GROUP 6: RUBBER
reaction, or irradiation).
Rubber is an elastic substance obtained from the exudations of certain tropical
plants or derived from petroleum and natural gas.
Because of its elasticity, resilience, and toughness, rubber is the basic
constituent of the tires used in automotive vehicles, aircraft, and
bicycles.
Half of all rubber produced goes to automobile tires; the rest goes into
mechanical parts such as mountings, gaskets, belts, and hoses, as well
as consumer products such as shoes, clothing, furniture, and toys.
ELASTOMERS
Elastomer refers to a special class of linear polymers that display an
exceptionally large amount of elastic deformation when a force is applied
It is a polymer that deforms under stress and returns to its original
shape when the stress is removed.
Hookes law is commonly obeyed, where twice the force produces
twice the stretch.
The term elastomer is often used interchangeably with the term rubber
Other elastomers that melt when heated are classified as
thermoplastic.
Rubber (both natural and synthetic) is widely used for the manufacture of tires,
tubes, hoses, belts, matting, gloves, toy balloons, rubber bands, pencil erases,
and adhesives.
Thermoplastic elastomers are used in manufacturing processes, such as by
injection molding.
Thermoplastic polyurethanes are used for various applications, including the
production of foam seating, seals, gaskets, and carpet underlay.
Cross-linking the process by linking coiled molecules to one another by strong
covalent bonds
Thermoplastic rubber is distinguished from thermoplastic elastomer by the
characteristic that rubber and thermoplastic rubber both have elongation in
excess of 50%.
Conventional rubber is crosslinked, meaning the bonds between the monomer
molecules are not easily broken after the rubber has vulcanized or cured. As a
result, typical rubbers cannot be reformed after they are vulcanized.
Thermoplastic rubbers are not crosslinked, meaning they can be remelted using
heat.
In terms of physical properties, conventional rubbers generally have better
compression set and elongation properties and have better resistance to heat.
Thermoplastic rubbers are sometimes more chemically resistant and can retain
better properties in low temperatures.
Most elastomers are thermosets that is, they require curing (by heat, chemical
RUBBER
Natural rubber is the oldest commercial rubber that is made from latex, which
is a secretion from the inner bark of a tropical tree called Hevea brasiliensis (aka
rubber tree).
Latex is an excellent adhesive in its crude form. It can also be used in
creating cement by dissolving it in suitable solvents.
Charles Goodyear discovered that natural rubber can be vulcanized or
cross-linked through the addition of approximately 30% sulfur,
followed by heating to a suitable temperature.
Rubber can be compounded to provide a wide range of characteristics,
ranging from soft and gummy to extremely hard. When additional
strength is required, textile cords or fabrics can be coated with rubber.
Various additives to further improve properties of rubber:
These act as: stiffeners, tougheners, and antioxidants
Accelerators, which speed up the vulcanization process, have enabled a
reduction in the amount of sulfur. Most rubber compounds nowadays
contain less than 3% sulfur because of these accelerators.
Softeners can be added to facilitate processing
Fillers can be used to add bulk
Strengths and Weaknesses of Natural Rubber Compounds:
Strengths:
o Flexible
o Good electrical insulators
o Low internal friction
o Resistance to most inorganic acids, salts, and alkalis
Weaknesses:
o Poor resistance to petroleum products:
Oil
Gasoline
Naphtha
o Lose strength at elevated temperatures
It is advised not to use natural rubber compounds at
temperatures over 80C or 175F
o Deteriorate fairly rapidly in direct sunlight unless special
compounded
ARTIFICIAL ELASTOMERS
Artificial elastomers or Synthetic elastomers were made in the attempt to
overcome the limitations of natural rubber and also exceed the supply and the
price of natural rubber.
Types of Artificial Elastomers: SELECTION OF AN ELASTOMER
Polyisoprene is the synthetic that is closest to duplicating natural Elastomeric materials can now be selected and used for a wide range of
rubber engineering applications.
Properties: Properties:
Abrasion Resistance Shock absorption
Impact Resistance Noise and vibration control
Vibration Dampening Sealing
Adhesion to metal Corrosion protection
Styrene-butadiene is an oil-derivative, high-volume substitute for Abrasion protection
natural rubber that has become the standard material for passenger- Friction modification
car tires. For this material, some form of reinforcement is generally Electrical and thermal insulation
required to provide the desired tensile strength, tear resistance and Waterproofing
durability. Load bearing
Properties: Selection of an elastomer for a specific application service requires:
Good Tensile Strength Mechanical and physical service requirements
Mooney viscosity Operating environment (including temperature)
Resistance Desired lifetime
Neoprene has properties similar to natural rubber, with better Ability to manufacture the product
resistance to oils, ozone, oxidation, and flame. They are used for a wide Cost
range of applications, including automotive hoses and belts, footwear,
tires, mounting cushions, and seals. ELASTOMERS FOR TOOLING APPLICATIONS
Properties: Elastomers are used to perform bulging and to form reentrant sections that
Abrasion resistance would be impossible to form with rigid dies except through the use of costly
Tear resistance multipiece tooling.
Impact resistance Engineering Elastomers
Silicone rubbers look and feel like organic rubber but are based on a These have become increasingly popular as tool materials
linear chain of silicon and oxygen atoms (not carbon) because they can be compounded to range from very soft to
Properties: very hard; hold up well under compressive loading; are
Heat and cold resistance impervious to oils, solvents, and other similar fluids; and can
Moisture and steam resistance be made into a desired shape quickly and economically. In
Transparency and color properties addition, the elastomeric tooling will not mark or damage
Vibration absorption highly polished or pre-painted surfaces.
Elastomers can be classified as: o Urethane
1. Thermosets materials formed during the irreversible vulcanization Is currently the most popular elastomer for tooling
(cross-linking) process, which may be somewhat time consuming. applications
2. Thermoplastics elastomers that eliminate the vulcanization cycle and Polyurethane is a thermoplastic elastomer (TPE), which
can be processed into products by all of the conventional thermoplastic combines the mechanical and physical properties of rubber
polymer processes (injection molding, extrusion, blow molding, with the advantages of thermoplasticity and processability.
thermoforming, and others). They soften at elevated temperatures, Properties:
which the thermosets easily withstand, but offer good low- Tensile strength
temperature flexibility, scrap recyclability, availability in a variety of Elongation
colors, and high gripping friction. Abrasion resistance
Chemical and environmental resistance
 Polyurethane formulations cover an extremely wide range of
stiffness, hardness, and densities. These materials include:
Low-density flexible foam used in upholstery,
bedding, automotive and truck seating, and novel
inorganic plant substrates for roof or wall gardens
Low density elastomers used in footwear
Hard solid plastics used as electronic instrument
bezels and structural parts
Flexible plastics used as straps and bands
Polyurethane foam is widely used in high resiliency flexible
foam seating, rigid foam insulation panels, microcellular foam
seals and gaskets, durable elastomeric wheels and tires,
automotive suspension bushings, electrical potting
compounds, seals, gaskets, carpet underlay, and hard plastic
parts (such as for electronic instruments)
Some common industrial applications of elastomeric materials:
1. Gaskets are mechanical seals that fill the space between imperfect
mating surfaces.
Gaskets are utilized to tightly fill the space it was designed for
which would include any minor irregularities. It provides
insulation and prevent leakage of gases or liquids between
joined surfaces under compressive force.
2. Seals and O-Rings
Pneumatic seals are typically used in lower pressure
environments where rotary or reciprocating motions take
place within a cylinder or valve. They can be exposed to high
operating speeds where the pressure is not high and require
minimal lubrication
The O-Ring is a loop of elastomer with a rounded cross-section
that typically fits within a groove and gets compressed
between the assemblies of two or more parts. O-Rings can be
utilized in static or dynamic applications and tend to be
popular because they are generally cost effective, easy to
manufacture, simple to assemble, and reliable.
3. Noise Reduction and Dampening the best example of this application
can be found in the automotive industry. Engine mounts and muffler
hangers are two prime examples of this use.
PROCESSING OF RUBBER AND ELASTOMERS
Processing of rubber:
1. Mixing the process whereby elastomers are mixed with ingredients
Materials: Gum rubber, fillers, extenders, chemicals
Raw materials:
Accelerators compounding material that facilitate and speed
up the vulcanization
Activators compounding materials which activates the
vulcanization reaction
Antidegradant compounding materials which protects
oxidation
Fillers dilute the polymer
o Reinforcing fillers increase the strength of the rubber
materials (ex. Carbon black and silica)
o Non-reinforcing fillers pure diluents which reduce the
price and impair the mechanical properties. The most
common filler is whiting.
Curing agents compounding materials which form cross-links
during vulcanization (ex. Sulfur and peroxides, resins, metal
oxides)
Softeners compounding materials which reduce the
hardness of a rubber material (ex. Oil)
Processing aid compounding materials which facilitate the
process (ex. Dispersing agents, mold lubricant)
Equipment:
Three categories of mixers:
o Mixing mills are the oldest and simplest type of mixing
machine. Its operation is dirty, time consuming and
provides poor working environment. Mixing mill
operation is therefore only used to a limited extent
o Internal mixers consists of two rotors in an enclosed
chamber. The rotors are shaped so that they produce a
kneading effect and at the same time the chamber
ensures the materials added remain in place
o Continuous mixers a specially designed type of extruder
was developed for a continuous manufacture. This
method failed due to the severe limitations in its
performance and the higher costs for the finely
granulated raw materials
2. Shaping
Calendaring
Is a process where rubber compound is formed to a
continuous sheet or coated on a fabric. This is done by feeding
the rubber compound to one or several on each other
following roll gaps.
Calendaring is used in manufacturing of a multitude of
products either for rubber coatings of fabrics or for the
preparation of sheet products
 Extrusion Dipping
Is one of the most common methods of processing in the Is used for relatively thin parts with uniform wall thickness,
rubber industry. The machine is called an extruder, which is a such as boots, gloves, and fairings
powerful pump in which a screw is pumping the rubber Vulcanization this is a chemical process by which the physical
material towards the die in which the shape of the extrudate is properties of natural or synthetic rubber are improved; finished
determined rubber has higher tensile strength and resistance to swelling and
Extruders are used for shaping ready products of parts to be abrasion, and is elastic over a greater range of temperature. In its
used in a later operation like inner tubes for hoses, blanks for simplest form, vulcanization is brought about by heating rubber
feeding of molds, parts for tire building and tire inner tubes. with sulfur
Machinery:
Two main types of extruders: Processing of Thermoplastic Elastomers:
1. Hot feed means that the machine is fed with 1. Shaping is done by heating the material to a temperature above
heated rubber compound and in the other case melting point.
with an uncured rubber slab or strip of ambient Main processes used:
temperature Extrusion
2. Cold feed extruders represent the technology The screws in an extruder for thermoplastic elastomers are
used today and is considerably longer than hot longer than the common screws for rubber extrusion. The
feed extruders longer screw is needed for packing, homogenization, pressure
An L/D ratio of 16-24 screws and an L/D ratio of 4 and build up, and melting of the granulated material before it
8 screws, respectively. The longer screw ensures that reaches the die.
the rubber material is sufficiently worked and heated Injection molding
before it reaches the die. Most common process for products made of TPE.
Mold curing Examples: snowmobile tracks, suspension bushing, weather
Molding is preferable for volume production of products with stripping
closed dimensional tolerances. Mold and curing are carried
out in the same process. The molding is done when the rubber
fills the cavities of the mold, while curing is done subsequently
by heating the rubber in the mold.
Molding techniques:
1. Compression molding this is the oldest and simplest
molding method. The rubber compound is formed into a
blank, which is then placed in the mold cavity.
2. Transfer molding it is a natural progression in the
development when attempting to limit the disadvantages
of compression molding. Since the rubber is forced to flow
through the channels and gated, preheating takes place in
the rubber. This preheating significantly reduces curing
time.
3. Injection molding a special variety of injection molding
is the use of gear pumps as an injection unit.
Machinery:
Presses hydraulically or mechanically operated
presses are used to keep the molds closed