolling and yawing propulsive moments, we draw from
Equations (6.165) and Figure 6.13 to write the equations for the perturbations
in propulsive rolling and yawing moments about the Xs and Zs stability axes,
respectively. These are
 8.8 Forces and Moments Due to Translational Velocity Perturbations 283

0 av bv + ~T cos~+ xr sinexo)sFN
8Lp = CpL""1 Swcw aq"'
(6.171)
8Np = Cp,_Swcw iJq"' bv + (xrcos~ - dr sinexo}sFN
v i)v

In tenus of nondimensional coefficients, these moments may be expressed as

Lp = CpLRoll qooSwbw
(6.172)
Np = CpNq"'Swbw
Consistent with Equations (6.164), we may therefore express the effects of
perturbations in lateral velocity on the propulsive moments as

(6.173)

Following the approach taken above in analyzing the propulsive forces, we find
that the effects of lateral-velocity perturbation on the propulsive moments may
also be expressed as

(6.174)

Note that if the reference sideslip angle 130 is smalll, the reference propulsion roll-
ing and yawing moments are typically both zero, in which case the first tenns
on the right in Equations (6.174) are both zero. The partial derivative of normal
force in Equations (6.174) may be evaluated using Equation (6.111) or (6.112).
Finally, by comparing Equations (6.173) and (6.174), and assuming CXo is suffi-
ciently small, we find that sideslip effectiveness coefficients are

(6.175)
284 c HAPT EA 8 Modeling the Forces and Moments on the Vehid e

6.7 FORCES AND MOMENTS DUE TO

ANGULAR-VELOCITY PERTURBATIONS
As noted at the beginning of Section 6.6, changes in the vehicle's translational
and rotational velocities relative to the air mass affect both the aerodynamic and
propulsive forces and moments. We now will address the effects of perturbations
in the vehicle's angular velocity on these forces and moments.
Angular velocities influence the aerodynamic forces and moments due to the
fact that the vehicle's rotations affect the local angles of attack and sideslip of the
various lifting surfaces. Figure 6.18 reveals bow a perturbation in pitch rate q,
for example, induces a perturbation in the local angle of attack of the horizontal
tail, or Aatl. Clearly, if the X locations along the vehicle are taken to be positive
forward, this change in local angle of attack is

WtJ q { )
AaH = -'- = - \XRef - XAca (6.176)
Uo Uo
Note that a positive pitch rate induces a downward velocity of an aft tail surface
wH, which in turn induces a positive change in the local angle of attack of that
surface.
Similarly, as shown in Figure 6.19, a perturbation in the vehicle's yaw rater
(rotation about the Zs axis) will induce a perturbation in the local angle of attack
of an aft vertical tail by the amount Aa 11, where

~
Aav""'
0 (XRef - XAcJ (6.177)

Recall that we are dealing with the yaw rate about the vehicle's stability axis while
the X locations are taken along the fuselage-reference X axis. (See Figure 6.13.)
Note that a positive Aa11 corresponds to an increase in the aerodynamic "lift"
generated by the vertical tail, which acts in the positive Y s direction.
Additionally, a yaw-rate perturbation induces a perturbation in the local
surge velocity Au(y) at a given span location on both the wing and horizontal
tail. This ch;mge in local velocity may be written as

Au(y) =- ,y (6.178)
or for a positive yaw rate this velocity change is negative along the right span,
and positive along the left.

Xv
t~__ ..;(
!oo___ .:a:c~w--~62~
-!P~:w~J:,::;::.-q------Uo--~---~.::::::
: ..... :~,u~
/1all "'II

Figm:e 6.1.8 Induced angle of attack due to pitch rate.