You are on page 1of 7

Rocks:

Rocks are naturally occurring and coherent aggregate of one or more minerals. Such aggregates
constitute the basic unit of which the solid Earth is comprised. Rocks are commonly divided into three
major classes. These classes are (1) igneous rocks, which have solidified from molten material called
magma; (2) sedimentary rocks, those consisting of fragments derived from preexisting rocks or of
materials precipitated from solutions; and (3) metamorphic rocks, which have been derived from either
igneous or sedimentary rocks under conditions that caused changes in mineralogical composition,
texture, and internal structure.

(i) Igneous Rocks: These are crystalline or glassy rocks formed by the cooling and
solidification of molten earth material. Igneous rocks comprise one of the three
principal classes of rocks, the others being metamorphic and sedimentary.

Igneous rocks are formed from the solidification of magma, which is a hot (600 to 1,300 C, or
1,100 to 2,400 F) molten or partially molten rock material. The Earth is composed
predominantly of a large mass of igneous rock with a very thin veneer of weathered material
namely, sedimentary rock. Whereas sedimentary rocks are produced by processes operating
mainly at the Earth's surface by the disintegration of mostly older igneous rocks, igneousand
metamorphicrocks are formed by internal processes that cannot be directly observed and that
necessitate the use of physical-chemical arguments to deduce their origins. Because of the high
temperatures within the Earth, the principles of chemical equilibrium are applicable to the study
of igneous and metamorphic rocks, with the latter being restricted to those rocks formed without
the direct involvement of magma.

Magma is thought to be generated within the plastic asthenosphere (the layer of partially molten
rock underlying the Earth's crust) at a depth below about 60 kilometres (40 miles). Because
magma is less dense than the surrounding solid rocks, it rises toward the surface. It may settle
within the crust or erupt at the surface from a volcano as a lava flow. Rocks formed from the
cooling and solidification of magma deep within the crust are distinct from those erupted at the
surface mainly owing to the differences in physical and chemical conditions prevalent in the two
environments. Within the Earth's deep crust the temperatures and pressures are much higher than
at its surface; consequently, the hot magma cools slowly and crystallizes completely, leaving no
trace of the liquid magma. The slow cooling promotes the growth of minerals large enough to be
identified visually without the aid of a microscope (called phaneritic, from the Greek phaneros,
meaning visible). On the other hand, magma erupted at the surface is chilled so quickly that
the individual minerals have little or no chance to grow. As a result, the rock is either composed
of minerals that can be seen only with the aid of a microscope (called aphanitic, from the Greek
aphans, meaning invisible) or contains no minerals at all (in the latter case, the rock is
composed of glass, which is a highly viscous liquid). This results in two groups: (1) plutonic
intrusive igneous rocks that solidified deep within the crust and (2) volcanic, or extrusive,
igneous rocks formed at the Earth's surface. Some intrusive rocks, known as subvolcanic, were
not formed at great depth but were instead injected near the surface where lower temperatures
result in a more rapid cooling process; these tend to be aphanitic and are referred to as
hypabyssal intrusive rocks.

The great majority of the igneous rocks are composed of silicate minerals (Of the approximately 600
known silicate minerals, only the feldspars, amphiboles, pyroxenes, micas, olivines, feldspathoids, and
zeolites are significant in rock formation). (meaning that the basic building blocks for the magmas that
formed them are made of silicon [Si] and oxygen [O]), but minor occurrences of carbonate-rich igneous
rocks are found as well.

Rock types

Igneous rocks are those that solidify from magma, a molten mixture of rock-forming minerals
and usually volatiles such as gases and steam. Since their constituent minerals are crystallized
from molten material, igneous rocks are formed at high temperatures. They originate from
processes deep within the Earthtypically at depths of about 50 to 200 kilometres (30 to 120
miles)in the mid- to lower-crust or in the upper mantle. Igneous rocks are subdivided into two
categories: intrusive (emplaced in the crust), and extrusive (extruded onto the surface of the land
or ocean bottom), in which case the cooling molten material is called lava.

Sedimentary rocks are those that are deposited and lithified (compacted and cemented together)
at the Earth's surface, with the assistance of running water, wind, ice, or living organisms. Most
are deposited from the land surface to the bottoms of lakes, rivers, and oceans. Sedimentary
rocks are generally stratifiedi.e., they have layering. Layers may be distinguished by
differences in colour, particle size, type of cement, or internal arrangement.

Metamorphic rocks are those formed by changes in preexisting rocks under the influence of high
temperature, pressure, and chemically active solutions. The changes can be chemical
(compositional) and physical (textural) in character. Metamorphic rocks are often formed by
processes deep within the Earth that produce new minerals, textures, and crystal structures. The
recrystallization that takes place does so essentially in the solid state, rather than by complete
remelting, and can be aided by ductile deformation and the presence of interstitial fluids such as
water. Metamorphism often produces apparent layering, or banding, because of the segregation
of minerals into separate bands. Metamorphic processes can also occur at the Earth's surface due
to meteorite impact events and pyrometamorphism taking place near burning coal seams ignited
by lightning strikes.
Some radioactive decay series
Some radioactive decay series

element radioactive isotope final product isotopic abundance (%) half-life (in 109 years)

uranium U-235 Pb-207 0.72 0.7

U-238 Pb-206 99.28 4.5

thorium Th-232 Pb-208 100.0 14.0

potassium K-40 (89%) Ca-40 0.01 1.4*

(11%) Argon-40 11.9*


rubidium Rb-87 Sr-87 27.8 48.8

*half-life for K-40 as a whole is 1.25(109) years.

Layers of Earth Atmosphere:


The region of the upper atmosphere, between roughly 15 and 35 km (9 and 22 miles) above Earth's
surface, containing relatively high concentrations of ozone molecules (O3). Approximately 90 percent of
the atmosphere's ozone occurs in the stratosphere, the region extending from 1018 km (611 miles) to
approximately 50 km (about 30 miles) above Earth's surface. In the stratosphere the temperature of the
atmosphere rises with increasing height, a phenomenon created by the absorption of solar radiation by
the ozone layer. The ozone layer effectively blocks almost all solar radiation of wavelengths less than
290 nanometres from reaching Earth's surface, including certain types of ultraviolet (UV) and other
forms of radiation that could injure or kill most living things.

Location in Earth's atmosphere

In the midlatitudes the peak concentrations of ozone occur at altitudes from 20 to 25 km (about
12 to 16 miles). Peak concentrations are found at altitudes from 26 to 28 km (about 16 to 17
miles) in the tropics and from about 12 to 20 km (about 7 to 12 miles) toward the poles. The
lower height of the peak-concentration region in the high latitudes largely results from poleward
and downward atmospheric transport processes that occur in the middle and high latitudes and
the reduced height of the tropopause (the transition region between the troposphere and
stratosphere).

Most of the remaining ozone occurs in the troposphere, the layer of the atmosphere that extends from
Earth's surface up to the stratosphere. Near-surface ozone often results from interactions between
certain pollutants (such as nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds), strong sunlight, and hot
weather. It is one of the primary ingredients in photochemical smog, a phenomenon that plagues many
urban and suburban areas around the world, especially during the summer months.

Ozone creation and destruction

The production of ozone in the stratosphere results primarily from the breaking of the chemical
bonds within oxygen molecules (O2) by high-energy solar photons. This process, called
photodissociation, results in the release of single oxygen atoms, which later join with intact
oxygen molecules to form ozone. Rising atmospheric oxygen concentrations some two billion
years ago allowed ozone to build up in Earth's atmosphere, a process that gradually led to the
formation of the stratosphere. Scientists believe that the formation of the ozone layer played an
important role in the development of life on Earth by screening out lethal levels of UVB
radiation (ultraviolet radiation with wavelengths between 315 and 280 nanometres) and thus
facilitating the migration of life-forms from the oceans to land.

The amount of ozone in the stratosphere varies naturally throughout the year as a result of
chemical processes that create and destroy ozone molecules and as a result of winds and other
transport processes that move ozone molecules around the planet. Over the course of several decades,
however, human activities substantially altered the ozone layer. Ozone depletion, the global decrease in
stratospheric ozone observed since the 1970s, is most pronounced in polar regions, and it is well
correlated with the increase of chlorine and bromine in the stratosphere. Those chemicals, once freed
by UV radiation from the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other halocarbons (carbon-halogen
compounds) that contain them, destroy ozone by stripping away single oxygen atoms from ozone
molecules. Depletion is so extensive that so-called ozone holes (regions of severely reduced ozone
coverage) form over the poles during the onset of their respective spring seasons. The largest such hole
appears annually over Antarctica between September and November.

As the amount of stratospheric ozone declines, more UV radiation reaches Earth's


surface, and scientists worry that such increases could have significant effects on ecosystems and
human health. The concern over exposure to biologically harmful levels of UV radiation has
been the main driver of the creation of international treaties, such as the Montreal Protocol on
Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer and its amendments, designed to protect Earth's ozone
layer.

********

You might also like