Adams 20xx Introduction To Exploration Geology

Introduction to Exploration Geology Class Syllabus http://www.dmtcalaska.org/course_dev/explogeo/intro.
html
Introduction
Introduction to Exploration Geology Class Syllabus
1. Overview of Physical
Geology
Instructor: David Adams
2. Rock Identification Methods
Geologic Principles
3. Maps & Navigation Text: Introduction to Prospecting, by E.L. Faulkner
Geologic Maps
4. Igneous Rocks Materials: Ore Mineral Set, Mineral Testing Kit (see Note 1 below)
Magmatic Deposits **** Materials and text supplied by student (approximately $60 US) ****
5. Plutonic-Related Deposits
Air Photos
6. Volcanic Rocks
Volcanic-Related Deposits
7. Sedimentary Rocks Class Content Lab Reading
Low Temp. Deposits 1. Overview of 1. Ore Mineral Identification pp. 9 23
GPS Navigation
Exploration Geology
8. Hydrothermal Veins& 2. Cosmic Origin of
Alteration
9. Metamorphic Rocks Earth, Overview of
Metamorphic Deposits Plate Tectonics
10. Structural Geology 3. Geochemical
Structural Controls on 1
Mineralization
Characteristics of
Earth
** Mid Term
4. Geophysical
11. Mechanical Erosion Characteristics of
Placer Deposits
Earth
12. Geochemical Sampling
Methods
13. Adit/Trench Mapping 1. Rock Identification 1. Mine/Deposit Research
Geochemical Methods 2. Geologic Principles, Paper
14. Geophysical Methods Geologic Time
2
15. Project Planning 3. Exploration Geology
Claim Staking Terminology
16. Exploration Drilling
Methods
1. Introduction to 1. Topo/Geologic Map Exercise pp. 45
** Final Exam Maps, 57
3 2. Navigation and GPS
3. Geologic Maps
1. Igneous Rocks, 1. Plutonic Rocks (optional)

Bowens Reaction 2. Plutonic Rock Web Sites
Series
4 2. Rock Forming
Minerals Magmatic
Deposits
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Introduction to Exploration Geology Class Syllabus http://www.dmtcalaska.org/course_dev/explogeo/intro.html
1. Plutonic-Related 1. Air Photo Exercise pp.31-38

Deposits
5 2. Skarn Deposits
3. Air Photos
1. Volcanic Rocks 1. Volc.s/ Volc.Rock Web Sites

2. Volcanic-Related
6
Deposits
1. Sedimentary Rocks 1. UTM Exercise pp.25-27

2. Low Temperature 2. Sed. Rock, LTS Deposit &
7 Deposits GPS Web Sites
3. GPS Methods
1. Hydrothermal 1. Alteration Map Plotting

Alteration Exercise
2. Hydrothermal Vein 2. Alteration Web Sites
8 Deposits
3. Alteration Mapping
1. Metamorphic Rocks 1. Cross Section Exercise

2. Metamorphic-Hosted 2. Metam.Rocks/Metam.-related
9 Deposits dep.s Websites
1. Structural Geology 1. Structure 3 Point Problem pp.87-94

2. Structural Controls
10
on Mineralization
1. Mechanical 1. Panning Exercise pp.95-112

Erosion 2. Gold panning - Web Sites
11
2. Placer Deposits
1. Geochemical 1. Soil Geochem Contouring pp. 61-65

Sampling Exercise
12
2. Geostatistics
1. Rock Sampling 1. Adit Map Exercise

13 2. Trench/Adit Mapping
1. Geophysical 1. Gravity Survey Plotting Ex. pp. 67-79

Surveys
2. Magnetic, Electrical
14 and Gravity
Methods;
1. Claim Staking 1. Claim Form Exercise

2. Exploration Project 2. Exploration Project Planning
15
Planning Exercise
1. Exploration Drilling 1. Drill Section Plotting Exercise

16 Methods
Note 1:
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Introduction to Exploration Geology Class Syllabus http://www.dmtcalaska.org/course_dev/explogeo/intro.html
Purchase or borrow:
1) inexpensive mineral test kit (handlens, pencil magnet, white streak plate,
copper penny, HCl bottle, and nail/pocket knife/scratcher).
Approximately 0.5 oz of dilute (<10%) Hydrochoric Acid is

recommended. Also known as Mureatic Acid
Hydrochloric acid is dangerous. Handle it with extreme care, using
only a drop to test, and store it properly.
Sources include chemical suppliers and some pool maintenance
suppliers.
2) several ore minerals (approx. 2 inch size) to identify and test the physical
properties.
Recommended minerals: galena, chalcopyrite, pyrite, chalcocite, stibnite,

arsenopyrite, pyrrhotite, magnetite, hematite, molybdenite, chromite, sphalerite.
Also highly recommended are a few common ganue minerals such as quartz,
calcite, amphibole, and chlorite.
Sources of Text:
Miners Inc. (1-800-824-7452, www.minerox.com)
Geosource (1-970-223-5511, http://geoed.com/GE-contact-pg.html
Crown Publications Inc., 546 Yates St., Victoria, B.C. V8W 1K8, PH
604-386-4636, FX 604-386-0221
Sources of Lab Supplies:
Miners Inc. (1-800-824-7452, www.minerox.com)
Geosource (1-970-223-5511, http://geoed.com/GE-contact-pg.html
Wards Scientific (1-800-962-2660, www.wardsci.com)
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Overview of Physical Geology http://www.dmtcalaska.org/course_dev/explogeo/class01/notes01.html
Introduction
Class 1 Overview of Physical Geology - Notes
Geology Read pp. 9 - 23
Geologic Principles Introduction, Overview of Exploration Geology
3. Maps & Navigation Cosmic Origin of the Earth, Overview of Plate Tectonics
Geologic Maps Geochemical Characteristics of the Earth
4. Igneous Rocks Geophysical Characteristics of the Earth
Magmatic Deposits
5. Plutonic-Related Deposits INTRODUCTION
Air Photos
6. Volcanic Rocks Exploration geology is the process and science of locating valuable mineral or petroleum
7. Sedimentary Rocks deposits, ie, those which have commercial value. The term prospecting is almost synonymous
Low Temp. Deposits with the term exploration. Mineral deposits of commercial value are called ore bodies
GPS Navigation
(compared to commercially viable deposits of oil which are called oil fields). This course will be
8. Hydrothermal Veins& focused largely on mineral exploration, although many of the same techniques are used in
Alteration
petroleum exploration. Each class discusses a combination of physical geology and exploration
9. Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic Deposits geology principles. Each class contains a lab activity which refers to these principles in the
10. Structural Geology context of a real world application to exploration geology. Each class includes a quiz which
Structural Controls on evaluates the level of understanding of these principles and applications.
Mineralization
** Mid Term The initial signs of potentially significant mineralization are called prospects. Through the
11. Mechanical Erosion exploration process, the prospect is investigated to acquire more and more detailed information.
Placer Deposits The goal is to prove the existence of an ore body (or oil field in the case of petroleum
12. Geochemical Sampling exploration) which can be mined (or developed). The exploration process typically occurs in
Methods
stages, with early stages focusing on gathering surface data (which is easier to acquire), and
13. Adit/Trench Mapping later stages focusing on gathering subsurface data, including drilling data and detailed
Geochemical Methods
14. Geophysical Methods geophysical survey data.
15. Project Planning Determining the value of an ore body (or deposit) requires determining two main features: 1)
Claim Staking
tonnage (or volume), and 2) grade (or concentration). The volume is determined by using
Methods drill data to outline the deposit in the subsurface, and by using a geometric models to calculate
** Final Exam the volume. If the ore body is exposed at the surface, then the dimensions of length and width
can be gathered at the surface, possibly with the aid of some trenching or blasting methods.
However, most of the volume which must be defined is typically located at depth and requires the
use of extensive drilling or underground excavation methods to define. The volume is difficult to
delineate because ore deposits often have irregular shapes. The grade is the average
concentration determined from numerous assays of drill samples. The grade can vary
considerably within different parts of the same ore body.
Development usually consists of extensive, close-spaced drilling which outlines the geometry of
the deposit in great detail. The development stage will also conduct extensive testing, with some
preliminary metallurgical testing, to precisely determine grade of the deposit and the recovery
(the amount of metal possible to extract, compared to the total amount of metal present in the
ore body). The final stage before actual mining or extraction is called feasibility. During this
stage, the actual mining or extraction method is proposed, taking into consideration all of the
economic variables which effect the bottom-line profit (commodity price, milling cost,
transportation cost, labor cost, etc...). At this stage, a decision is made whether to mine the
deposit from the surface (called open-pit mining), or to mine the deposit by tunneling (called
underground mining).
Overview of Exploration Geology

Mineral seldom occur at the surface and are seldom obvious. Most often they are buried,
sometimes at considerable depth. Since they are not visible we must detect their presence
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indirectly and extrapolate between points where data is known. Many different techniques can
be used to detect an ore body. This class will discuss the more important techniques in some
detail; others are only briefly mentioned. The most important techniques used in exploration
geology include geological field methods, geochemical sampling methods, and geophysical
methods. Exploration conducted from the surface is far less expensive than drilling or
underground excavation, so thorough surface exploration usually precedes either of these
activities.
The Exploration Process
Exploration for a mineral deposit is usually conducted in a step-wise fashion which progresses
through stages, each of which moves closer to making a valuation of the ore body. Geological
reconnaissance and surface geochemical sampling prevail in the earliest stage. Simultaneously
or afterwards, geophysical surveys are typically conducted. Following surface exploration, the
project moves into the drilling stage. Drilling may begin with a small number of exploratory drill
holes on select targets. After this drilling stage, extensive, close-spaced drilling (called
development drilling) is conducted. Finally, pending good results, reserve drilling is
conducted, which is the type of drilling which makes the final assessment of the deposit before
actual mining begins. Generally, some amount of drilling will continue throughout the life of the
mine, as further definition is required and new information is obtained and used to refine the
deposit model.
Exploration Methods
If bedrock is exposed anywhere at or around a prospect, then surface bedrock mapping is an

essential beginning step for an exploration program. This would include mapping and sampling
(field geologic methods). This work focuses on identifying and mapping outcrops, describing
mineralization and alteration, measuring structural features (geometry), and making geologic
cross sections.
Geochemical methods involve the collection and geochemical analysis of geological materials,
including rocks, soils and stream sediments. The results mapping and sampling may suggest
patterns indicating the direction where an ore deposit could be present underground or at the
surface. Geophysical methods focus on measuring physical characteristics (such as magnetism,
density or conductivity) of rocks at or near the earths surface. The measured values are then
used to compare with the values and models of known ore deposits.
COSMIC ORIGIN OF THE EARTH

Theories suggest the universe consists of an unknown number of localized concentrations of
helium and hydrogen gas and other elements (galaxies). Galaxies change over time. Clouds of
gas within them collapse due to gravitational attraction between matter of different types. Some
of the local concentrations of gases collapse and form stars. This is thought to result from
hydrogen atoms fusing to form helium atoms by thermonuclear reaction, which produces
enormous heat. Stars vary in size and composition, depending on their starting size and
composition and on the progress through an evolutionary process of further collapse or
expansion.
Our sun started out with some leftover gases surrounding it or perhaps forming an orbital disk.
Condensation occurred in local areas in the disk, and gravitational attraction of smaller masses
towards larger ones (ie, accretion) began to occur. Eventually the masses of solids and gases
ended up either in the larger ones (the planets), or are still floating around in space (asteroids
and meteorites). We estimate the composition of the original concoction of materials by
observing the chemistry of meteorites, which are thought to represent it:
% of Total Seen to
Type Characteristics
Fall
mostly silicate minerals; also known as
1) Stones 92.8
chondrites
mixture of nickel-iron masses and FeMg
2) Stony Irons 1.5
silicates
3) Irons 5.7 nearly solid iron nickel; most frequently found
The planets further collapsed and each underwent its own separate, unique history because of
the different starting composition and the different distances from the sun (causing a different
thermal history). Heat energy was generated by the accretion process, and also probably by the
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decay of radioactive elements.
Eventually heat was sufficient to cause total melting of the collection of materials. Then as the
molten mass cooled it underwent differentiation, that is, it separated into different layers. At the
center is a core of solid iron, which is surrounded by an outer core layer of molten liquid iron.
Even though the inner core is hotter than the outer core, the inner core is solid because of the
incredibly high pressures at the center of the earth. Further out is an intermediate layer called
mantle, which consists largely of iron and magnesium silicate minerals. At the surface is a very
thin, rigid, crustal layer which is not homogenous. It has some areas which were thicker than
others and differ in their chemical composition. Continental plates are thicker and consist mostly
of light elements, like silicon and aluminum and oxygen. Other large areas consist of thinner
plates which consist mostly of the elements iron and magnesium and much lower silicon.
OVERVIEW OF PLATE TECTONICS

WEB SITE: SEA FLOOR SPREADING
http://www.scienceprof.com/plate.html
Current geological theories consider the outer core and mantle of the earth to consist of liquid
and plastic (respectively) materials with slow-moving, convective currents. The rigid crust and
solid portion of the mantle essentially float on the liquid mantle and outer core. Convective
motions in the mantle and outer core has caused the thin, crustal layer to break apart into a
series of large plates, which continue to move slowly or drift. Each plate has had its own
unique drift direction and speed. Collisions between plates occur, causing a great amount of
fracturing, crumpling, overthrusting and underthrusting, particulary aroung the margins of the
continents.
The deep convective currents also cause molten material to upwell to the surface along linear
fracture zones called rifts. Here the mafic material also forms a rigid shell called oceanic crust.
Most of the earths rifts occur within the major ocean basins, although a few occur on the
continents. Along the oceanic rift zones, new oceanic crustal material is being generated as the
mafic (basaltic) molten material crystallizes and moves away from the axis of the rift. One of the
most obvious is the mid-Atlantic Rift, which exists midway between the continents of Africa and
South America. Its discovery was brought about by the observation that the coastline geometry
of these two continents are so similar.
Boundaries between the crustal plates, continental or oceanic, are one of three types. The first,
called a rift has already been mentioned. This type of boundary is where the plates move away
from each other. The second type of plate boundary is called a convergent boundary where the
plates move towards each other. This process typically results in one plate being forced
downward below the other along a linear zone, called a subduction zone. The downward
moving plate becomes hotter with depth, and can eventually get deep enough to become
partially or wholly melted, thus creating new molten material. he third possible type of plate
boundary is where two plates move sideways past each other, which is called a transform fault.
As the continental and oceanic plates are shifting they are also fluctuating in elevation. Some
portions of plates have become elevated while others sink and become buried by new rocks.
The more deeply buried portions can become so deeply buried that local remelting occurs. New
magma (molten rock) is formed in large masses which creep upward toward the surface. Many
reach the surface by flowing up through zones of weakness where fractures formed, or other
areas where crystallization eventually occurs. Later uplift movements have pushed the
crystallized masses, called batholiths or plutons (larger and smaller). Erosion at the surface
destroys the intrusions, and water transport carries the grains to their site of deposition (while
decreasing the size by abrasion). Here the grains may contribute to the formation of layered
sedimentary rocks. Theoretically the cycle can be repeated, if these new layers are eventually
buried again.
Geochemical Characteristics of the Earth

As mentioned previously, rather than being uniform in composition, the earths crust is highly
varied in composition. There are broad areas of continental crust containing abundant light
elements, and broad areas of oceanic crust which contain abundant iron and magnesium. Over
99 % of the earth consists of only about eight different elements out of the 103 in the periodic
table (below). These are iron, magnesium, oxygen, silicon, aluminum, calcium, potassium and
sodium.
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Periodic Table of Elements
WEB SITE: WEB PERIODIC TABLE

http://www.webelements.com/webelements/scholar/indes.html
At present, there are 103 known elements. Each element is unique, and is defined by its atomic
number, or number of protons in the nucleus. Gold, with an atomic number of 79, is heavier than
copper, which has an atomic number of 29. Elements can occur as solids, liquids or gases.
Solids and liquids in nature are never completely pure. They always have some minor amount of
at least one other substance. For example, native gold is almost pure, but there are always
minor amounts of silver, and sometimes other elements. In nature, there are many more
compounds than there are native elements. Compounds consist of two or more elements. A
mineral is a naturally occurring compound in the earths crust. An aggregate of one or more
minerals is a rock.
GEOPHYSICAL FEATURES OF THE EARTH

Earths Gravity Field
WEB SITE: EARTHS GRAVITY FIELD

http://www.mines.edu/fs_home/tboyd/GP311/MODULES/GRAV/NOTES/gtogeo.html
The gravity field of the earth is caused by the earths mass. The strength of the field is a function
of the composition of the mass (iron-rich center with silicate minerals near the surface) and the
distance away from its center. Where we stand on the surface, the gravity field has a field
strength, which we can measure (as weight). The earth is not completely round. Instead, the
radius in the polar areas is approximately 21 kilometers shorter than at the equator. Since you
are closer to the earths center at the poles, you body weight will be greater there than at the
equator. The gravity field is also not perfectly spherical: there are many irregularities.
In spite of the complexities in the shape and strength of the field, geophysicists have created a
reliable model of the field (with numerous instrumental readings all over the globe). Using an
instrument called a gravimeter, a geophysicist can measure the strength of the gravity field over
a buried ore deposit to test for its presence. If the gravity readings show a departure from the
models prediction of the normal field strength, it may indicate an abnormally dense rock mass at
depth. The gravity data can be plotted as a vertical profile, or in a map view, to highlight the
anomalous readings.
The gravity field also effects our perspective of the way to measure density. Gravity causes
objects with a dense mass (or high density) to feel like they weigh more. A good way to
compare different mineral or rock substances is to compare their density, which we refer to as
the specific gravity. The specific gravity for a substance is an expression stating the number of
times heavier it is than an equal volume of water. For example, the specific gravity of gold is
approximately 19, which means nineteen times heavier than water.
Earths Magnetic Field
WEB SITE: EARTHS MAGNETIC FIELD

http://www-spof.gsfc.nasa.gov/Education/wmfield.html
The Earth has a magnetic field which resembles the magnetic field of a simple bar magnet with
axis of the magnet closely aligned with the spin axis of the earth. From a point on the surface
where we are standing, we call the angle between the magnetic north pole and true north is
called the declination. Since a compass needle points to magnetic north, the compass
declination is typically adjusted to compensate and cause north on the compass to read as true
north.
In detail, the earths magnetic field, like the earths gravity field, is much more complex than the
simple bar magnet model would suggest. For one thing, the location of the north pole slowly
migrates, and has been slowly migrating throughout geologic time. For example, in England
over the last two centuries, the direction towards the north pole has migrated from 15 degrees
east of north, to 25 degrees west of north, and then back to 5 degrees west of north.
Certain minerals containing iron or nickel can be magnetic and so can have small magnetic fields
of their own which are readily measurable. Many minerals have a trace of magnetism at least
which can be measured. The strength of the magnetism associated with the mineral is called the
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susceptibility. The minerals magnetite and pyrrhotite have strong magnetic susceptibility
compared to the mineral zircon, which has a low susceptibility. Where magnetite and other
magnetic minerals are present in abundance in a rock, the rock can be measured and traced
with sophisticated magnetometers. Geophysicists measure the field strength and orientation on
the surface and compare it with predicted values using a model. The magnetic field has been
measured in numerous locations to model its shape and strength. When the measured data on
the surface shows anomalous values, there may be rocks below the surface causing the
anomalies.
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Class 2 Rock Identification Methods and Geologic Principles http://www.dmtcalaska.org/course_dev/explogeo/class02/notes02.html
Introduction
Class 2 Rock Identification Methods and Geologic Principles - Notes
Geology
Rock Identification
2. Rock Identification Methods Geologic Principles
Geologic Principles
Geologic Time
3. Maps & Navigation
Geologic Maps Exploration Geology Terminology
4. Igneous Rocks
Magmatic Deposits
5. Plutonic-Related Deposits ROCK IDENTIFICATION
Air Photos
6. Volcanic Rocks To classify a rock, three things must be considered: 1) origin, 2)
composition, and 3) texture.
7. Sedimentary Rocks
Low Temp. Deposits
GPS Navigation Rock Origin
8. Hydrothermal Veins&
Alteration The first step to identify a rock is to try to categorize the rock into one of the
9. Metamorphic Rocks three main types or groups of rocks. These include igneous, sedimentary or
Metamorphic Deposits metamorphic types. The only rocks which do not fall into one of these
10. Structural Geology categories are meteorites. Igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rock
Structural Controls on
Mineralization
types are distinguished by the processes which form them.
** Mid Term Igneous rocks: form by crystallization of a melt (molten rock material).
11. Mechanical Erosion
Placer Deposits
Subcategories:
Methods
Plutonic: formed at significant depth below the surface.
13. Adit/Trench Mapping Volcanic: formed at or near the surface.
Geochemical Methods
14. Geophysical Methods Sedimentary rocks: form by the compaction small or large grains or
15. Project Planning fragments of pre-existing rocks, or by the precipitation of mineral matter from
Claim Staking
a body of water, such as an ocean, lake or stream.
Methods
Metamorphic rocks: formed from pre-existing igneous, sedimentary or
** Final Exam
metamorphic rocks by subjecting them to heat and/or pressure and/or
migrating fluids, causing the original mineral assemblage of the rock to
change to a new assemblage of minerals.
The origin is not always obvious, but sufficient training will enable recognition
of certain features which point to the most likely origin. Examples include the
common presence of bedding or layering in sedimentary rocks, and the
presence of mineral foliations or lineations in metamorphic rocks. One must
also consider the geologic environment where the rock is found. For
example, in a young volcanic terrane one is less likely to find sedimentary or
metamorphic rocks. When the origin is completely unobvious, the
composition and texture must be relied upon to make the best guess.
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Rock Composition
The rock composition is found by determining which minerals make up the

rock. By definition, a rock is a solid mass or compound consisting of at least
two minerals (although there are some exceptions when a rock may consist
entirely of one mineral).
The minerals comprising the rock can be identified using common field
testing methods for individual minerals, particularly where the texture is
sufficiently coarse-grained enough to distinguish the individual minerals with
the naked eye or a hand lens. Where the grain size of the minerals
comprising the rock are too fine-grained to recognize discrete minerals,
petrographic methods (those using a microscope) can be used for reliable
identification in many cases.
Petrographic methods involve the use of a microscope to examine the optical

properties of discrete minerals magnified through the microscope lens.
Properties include the behavior of refracted, reflected and transmitted light
either through a thin wafer slice of the rock (called a thin section), or of a
sample plug (for reflected light). The light source is adjusted to provide light
which polarized in one or two directions. Different minerals have
characteristic optical properties, which can be used with tables of optical
mineral properties to identify the mineral.
Other instruments which can be used to make mineral identification include

the electron microscope. These methods are reliable but expensive, and
require somewhat tedious sample preparation. The image is obtained by
exposing the sample to electron bombardment and imaging the results.
X-Ray Diffraction Techniques
***WEB SITES:
http://materials.binghamton.edu/labs/xray/xray.html
Another method to identify small mineral grains is using X-ray powder

diffraction. A small amount of material is ground into a powder and
bombarded with X-rays. The results are recorded on a film strip in a camera,
or in the form of graph. The reflections of the X-rays are measured to
determine the d-spacings of the unknown mineral. Each mineral has a
unique set of peaks corresponding to d-spacings, which are related to the
crystal structure.
In X-ray spectrometry, another method to identify minerals, the X-rays cause

the emission of photons from the surface of the mineral. The sample is
prepared by obtaining a very high polish on its surface. The photons emitted
from the surface atoms have characteristic energies for specific elements.
By measuring the energy levels of the photons, the mineral composition can
be identified.
Rock Texture
The texture of a rock is defined by observing two criteria: 1) grain sizes, 2)

grain shapes.
Grain Size: the average size of the mineral grains. The size
scale used for sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rocks are
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different (Figure 1).
Grain Shape: the general shape of the mineral grains (crystal

faces evident, or crystals are rounded).
Examples of the size classifications for each of the three major rock types
include:
FINE-GRAINED > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > >
COARSE-GRAINED
Sedimentary: Shale Siltstone Sandstone Wacke

Conglomerate
Metamorphic: Slate Phyllite Schist

Gneiss
Igneous: Rhyolite
Granite
Rock Type Very Fine Fine Grained Medium Coarse Very Coarse
Grained Grained Grained
Grained
Clastic .06 - .125 mm .125 - .25 mm .25 - .5 mm .5 1 mm 1 2 mm

Sedimentary
Metamorphic < .25 mm .25 1 mm 1 2 mm > 2 mm
Igneous < 1 mm 1 5 mm 5 20 mm > 20 mm
Figure 1. Grain size examples. Sizes are median diameter of grains in

millimeters.
GEOLOGIC PRINCIPLES
One of the main goals of mineral exploration is to predict the geometry and
relationships of different rock types under the surface where they cant be
seen either below the surface or beyond the immediate exposures. This is
essential to know in order to plan a mine. Much effort and a variety of
techniques are used to analyze the timing or geologic history of the area
(see Geologic Time below). There are three main principles, or laws,
which are used in field geological studies to guide in determining the relative
timing of events.
Law of Cross-cutting Relationship;
***WEB SITES:
1. http://homepage.usask.ca/~smi454/project/pictures/vein_relationships.htm
2. http://www.rmmlf.org/SciTech/Lacy/fig8.JPG
The Law of Cross-cutting Relations is a principle which is useful to employ

in igneous provinces. It states that invading rocks are younger than those
invaded. For example, an igneous dike invading a sedimentary or
metamorphic rock. Another example is a situation where there are multiple
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intrusions are found; the sequence of igneous events can be sorted out by
observing which intrusions cut which other intrusions. The sequence might
give an indication of a particular differentiation pattern of the magma. The
same law applies to veining relationships: younger veins cut across older
vein sets (Figure 2). Often times where there are gold-bearing quartz veins
there are also other veins which are barren, and may have a different
orientation due to different structural conditions during formation.
Figure 2. Vein crosscutting relations. Vein A is cut by Vein B. Vein C cuts

both A and B, so it is youngest.
Law of Superposition
The Law of Superposition is a law which applies to sedimentary rocks. It

states that where undisturbed, layered, sedimentary rocks occur, younger
rocks will be situated on top (above) older rocks. The same law can apply to
layered volcanic flows, where the ages of the succeeding layers going up
section will be relatively younger than the lower part of the section. This law
is also one which is employed to determine age relationships of different rock
units. In mineral exploration, a situation where this principle could be
employed would be to project the underground geometry of a mineralized or
petroleum enriched formation.
Figure 3. Slightly deformed sedimentary rocks (Eagle Bluff, Alaska).
Principle of Uniformitarianism
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The Principle of Uniformitarianism states that the earth is a result of natural

forces which are presently active and have persisted over the course of
geologic time. Rocks form most often as a result of slow, gradual
developments resulting from various geologic processes. Catastrophic
events do occur and contribute to the overall development and history of
rocks, but these events are less frequent and contribute to only a small
percentage of the net effect of natural forces in general. This principle has
been used to study the history of ancient volcanic rocks by observing present
day volcanic activity. For example, a certain type of massive sulfide deposit
has been documented along an active sea floor rift. This knowledge can be
used to better understand a certain type of Copper-Lead-Zinc ore deposits,
called volcanogenic massive sulfide depsits, or VMS.
GEOLOGIC TIME
***WEB SITES:
1. http://www.dc.peachnet.edu/~pgore/geology/geo102/javacorrecttimechart.php
2.http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/dinosaurs/glossary/TimeScaleShort.html
3. http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/help/timeform.html
4. http://www.rocksandminerals.com/geotime/geotime.htm
5. http://www.state.nv.us/cnr/ndwp/dict-1/appd-f1.pdf
6. http://geology.com/time.htm
7. http://www.rmmlf.org/SciTech/Lacy/fig6.JPG
Some rocks exposed at the surface are very young, but most are very old, in
fact are much older than the historical records of man. These old rocks are
generally many millions of years in age. The vastness of the concept of
millions of years can be difficult to comprehend since human life times are
so much shorter (generally less than 100 years). Units of geologic time
which have established include the era (longest), period, and epoch
(shortest). All of geologic time has been divided into 4 main eras, called
(from oldest to youngest) the Precambrian, the Paleozoic, the Mesozoic and
the Cenezoic. Sites 1 6 provide illustrations and summaries of the geologic
time scale.
The earth has slowly changed throughout its history, and continues to do so
as a result of a very slow cooling and differentiation process. As a result,
certain time periods during the earths history had conditions more conducive
to formation of specific types of mineral deposits (Site 7). For this reason,
knowing the approximate age of rocks can be a rough guide to the types of
mineral deposits most likely to be found.
When evaluating the ages of rocks we speak of two types of terms of ages
called absolute age and relative age. Absolute age is measured in
years, and depends on having some type of time scale to measure against,
typically by using a highly technical chemical dating method. Relative age
simply means placing one geologic event or feature in context with another in
a timing sequence.
Absolute Age
***WEB SITES:
1. http://vcourseware5.calstatela.edu/VirtualDatingDemo/index.html
2. http://www.dc.peachnet.edu/~pgore/geology/geo102/radio.htm
5 of 7 5/26/2008 1:03 PM
During the early 1900s, shortly after the discovery of radioactivity, it was
discovered that radioactive decay involves the transformation of radioactive
atoms into completely different elements. Each radioactive substance
disintegrates at its own rate and forms a unique set of daughter products
(elements). The rate of decay is generally very slow. For example, uranium
changes into lead at a rate such that half of the original amount will be
converted to lead after a period of 4,500 million years. Half of the remaining
uranium will convert to lead in another 4,500 million years, and so on.
Therefore the half life of uranium is 4,500 million years. By measuring the
ratio of unchanged uranium to lead in a sample, and knowing the rate of
decay, we can calculate the length of time the sample has been
disintegrating, or in other words, the age of the rock. Besides the
Uranium-Lead method, several other radiometric techniques are available,
including Carbon 14 and Rubidium-Strontium.
Relative Age
Where different rocks are in physical contact and observable, the relative
ages of the rocks can often be determined evaluating superposition and
cross-cutting relationships. Rocks comprising the upper strata are younger
than rocks comprising the lower strata. Rocks formed from an intruding
magma are younger than the rocks they intrude. Inclusions within an igneous
rock are older than the magma which formed the matrix.
When different rocks are in close proximity but their actual contacts are not
visible, a geologic map and cross-section can be made which illustrate the
geometric relationships of the rocks, and allows the determination of relative
age.
Difficulty is encountered when attempting to correlate rocks which are not in

direct contact or even close proximity. Fortunately geologists have worked
out the evolutionary succession of fossil forms. It was found that sedimentary
rocks containing fossils could easily be placed in a successive sequence with
respect to time by identifying the fossil assemblages present.
The natural outgrowth of this effort was to begin comparing rocks from all
parts of the globe. Fossils could now be used to attach relative ages to a
wide variety of different sedimentary rock types. They have been used to
construct what is referred to as the Geologic Time Scale, which is a
chronology of the earths history largely based on the fossil record.
Since the oldest rocks and the oldest fossils are the ones most likely to
become obliterated due to age, we have much more fossil data available for
younger rocks, and hence these contain the smallest subdivisions of time.
The Paleozoic Era was when invertebrates and simple vertebrates (fish,
amphibians and primitive reptiles) were the dominant life forms. The
Mesozoic Era was when reptiles, including the dinosaurs, ruled. The
Cenezoic Era is best characterized as the time when mammals became
dominant.
EXPLORATION GEOLOGY TERMS
The following terms are useful to know:
Ore: the rock material or minerals which are mined for a profit.
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Ore Minerals: the specific minerals within the ore which contain the metals
to be recovered.
Gangue Minerals: the minerals having no commercial value, they just

happen to be mixed up with the ore minerals.
Prospect: potential ore deposit, based on preliminary exploration.
Mine: Excavation for the extraction of mineral deposits, either at the surface
(open pit mine) or below (underground mine).
Orebody or Ore Deposit: naturally occurring materials from which a

mineral or minerals of economic value can be recovered at a reasonable
profit.
Mineral Deposit: similar to an ore deposit, but is implied to be subeconomic

or incompletely evaluated at present.
Mineral Occurrence: anomalous concentration of minerals, but is

uneconomic at present.
Grade: this means the concentration of the substance of interest, usually

stated in terms of weight per unit volume.
Cut-off Grade: the lower limit of concentration acceptable for making a profit
when mining.
Host Rock: the rock lithology (type) which contains the ore. May or may not
comprise ore.
Country Rocks: the rocks of no commercial value surrounding the host

rocks and/or the ore.
Anomalous: above or below the range of values considered to be normal.
7 of 7 5/26/2008 1:03 PM
Class 3 Maps, Navigation and Geologic Map http://www.dmtcalaska.org/course_dev/explogeo/class03/notes03.html
Introduction
Class 3 Maps, Navigation and Geologic Maps - Notes
Geology
Reading Assignment pp. 45-47
Geologic Principles
Introduction to Maps
Geologic Maps Navigation and GPS
4. Igneous Rocks Geologic Maps
Magmatic Deposits
5. Plutonic-Related Deposits INTRODUCTION TO MAPS
Air Photos
6. Volcanic Rocks Maps are one of the most important media used to communicate
information in exploration geology. Maps are a two dimensional
7. Sedimentary Rocks representation of the surface of the earth and its features. Maps are a kind
Low Temp. Deposits
GPS Navigation of shorthand language media with two main purposes: 1) to convey detailed
8. Hydrothermal Veins& information about a specific area, and 2) to indicate the position of the
Alteration specific area relative to other parts of the earth. The first objective is
9. Metamorphic Rocks accomplished by recording information in graphic form, either directly from
Metamorphic Deposits field observation or indirectly from air photographs or a wide variety of other
10. Structural Geology sources. The second objective is accomplished by showing reference
Mineralization marks (or a coordinate system), or by showing a small scale location map
** Mid Term with well known landmarks. A coordinate system is nothing more than a
graphical means of locating any point on the map, with two coordinates for
11. Mechanical Erosion each point giving positions with respect to the X axis and Y axis.
Placer Deposits
12. Geochemical Sampling Most maps have more than just a map area they often have lots of other
Methods
13. Adit/Trench Mapping information that is given in the space around the main map area. A
Geochemical Methods complete map generally has several main components. In addition to the
14. Geophysical Methods main map area, a complete map will usually include the following
15. Project Planning information in various positions adjacent to the main map area: 1) title, 2)
Claim Staking author(s), 3) date, 4) scale, 5) indication of true and magnetic north, and 5)
16. Exploration Drilling coordinates or reference points. Additionally, almost all geologic maps, as
Methods well as geophysical and geochemical maps, contain an explanation. The
** Final Exam explanation is where the code for reading the map is provided. This may
include the colors, symbols and all other abbreviations used on the map.
Many types of maps are used in exploration geology. Topographic maps

are the most widely used maps. These depict the surface morphology by
showing lines of equal elevation (or contour lines). The most basic and
essential type of map used by geologists is the geologic map. A geologic
map shows rock types (or lithologies) and their geometry. Geologic maps
are very often constructed on a topographic base map.
Other types of maps which are used in conjunction with geologic maps
include geophysical maps and geochemical maps. Geophysical maps show
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readings of magnetism, gravity, electrical conductivity, radioactivity, or other

physical properties of rocks in an area. Geochemical maps, likewise, show
geochemical values of samples collected in an area. These may be
samples of soil, rock, stream sediments or water. There may be numerous
values or readings from an area, so typically a derivative map will be
created from these maps which summarizes the information or otherwise
depicts the data in a fashion such that it can be more quickly evaluated.
Typically this is done by designing a map which delineates or emphasizes
the anomalous (outside normal) readings or values. One way these
derivative maps can highlight anomalous values is by contouring the data
similar to the way elevations are used to create topographic contours. This
method clusters data points with similar high values and shows the gradient
towards lower values just in the way hills and valleys show up on a
topographic map. The other method of creating a derivative map is to
create a thematic map. A thematic map uses colors or symbols to code
the values on the map.
COORDINATE SYSTEMS
There are many, many types of coordinate systems used for maps, but
relatively few are in common usage in exploration geology. These include
latitude-longitude, UTM, metes and bounds and local grids. As stated, the
map is a two dimensional representation of an irregular surface forming a
portion of a sphere of the earth (also called a geoid). Problems arise when
trying to fit a flat piece of paper onto a rounded object. The result is a flat
map which contains distortion, particularly in the corner areas. This
distortion is accommodated by using a projection, which is a mathematical
or geometric means of minimizing the problem.
Latitude-longitude has historically been the most frequently used coordinate

system for both navigation purposes as well as for conducting exploration
geology. In this system the coordinates consist of degrees, minutes and
seconds. The latitude, which represents the Y value, is the angular distance
north of the equator, which ranges from 0 degrees at the equator to 90
degrees at the poles. The longitude, which represents the X value, is the
angular distance westward from the 0 degree meridian, also known as the
prime meridian.
The UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator) coordinate system is rapidly

becoming the coordinate system of choice in creating maps for exploration
geology. The major advantage to this system is that it is based on the
metric system, using meters (or kilometers) for distance units. This greatly
simplifies mathematical calculations concerning scale and distance
measuring. The UTM system is based on a series of geographic zones,
each containing a rectangular grid. The Y value of the grid system is
referred to as the Northing and increases towards the north. The X value of
the grid system is referred to as the Easting and increases towards the east.
Another coordinate system used in exploration geology, more for legal

descriptions of land than for navigation purposes, is the system of metes
and bounds. This system is referenced to a known meridians (north-south
and east-west lines), which is stated on the USGS topographic map of the
area. The largest subdivision is the township, which consists of 36 square
miles. The township is six miles in length per side. Each township is
defined by a township number, which refers to the Y coordinate, and by
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Range number, which refers to the X coordinate. For example, Township 3

North, Range 4 E refers to the thirty six square mile area extending from 18
to 24 miles in an easterly direction from the meridian, and from 12 to 18
miles in a northerly direction from the specified meridian. The sections
(one square mile each) are numbered in a standard pattern, starting in the
upper right corner of the township with Section 1 and increasing to the west
to Section 6. The pattern begins with Section 7 assigned below Section 6,
and across to the east to Section 12. Sec. 13 is below Sec. 12, etc... The
next level of subdivision is the the quarter section, which, as the name
implies, is one fourth of the Section. The quarter sections are labeled with
the quadrant direction specified as NE, NW, SE, and SW. The last
subdivision is the quarter of the quarter section, again labeled as to the
quadrant direction.
NAVIGATION AND GPS
Accurate navigation is essential to conducting many types of geological

investigations. The primary activities often involve sampling or data
collecting on a specified grid or other location system. For detailed
sampling, past work has relied on the compass, although handheld GPS
instruments have become standard surveying equipment since about 1995
in Alaska.
Bearing means direction. Bearing can be noted in two main ways. The
quadrant method indicates the bearing in terms of the number of degrees
from a cardinal direction (N, S, E or W). For example, N30E indicates a
bearing of 30 degrees east of north. The second system is called
azimuth. The azimuth system refers to the number of degrees around a
complete 360 degree circle. For example, an azimuth of 300 indicates a
bearing of 60 degrees west of due north. The azimuth system is becoming
the most common for navigation purposes during exploration activities.
Reconnaissance surveying is often employed during geochemical sampling

on grids. This is accomplished using a compass in conjunction with some
type of distance measuring device. The ones most commonly used are the
hipchain and the tape. The hipchain lets out a thread, which is wound
around a counting device and allows distance measurements to be viewed.
Tapes are made of a few different materials, but are manipulated the same
way, which is to lay the tape, which has marked distances, out along the
length of surface to be sampled. Hip chains are used mostly for
reconnaissance work where the terrain is rough and less precision is
required. Tapes are used for detailed sampling, for example, along a trench
floor.
The two main types of compasses in use today are the Brunton and the
Silva Rangefinder (or comparable). The Brunton compass is more
expensive, but more accurate than the Silva. The Brunton is calibrated to
the nearest degree, while the Silva is to the nearest two degrees. The
Brunton compass uses a bubble level type inclinometer, which is more
reliable than the pendelum type used in the Silva. The compass must be
set to the correct declination of the area being explored. This is given on
standard one inch equals one mile USGS topographic maps for the area.
However, where magnetic anomalies exist, the declination must be adjusted
for local variations. This can be done by locating a survey line in the area
with a known bearing. For example, many section lines, especially near
3 of 6 5/26/2008 1:04 PM
population centers are brushed when they are surveyed.
GPS (global positioning system) is currently an integral part of any

navigation purposes. Handheld units have become very portable and quite
reliable in many instances. GPSs can be used in two main ways. First,
location coordinates can be pre-entered into the unit, so the unit can be
used to guide the explorationist to a pre-determined point, perhaps obtained
from a map. The second way GPSs are used in the field is to mark or
automatically record a waypoint while in the field, and then plot the location
on a map. GIS (geographic information system) software can then be used
to plot the point on a map. Two of the most popular GIS programs are
MapInfo and Arcview.
GEOLOGIC MAPS
Geologic maps are central to almost any geological exploration projects.

First, all previous geologic maps and data for an area needs to be sought
after. Once the previous geologic maps have been assessed, there may be
need for additional geologic mapping to be completed at a smaller scale to
show more detail. Geologic maps may be created at different scales to
show different levels of detail. For example, a reconnaissance geologic
map will generally have less detail than an underground mine map. When
trench or underground mapping requires the illustration of great detail, so
must be made at a larger size.
Rocks can be exposed at the surface in three main ways. They can be
present in outcrop, which is a direct observation of bedrock. They can be
present in the form of rubble, which is loose rock having no obvious
connection with bedrock. Rubble is generally pretty consistent, and thus
may frequently be used to represent bedrock. Float is defined as loose
rock material which has no obvious origin. Float generally is less
consistent, ie, there is more variability in composition. The type of rock
exposure observed in the field should be noted as outcrop, rubble or float.
The map should eventually document what type of rock exposure is being
used to provide the basis for the interpretation of the geology shown on the
map. Outcrop maps are more reliable to predict the subsurface geology.
There are several different types of outcrop geologic maps commonly made
at an early stage in the exploration of a prospect or area. The decision as
to which lithologies to show is a matter of mappers opinion. Each lithology
can be made into a separate map unit, or lithologies can be combined into
one map unit. The amount of detail needs to fit the map scale chosen, such
that it will fit within the map units and be legible. Within each outcrop, the
various contacts between differing map units and structural features are
shown.
GEOLOGIC MAPPING METHODS
The aim of geologic mapping is to create a map which summarizes the

geologic data gathered in the field. Every place that an observation is
made, a sample is gathered, or any type of data collection takes place, it is
positioned on the map at the appropriate X Y coordinates.
Conventionally, reconnaissance geologic maps are created with true north
toward the top edge of the map. The map can be small scale and show
much detail, or be large scale and generalized. At each point, sometimes
4 of 6 5/26/2008 1:04 PM
called a station, two essential pieces of information need to be recorded,

including the lithology and the geometry (or structure), which are defined
using color, shading, patterning, and symbology Generally the key to the
graphics are shown in an explanation near one edge of the map. The
information shown graphically on the map is generally also recorded in
writing in a field notebook.
As each contact between lithologies is traced on the map, the type of

contact needs to be defined. The possible types of contacts including
different types of sedimentary contacts, intrusive contacts, and fault
contacts. Sedimentary contacts may be either normal, which is called a
conformable contact, or show an erosional surface as the contact, which is
called an unconformable contact. Intrusive contacts are often sharp, but
can be gradational over a large zone. This could be illustrated graphically
using dashed or stipple lines.
The structure data which should be recorded include the geometry of the
bedding in the case of sedimentary or volcanic rocks. It would include the
foliation in the case of a metamorphic rock. In some cases, layering within
plutonic igneous rocks can also be measured. Jointing in igneous rocks
can also be an important type of structural data to collect. Where faults are
present, the surface must also be measured for its orientation. Fault traces
on maps are often shown as heavy, dashed or squiqqly lines. There may
be lineations, such as streaks on fault surfaces or alignment of elongate
minerals, which can be measured if they are present at the location. These
are shown graphically as a small arrow in the direction of the lineation. As
mentioned, it is important to not only show the information graphically on the
map.
The geometry of many types of planar features are shown using the strike
and dip symbol. The strike is the bearing of a horizontal line in the plane of
the feature. It is measured with a compass and plotted on the map. The
direction of inclination of the same plane is called the dip, and is
measured, using an inclinometer, in a direction perpendicular to the strike.
The inclination direction is shown by the small mark on the side of the strike
line, and the measurement is placed next to it.
The methodology of determining lithology and structure for map units is the
same for reconniassance, trench or underground mapping. However, the
normal convention of north at the top edge of the map is not always the
case for trench or underground maps, or any other type of geologic map
where a lot of detail is desired.
FIELD DATA COLLECTION
Field data collection, done in conjunction with field mapping, is frequently

done in one of two ways. The first way is to record information
chronologically in a field notebook. The notebook represents a daily log of
the field activities which were completed. Each day should begin with a
header consisting of the date. Then it is customary to summarize the
general location. Then a systematic list of stations, observations, sample
numbers, etc... should follow. The second method of collecting field data is
to use a standard data collection form which is designed for the project.
This method requires a separate form for each station or sample location.
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6 of 6 5/26/2008 1:04 PM
Class 4 Igneous Rocks & Magmatic Deposits http://www.dmtcalaska.org/course_dev/explogeo/class04/notes04.html
Introduction
Class 4 Igneous Rocks & Magmatic Deposits - Notes
Geology
Igneous Rocks
Geologic Principles Bowens Reaction Series
3. Maps & Navigation Rock-Forming Minerals
Geologic Maps Magmatic Ore Deposits
4. Igneous Rocks
Magmatic Deposits
Igneous Rocks
Air Photos
Igneous rocks are those which form by crystallizing from molten magma
6. Volcanic Rocks (melted rock). Igneous rocks are one of the most important groups of rocks
7. Sedimentary Rocks because they make up about 95 % of the earths crust. Igneous rocks in the
Low Temp. Deposits form of melts also comprise everything below the crust, for example, the
GPS Navigation
mantle, outer and inner core zones.
Alteration
Most of the igneous rocks present at or near the earths surface are
9. Metamorphic Rocks crystallized from some type of silicate magma, which means the melt was
Metamorphic Deposits
made up mostly of the two elements silicon and oxygen, combined to form
10. Structural Geology
Structural Controls on silica, or SiO2. The continental areas are made up of close to 60 % silica,
Mineralization and the oceanic areas are made up of about 47 % silica.
** Mid Term
Direct observations of volcanism and the crystallizing of lava at the surface is
Placer Deposits evidence for crystallization from a melt only in the case of volcanic rocks. It
12. Geochemical Sampling is not possible to observe the crystallization of plutonic and hypabysal rocks,
Methods for obvious reasons. We just accept that these also form from melt based
13. Adit/Trench Mapping on indirect evidence, such as similarity of composition with volcanic rocks,
Geochemical Methods
and by the fluid nature of the original material indicated by contact relations
14. Geophysical Methods in the field (ie, the way the material looks injected into other rocks). In reality
15. Project Planning magmas often contain more than just liquid. They also contain a certain
Claim Staking
amount of gas or vapor, and a certain amount of crystals of some minerals.
16. Exploration Drilling This is because each mineral has its own unique temperature at which it
Methods
passes from a liquid state into a solid state. This temperature is actually
** Final Exam dependent on the pressure being exerted on the molten rock, which is mostly
a function of the depth below the surface. At great depths, the pressure is
very high, and at shallow depths the pressure is very low.
We broadly categorize igneous rocks by: 1) genesis, 2) composition, and 3)

texture. Their genesis refers to the environment where the igneous rock
formed, which is strongly influenced by depth below the surface. These
three categories are called "plutonic, volcanic and hypabysal".
Genetic Classification of Igneous Rocks
PLUTONIC:
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Crystalline rocks formed by crystallization of magma at great depth

below the surface, resulting in slower cooling and/or greater fluid
content
Coarse-grained sizes (greater than a millimeter); equigranular to

porphyritic
VOLCANIC:
Crystalline rocks formed by crystallization of magma at the surface,

which rapidly crystallizes (quenches) as it comes into contact with the
atmosphere or within a body of water.
Fine-grained textures (less than a millimeter); equigranular to

porphyritic to porphyry textures.
HYPABYSAL:
Crystalline rocks formed by crystallization of magma at a shallow depth

below the surface
Mixed fine- to medium-grained textures; equigranular to porphyritic to
porphyry textures
Plutonic means deep underground (plutonic). Another name for plutonic

rocks is intrusive, because they intrude or invade other rocks. Volcanic
means extruded at the surface. Another name for these rocks is extrusive,
because they are extruded onto the surface. They may be extruded into the
air or underwater, which are called subaerial and submarine
environments, respectively. Hypabysal means intruded into rocks at near
surface conditions. Hypabysal rocks often occur in the form of smaller types
of intrusions, like dikes, sills or plugs. Hypabysal rocks are often found in
close association with volcanic rocks because they often form the feeder
systems for volcanic lava being extruded at the surface.
Compositions of Igneous Rocks
The compositions of igneous rocks can be broadly subdivided into four major
types. These are felsic, mafic, intermediate and ultramafic.
Felsic: Fel from feldspar, and sic from silicon; generally light colored. A
rock made up of abundant silica, aluminum and alkalis (potassium, sodium,
calcium) due to the presence of abundant feldspar and quartz.
Mafic: Ma from magnesium and fic for iron; generally dark colored. A
rock with abundant magnesium and iron, due to the presence of abundant
iron-magnesium-bearing minerals (such amphibole or pyroxene).
Intermediate: Contains a balance between the minerals quartz plus feldspar, and
mafic minerals; generally moderate in tone and color.
Ultramafic: Composed chiefly of the iron-magnesium minerals pyroxene and olivine.
The most common igneous rock types are categorized below on the basis of
color and genesis:
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Very
Light-colored Dark-colored
dark-colored
FELSIC INTERMEDIATEMAFIC ULTRAMAFIC
Volcanic
Dacite Andesite Basalt
(Fine-grained)
Peridotite
Plutonic: Granite Diorite Gabbro Pyroxenite
(Coarse-grained)
Dunite
This classification scheme, which works well for crude field approximations,
is summarized graphically in the diagram below (from Putnam, 1971).
Igneous rocks which are light in color are on the left and those which are
dark in color are on the right. The top row of the chart contains the volcanic
rocks and the second row contains the plutonic rock equivalents (in terms of
composition). For example, a volcanic rock which is light in color is called a
rhyolite. According to this classification method, a rhyolite contains
approximately 5 % to 25 % quartz, 62 % to 74 % feldspar, and 10 % to 25 %
ferromagnesian (iron and magnesian) minerals. The coarse-grained
equivalent to a rhyolite is called a granite.
Refer to figures 3-3, 3-4, and 3-5 on pages 21-22 of the text to see
photographs of three common plutonic igneous rock types, including granite,
diorite and gabbro.
When a more detailed classification is needed, the standard method

employed to classify the most common varieties of plutonic rocks is the
method proposed by Streckheisen (1977). This method classifies common
plutonic igneous rocks on the basis of the mineral content of four minerals:
quartz, plagioclase feldspar, alkali feldspar and feldspathoids. The total
percentage of each of these minerals is estimated. These percentage
3 of 8 5/26/2008 1:04 PM
values are then plotted on the diagram to classify the rock. Quartz occupies
the uppermost vertex of the upper triangular portion of the diamond-shaped
diagrams, and the two species of feldspars, alkali feldspar and plagioclase,
occupy the lower two vertices. Feldspathoid-bearing rocks are very rare, so
the lower triangular areas of the diagrams are seldom used.
Q = Quartz
P = Plagioclase
A = Alkali Feldspar (Orthoclase)
F = Feldspathoids
To use the diagrams, consider the following example. A coarse-grained

(plutonic) rock containing 25 % quartz, and having a ratio of alkali feldspar to
plagioclase of 75 %, plots as a granite. The volcanic compositional
equivalent would plot as a rhyolite. This method can be used for
petrographic analysis (using a thin-section of the rock) or it can be used to
make more general field identifications. Its usefulness as a field
classification scheme can be limited by the ability to distinguish between the
two different species of feldspars, which can be very difficult in some cases.
Typically this distinction requires the observation of twinning habits, or use of
mineral staining techniques.
Textures of Igneous Rocks
Textures of igneous rocks are extremely variable, but there are some
generalizations which can be made and there are several textural descriptors
which are in common usage. As shown above, the igneous rocks can initially
be classified on the basis of the grain size, as to whether the rock as
coarse-grained, or fine-grained. Coarse-grained igneous rocks generally are
greater than 1 mm in the average crystal size. These are referred to as
phaneritic. Fine-grained rocks generally have crystal sizes smaller than 1
mm, or too small to observe with a hand lens. These are also referred to as
aphanitic.
4 of 8 5/26/2008 1:04 PM
Some rocks contain a mixture of both fine-grained and coarse-grained

crystals. In this case, we call the largest grains the phenocrysts. The
phenocrysts appear suspended in the mass of finer grained crystals, which
we call the groundmass. The common term for a mixture of phenocrysts in
a finer-grained groundmass is called porphyritic (for example, a porphyritic
granite). In some cases, the phenocrysts sizes are distinctly larger
compared to a very fine grained groundmass, causing this type of texture to
become highly accentuated. This is a special group of rocks called
porphyries. The convention is to precede the term porphyry with the
composition type comprising the fine-grained groundmass.
It is also useful during the overall description of a rock to indicate how well
developed the shape of the crystals, in terms of the shape and number of
sides which are present. The terms normally used to convey this information
are:
euhedral: the crystal faces are complete.

subhedral: only some of the crystal faces are formed.
anhedral: no crystal faces are present; the mineral is bound by the
crystal faces of other minerals, or material.
Some igneous rocks which consist of glass instead of crystals, or glass with
minor amounts of phenocrysts, due to extremely rapid cooling or
quenching. This is most common in volcanic environments, where lava can
be subjected to rapid cooling by an violent eruption which hurls blobs of
magma, which cools very quickly by contact with air. It can also form where
lava comes into contact with water. Glassy volcanic rocks can only be
classified by their chemical composition, since discrete minerals are not
present.
Shapes of Igneous Intrusions
As mentioned, igneous rocks form when molten rock crystallizes by cooling

either on the surface (volcanic), at shallow depth (hyp-abyssal) or deep
underground (plutonic). Plutonic and hypabysal rocks are said to be
intrusive, because they intrude other rocks, whereas volcanic rocks are
said to be extrusive because they are extruded onto other rocks or ejected
into the atmosphere.
Igneous intrusions can form many different shapes, but several described
here are the most common. Dikes are tabular intrusions at high angles to
the layering of the rocks they intrude. Sills are tabular intrusions parallel or
very low angle to the layering of the rocks they intrude. Dikes and sills are
usually relatively narrow in width. Dikes can form in clusters with parallel
orientations between each, which is referred to as a dike swarm.
Irregular to rounded intrusions of substantial size are called stocks,

plutons and batholiths, and are classified by the aerial extent of their
outcrops.
Stock < 100 km2

Pluton large stock
Batholith > 100 km2
Laccoliths are intrusions which are flat like a sill on along the bottom edge,
5 of 8 5/26/2008 1:04 PM
and with an upper edge shaped like a huge bulge upward. Their shape
suggests they originally were intruded as sills, but before cooling was
complete, further injection forced the overlying rocks to bend upward,
creating a rounded upper edge on the intrusion.
Frequently in plutonic terranes intrusions which were thought to be discrete

are found to be actually connected to others at depth. The shallower,
secondary intrusion extending off of the larger one at depth is called an
apophysis.
Bowens Reaction Series

Bowens Reaction Series is a theory concerning the crystallization process
which occurs when a magma cools. As a magma cools, individual mineral
species selectively crystallize at some unique temperature. Thus we have
some minerals crystallizing very early in the cooling history when the melt is
still extremely hot, and other minerals which crystallize at successively lower
and lower temperatures. The reaction series has two branches, shown
below:
The earlier formed crystals can sink to the bottom of the magma by
gravitational settling, or tectonic activity (directed pressure) can squeeze the
melt out and away from these crystals. Whatever the case, there is
abundant experimental and field evidence which suggests that at each stage
of crystal formation, the remaining melts composition continues to evolve
over time as selective components are removed during the formation of
crystals. This process is called fractional crystallization.
Not only does the melt change composition, but the crystals also change
their original composition by reacting with the remaining melt. When a
crystal first forms, it is in equilibrium with the melt. However, as noted, the
melt changes its composition over the course of time as crystals continue
forming. The net result is the earlier crystals become less stable, and so
they gradually alter their composition to become more stable minerals. The
alteration process can occur either as a discontinuous or a continuous
process. Both processes are active at the same time.
A discontinuous reaction series is where the early formed minerals react

with the melt to form completely new mineral species. An example of a
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discontinuous reaction series is the reaction of the very high temperature

mineral olivine with the melt to form pyroxene. With further cooling, pyroxene
reacts with the remaining melt to form amphibole. Amphibole reacts with the
melt to form biotite. Each new mineral forms at a lower and lower
temperature. This sequence is shown graphically on the left side of the
diagram.
In a continuous reaction series the crystals react with the melt but do not
form completely new mineral species. Instead, ionic diffusion causes an
exchange or ions to occur in the crystal lattice of the mineral, resulting in a
modified composition. The primary example of continuous reaction is that
of Ca-rich plagioclase (or anorthite). The continuous reaction of anorthite
with the melt causes the anorthite to change its composition to become a
more Na-rich plagioclase (or albite). This sequence is shown graphically on
the right side of the diagram.
That the composition of melt changes, and that crystals change their
composition over time is evidenced by the observation of rims of albitic
plagioclase on anorthitic plagioclase in some plutonic rocks. Furthermore, it
is also known that anorthite is the most common plagioclase in basaltic (or
mafic) igneous rocks, and albite is the most common plagioclase in rhyolitic
(or felsic) igneous rocks. Thus, mafic igneous rocks have higher melting
temperatures, because they are comprised mostly of high temperature
minerals. Felsic igneous rocks have lower melting temperatures, because
they are comprised mostly of low temperature, and even hydrous minerals.
At one time it was believed that the evolution of a basaltic magma, by
continuous modification of its melt composition by fractional crystallization,
could result in the formation of a residual magma of rhyolitic composition.
Currently, this type of extreme differentiation is thought to be very rare,
although it is widely accepted that fractional crystallization plays an important
role in creating a wide variety of igneous rock compositions from the same
parent magma.
Rock-Forming Minerals
Although any of hundreds of different minerals can group together to form an
igneous rock, only six are very common. These common minerals are
referred to as the rock-forming minerals and they include quartz, feldspars,
micas, amphiboles, pyroxenes and olivine. Note that these are all present in
Bowens reaction series. Since they are so common, the abundances of
these minerals form the basis for most igneous rock classification schemes.
Most rocks contain some amount of minor or accessory minerals, which

are those comprising a very small percentage of the rock. These are often
so fine-grained that they require magnification with a microscope to observe.
The most common accessory minerals present in igneous rocks include
zircon, sphene, magnetite, illmenite, hematite, apatite, pyrite, rutile,
corundum and garnet. Accessory minerals often contain some of the more
rare elements from the periodic table. It these can be extracted, and there is
market demand for such elements, then rock containing these valuable
accessory minerals may constitute an ore deposit.
Magmatic Ore Deposits

Magmatic ore deposits are those which are formed during crystallization of a
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magma, deep underground. The host rock for the mineralization can range
from ultramafic to felsic. The deposit can consist of massive ores in some
cases, and disseminations of rare minerals in others. In the case of more
massive ores, there are three primary means of concentrating minerals of
value during the formation of these deposits:
gravitational settling
differentiation
immiscible separations
The process of gravitational settling causes early-formed minerals to sink to

the bottom of a magma chamber. This process is best exemplified in
magmas with ultramafic and mafic compositions, and the best examples are
chromite deposits. Chromite is a very high temperature mineral which is also
quite heavy. As a result, in some situations it will tend to sink and form layers
of massive ore in the bottom of a magma chamber. The intrusion itself tends
to be layered, with rocks like dunite (massive olivine) forming the lowest
layers, overlain by gabbro layers, overlain by norite (plagioclase-rich rock).
These intrusions are often funnel-shaped, with the neck forming a feeder
system. Large magmatic deposits of this type are located at Stillwater,
Montana, in south Africa, and in Manitoba.
Differentiation causes a concentrating effect resulting in a concentration of

selected elements in the residual magma. These elements are the ones
which did not fit well inside of common rock forming minerals. Instead, they
become included in the final liquid present, which forms pegmatite.
Pegmatites are very coarse grained rocks and form at the very last stage of
crystallization. The final fluids tend to have a very high water content, which
also contributes to forming large crystals. Pegmatites also contain accessory
minerals of special interest because they trap the rare elements in their
crystal structure. Because of the rarity of some of these elements, the
accessory minerals in the pegmatite can be be quite valuable and constitute
an ore deposit.
Immiscibility is a physical separation of a portion of a magma. Immiscible

melts form irregular shaped segregations or may be injected as a dike into
previously crystallized material. Where the immiscible melt material consists
of massive chromite or sulfide ore which will probably migrate downward with
gravity, due to the abnormally high specific gravity. The famous nickel,
platinum and sulfide ores of Sudbury, Ontario are prime examples.
Another important deposit type which is classified as magmatic

diamond-bearing kimberlite. Kimberlites are rocks of ultramafic
composition which are generally fine-grained. Diamonds occur as accessory
minerals in the kimberlite, which is frequently highly altered. Kimberlites are
thought to represent mantle rocks emplace near the surface by forceful,
possibly explosive, intrusion. The shapes are often like a vertical pipe, and
some occur as apophyes connected to larger dike structures at depth. The
worlds most famous diamond-bearing kimberlite deposits occur in South
Africa; many also occur in central and eastern Canada.
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Class 5 Plutonic-Related Deposits & Air Photos http://www.dmtcalaska.org/course_dev/explogeo/class05/notes05.html
Introduction
Class 5 Plutonic-Related Deposits & Air Photos - Notes
Geology
Read pp. 31 - 38
Geologic Principles
3. Maps & Navigation Plutonic Hydrothermal Deposits
Geologic Maps Skarn Deposits
4. Igneous Rocks Photogeology
Magmatic Deposits
Remote Sensing
Air Photos
Plutonic Hydrothermal Deposits
6. Volcanic Rocks
Web Sites:
Low Temp. Deposits http://homes.jcu.edu.au/~glpww/EA1002/Mineral_Deposits/hydrothermal.html
GPS Navigation
8. Hydrothermal Veins& Porphyry Copper Deposits
Alteration
9. Metamorphic Rocks Porphyry copper (pCu) deposits are large, low grade copper deposits, which sometimes
contain minor Mo, Ag, and Au. Ore grade is generally around 0.5 % Cu. Almost all
10. Structural Geology known porphyry copper deposits are Tertiary in age. They are thought to have formed
Mineralization in island or continental igneous arc settings associated with a subduction zone. Their
** Mid Term composition ranges from tonalite to monzonite. pCu deposits usually form in relatively
fine-grained intrusions of felsic composition. Where formed in differentiated intrusive
11. Mechanical Erosion sequences, they tend to be formed in the finest-grained and most felsic end members of
Placer Deposits
12. Geochemical Sampling the suite.
Methods
13. Adit/Trench Mapping There are two main compositional groupings in the western U.S.: 1) Continental Margin
Geochemical Methods type, and 2) Island Arc type. Continental margin types are granite-hosted, and typically
14. Geophysical Methods contain significant Mo values. Island arc types are quartz diorite or monzonite-hosted,
15. Project Planning and may contain significant Au values.
Claim Staking
16. Exploration Drilling Ore minerals present in pCu deposits include chalcopyrite, bornite, chalcocite, covellite,
Methods cuprite and tennorite. The ores consist of concentrated swarms of quartz-sulfide
** Final Exam stockworks and sometimes as sulfide disseminations. Some deposits have a zone of
secondary enrichment at the surface caused by groundwater leaching and redepositing
the Cu at a lower elevation. Characteristic alteration includes potassic (Biot. +
K-feldspar), sericitic (Py + Sericite), and propyllitic (Chlorite, Epidote) (more on this in
Class 8).
Porphyry Molybdenum Deposits
Porphyry molybdenum pMo deposits are large, low grade molybdenum deposits and the
exclusive source of Mo. As with the pCu deposits, pMo deposits tend to form in the
most differentiated members of an intrusive suite. Unlike pCu deposits, in pMo deposits
there is usually only one ore mineral containing Mo, which is the mineral molybdenite.
Many pMo deposits contain some tin and tungsten minerals which are recovered from
the ores for additional credits. There is often a great deal of faulting associated with
these types of deposits. Multiple, overlapping mineralizing events are not uncommon.
Typically ore grades are in the range of 0.1 0.5 percent MoS 2.
Tin Greisen Deposits
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Tin greisen deposits tend to form in near the top of granite intrusions, an area referred
to as a cupola. The mineralization occurs primarily as big quartz veins containing
variable amounts of tin oxide or sulfide minerals. These deposits tend to form in
intrusions which lack accessory magnetite. This is because tin substitutes for iron in the
mineral magnetite, and becomes unavailable to concentrate in the late stage fluids.
Fluid conditions required to form tin oxide (cassiterite) are relatively reducing. These
deposits may have distinct metal zoning associated. Tin and Tungsten are dominant
lower and closer (or proximal) to the causitive intrusion. Base metals (Cu + Pb + Zn)
are distinctly elevated in the outer reaches of the intrusion or area (called distal).
Skarn Deposits
Web Site:
http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~meinert/skarnHP.html
Skarn deposits are replacement deposits. They form by the replacement of limestone,
calcareous rocks (marl or calc-schist), or dolomite. A wide variety of minerals can form
in skarn deposits, but the most common include oxide minerals such as magnetite,
sulfide minerals such as chalcopyrite, silicate minerals such as epidote, or the tungstate
mineral Scheelite. Gold is also mined from skarn deposits. Skarn deposits are a result
of the invasion of the country rock by hydrothermal fluids carrying the high metal
concentrations outward from the intrusion. The fluid composition steadily changes as
the plutonic source goes through the cooling stages. Some skarn mineralization is
formed by earlier, higher temperature waters (called prograde minerals), and some
skarn mineralization is formed later at lower fluid temperatures (called retrograde
minerals). The waters contain high concentrations of metals, and may even be the
same fluids which concurrently formed pCu deposits. There are many ways to classify
skarns, but a simple scheme based on composition is:
1) Tungsten
2) Copper +/- Molybdenum
3) Iron + Gold
4) Tin
5) Lead Zinc - Silver
Skarns can be either massive and discordant, or stratiform and concordant (with respect
to bedding of the host rock). Sometimes the bedding contacts are favorable places for
skarns to form. Ore minerals in skarns may be associated with calc-silicate minerals
such as epidote, tremolite, zoisite, wollastonite, Silica, iron and magnesium are
supplied by hydrothermal fluids that evolve from the magma late in the cooling history.
The minerals form at the expense of calcite or dolomite in limestone or limey
sediments. More abundant impurities in the calcareous sediments appears to enhance
the formation of skarn deposits in some examples.
Photogeology
Web Site:
http://www.avo.alaska.edu/volcanoes/akut/akut.html
Oblique aerial photograph of Akutan volcano.
Photogeology is a hugely important area of mineral exploration. It includes all types of

low to high altitude photography as well as satellite photography. Images are recorded
either on films or by recording the image digitally. Films used include black & white, true
color, and false color (Infra-red) (IR) types. In color IR photos, the red areas indicate
live vegetation. This makes them useful for locating outcrops in highly vegetated areas.
Color IR film is also least affected by haze, and so is more effective in cloudy weather.
It is also good for determining moisture content of soils (darker). The most common
types of aerial photos are those which are taken with the camera lens vertical, ie, with
the lens pointed straight downward. Obliques, which are taken with the lens pointed
obliquely downward, tend to exaggerate the relief.
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Photos have distortion unless they are specified to be corrected. The map scale
towards the center of the photo is different from the map scale toward the edges of the
photo. Orthophotos are images which have the distortion rectified, and can be used
directly for mapping purposes.
There are many applications of photogeological methods in mineral exploration work as

well as in the studies of environmental geology and geologic hazards. Most importantly,
they are used to make accurate topographic base maps. In mineral exploration work,
accurate topographic base maps are essential for recording geological observations.
Rock and soil color changes, or color anomalies, can be delineated and possibly
investigated with ground traverses.
Geological features can also such as lithologic contacts, alteration zones, and
structural information. With sufficient exposure of layered rocks, it is possible to tell a
great deal about the structural features in a area, such as the direction and dip of the
beds, fold plunge direction, and fault plane dip (Figure 1). Any color contrasts in
exposed bedrock are probably caused by changes in rock type, or lithology, and can
be traced on the photograph, or on an acetate overlay, to map out the contact. The
information can be gathered more efficiently and safely than a ground traverse, although
there is no substitute for direct observations. Aerial photos also provide a means for
accurate documentation of cultural features, or accurate history of a mines development
by taking aerial photos at regular intervals (Figure 2).
Most aerial photographic surveys follow specified flight lines and take the photographs
at regular spacings along the path. The overlap between adjoining photos in a
sequence along the line is about 60 %. The overlapped area is seen by the camera
from two different perspectives in the two different photos. The two adjoining photos
used together make what are called a stereo pair. The two photos can be placed side
by side and observed with a stereoscope. A stereoscope allows each eye to focus on
separate photos and merge the two images into one single image. The new image
appears to be in three dimensions. Try merging the images below with your eyes. They
form the image of a pyramid.
Pending Permission to Use

Figure 1. Little Dome, Wyoming, double plunging antiform.

Figure 2. Bingham, Utah open pit copper mine.
Remote Sensing
WEB SITES:
http://mac.usgs.gov/mac/isb/pubs/booklets/aerial/aerial.html
USGS and federal aerial photographic and remote sensing projects
http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Intro/Part2_20.html
Explanation of bands, wavelength, spectral methods. Good images.
http://landsat7.usgs.gov/browse/cameroon.html
Volcano in west Africa on continental rift.
http://alexandria.sdc.ucsb.edu/~hajic/imagery_examples.html
Medium resolution satellite images.
Remote sensing is the acquisition and use of digital images of the earths surface from
Landsat satellites orbiting the earth at altitudes of up to 438 miles. A sensor is used
with an electronic scanner to measure specified portions of the electromagnetic
spectrum in the radiation from the sun which is reflected off of the surface of the earth.
A variety of spectra are recorded, including color infrared and several different ranges,
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or bands (Figure 3).
The seventh Landsat satellite was launched in 1999. It carries an instrument called
Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus, which has a resolution (pixel size) as low as 49
feet. Frequencies which are scanned include visible, near-infrared, and thermal infrared
portions of the spectrum.
Another type of satellite imagery is Side-Looking Airborne Radar. This method transmits
microwave energy from the satellite to the earths surface, where it is reflected back to
the sensor and recorded digitally or photographically. Since the method does not rely on
the suns energy, it can be used to record the reflections in complete darkness and
without regard to weather.
Figure 3. Color infrared Landsat, Talkeetna Mts., Alaska.
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Class 6 Volcanic Rocks http://www.dmtcalaska.org/course_dev/explogeo/class06/notes06.html
Introduction
1. Overview of Physical Class 6 Volcanic Rocks & Volcanic-Related Deposits - Notes

Geology
2. Rock Identification Methods Volcano Rocks
Geologic Principles Volcano-Related Deposits
Geologic Maps
Objective:
4. Igneous Rocks
Magmatic Deposits
To become familiar with the general features of volcanic rocks, their origins,
Air Photos and the types of ore deposits which are associated with them.
6. Volcanic Rocks
Volcanic-Related Deposits Volcanic Rocks
7. Sedimentary Rocks Volcanic rocks are rocks formed from magma crystallizes at the surface, often
Low Temp. Deposits
GPS Navigation
called lava. The cooling is very quick due to the relatively low temperature of
the air or water in contact with the lava. This quenching often happens too
8. Hydrothermal Veins& quickly to allow large crystals to form. This explains the fine-grained textures
Alteration
9. Metamorphic Rocks which are characteristic of volcanic rocks. Some volcanic rocks are quenched
Metamorphic Deposits so quickly that no crystals form, leading to the formation of a volcanic glass. An
10. Structural Geology example is the black volcanic glass called obsidian. Glass is a common
Structural Controls on constituent of most but not all volcanic rocks. It may not be readily apparent.
Mineralization
Sometimes the glass is only present in the groundmass, or the fine-grained
** Mid Term matrix material between larger, obvious grains. The only way it can be
11. Mechanical Erosion observed is by using a microscope.
Placer Deposits
Methods The timing of the crystallization is also quite variable. The magma linger any
length of time before eruption, allowing for any percentage of crystals to form.
13. Adit/Trench Mapping
Geochemical Methods There may be be sparse or they may be abundant. When larger crystals are
14. Geophysical Methods suspended in a fine-grained groundmass, resulting in a texture called is called
porphyry.
15. Project Planning
Claim Staking
16. Exploration Drilling There are three principle main modes of occurrence of volcanic rocks, including
Methods pyroclastics/tuffs, lava flows, and shallow level dikes and other feeders of the
** Final Exam eruptive materials. Pyroclastics are materials ejected into the air during an
explosive eruption. Lava flows may be either from a circular vent, or an
elongate fracture. Dikes occur in many different structural positions. Lava
intruding along high angle circular fracture or fault systems are called ring
dikes. Or they may form in sets of parallel, near vertical fractures, in which
case they are called dike swarms. If the magma encounters groundwater at
shallower depths, large volumes of steam can be generated, causing explosive
eruptions to occur.
Rocks formed from pyroclastic material are generally classified by the size of
the fragments (Figure 6-2). The three main types of fragments are : 1) ash (<
2 mm), 2) lapilli (2 64 mm), and bombs (> 64 mm). A tuff is a volcanic rock
consisting mostly of ash. Due to the often violent and chaotic conditions or
explosive eruptions, breccia is very common. Pyroclastic rocks are usually
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further subdivided based on the relative proportion of vitric material to crystals

to lithic fragments (or rock fragments). For example a tuff which is mostly glass
but contains some crystals would be called a crystal lithic tuff.
Figure 6-1. Classification of pyroclastic volcanic rocks by size of the fragments

(from Williams & McBirney, 1979).
Some magmas contain a large amount of gas. The gas accumulates in

pockets as it is expelled from the magma, particularly in lava flows at the
surface. Upon cooling, spherical hollows remain in the volcanic rock, forming a
texture called vesicular
Volcanic Rock Compositions
Table 5-1 below characterizes the four principle types of volcanic rocks in terms
of their physical appearance and chemical composition.
BASALT ANDESITE DACITE RHYOLITE

Low Silica Moderate Silica High Silica Super high Silica
High Iron - Moderate Iron - Low Iron - Low Iron -
Magnesium Magnesium Magnesium Magnesium
Black Gray to Green Gray to Green Light colored
Low viscosity Moderate viscosity High Viscosity Very High
Viscosity
Note that basaltic and rhyolitic magmas are very different. Rhyolitic magma
contains abundant silica while basalt low silica. High silica in a magma causes
it to be extremely viscous (thick and difficult to flow). Note also that obsidian
is an exception to the normal color scheme mentioned above. Although it is
black, obsidian actually classifies as a rhyolite due to its high silica content.
The reason for this is because of the numerous inclusions of microscopic
grains of the mineral magnetite, and some other black minerals called
iron-magnesium silicates.
Study the triangular diagram shown in Figure 6 -1. The diagram classifies
volcanic rocks in terms of the three major minerals quartz (Q), alkali feldspar
(A) and plagioclase feldspar (P). In the volcanic rocks called basalt and
andesite, at least 65 % of the total feldspar is plagioclase. Dacite and rhyolite
both contain 20 % to 60 % quartz, but can be distinguished by the ratio of alkali
feldspar to plagioclase feldspar. Dacite contains mostly plagioclase feldspar
and rhyolite contains mostly alkali feldspar.
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Figure 6 2. Streckheisen ternary compositional classification of

volcanic rocks. Q = Quartz, A = Alkali feldspar, and P =
Plagioclase feldspar.
By far the most widespread volcanic rock type on the surface is basalt, for two
reasons. Rhyolites, dacites, andesites and other rocks with higher silica and
alkali content are far less common. These felsic to intermediate types of
volcanic rocks most often are associated with continental, subaerial volcanic
settings, while the basaltic rocks dominate oceanic, submarine settings.
Volcanic-Related Ore Deposits
Volcanic-related ore deposits are those which form as a result of volcanic

activity, either in a oceanic, submarine environment or in a continental,
subaerial environment. Examples of submarine environment types of
volcanic-related deposits include copper and other base metal deposits which
locally contain anomalous gold and silver. Seawater circulation through
fractures in the ocean floor crust is probably a factor in the precipitation of
metals from hydrothermal solutions. This occurs either along a rift or around
the flanks of a submarine volcano. The three major types of volcanic-related
deposits are 1) volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits (or VMS deposits), and
2) stratabound shale-hosted deposits (SS deposits), and 3) epithermal
deposits.
Volcanogenic Massive Sulfide Deposits (VMS)
VMS deposits are sulfide-rich deposits hosted in submarine volcanic and

sedimentary rocks. VMS deposits are polymetallic, but are chiefly recognized
for their rich copper, lead and zinc values. The classic example of a VMS
deposit is Kuroko type deposits, named after a locality in northeast Japan. At
this locality, there were explosive eruptions which laid down pyroclastic rocks,
which were interspersed with layers of sediments such as sands and muds. At
the vent locations there is typically a plug or dome shaped intrusion of rhyolite
or dacite composition. The ore itself is occurs in the form of massive sulfides
or dense concentrations of disseminated sulfide minerals of various types.
Kuroko ore which occurs as abundant massive pyrite hosted in siliceous

tuffaceous rocks is referred to as yellow ore. It tends to occur near the vent
site and therefore tend to be hosted in brecciated rocks intruded by fine-grained
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intrusive rocks. Black ore is another type of Kuroko ore which is

characterized by concentrations of sphalerite and galena, which are typically
much finer grained than the minerals of yellow ores. The circulation of waters,
both seawater and juvenile (from the magma itself) is thought to play a major
role in distribution of the metals. As a result, there is a zonation of metals from
a proximal zone of copper-rich mineralization to a distal zone of lead- and
zinc-rich mineralization. Barium in the form of the mineral barite forms the
most distal portions of the zonation.
Alaskan Examples:
Prince William Sound : Contains some of the youngest (Eocene)

VMS deposits known in the state. Only area to have VMS hosted in
ophiolitic rocks. Deposits can consist of either conformable lenses
of massive to semi-massive sulfides or crosscutting veins and
stockworks. Formed in island arc system, during subduction event.
Hosted in either tuffaceous and sedimentary rocks (Midas,
Beatson), or ophiolitic rocks, such as mafic flows (Rua Cove).
Brooks Range: Hosted in bimodal volcanic and volcanoclastic rock,

primarily metarhyolites, interlayered with black phyllite and minor
marble of Devonian age (Ambler sequence). Formed in rift setting,
in banded flows and tuffaceous rocks. Metamorphosed during
Cretaceous.
Greens Creek: Hosted in quartz-mica-carbonate phyllite and black,

graphitic argillite (Figure 6-3). Very highly deformed (4 folding
events) but generally low metamorphic grade. Abundant carbonate
alteration (dolomite and ankerite). Silver-rich and anomalous gold
zones containing ruby silver or electrum. Black ore (in graphitic
schist); white ore (in massive barite, quartz and carbonate).
Figure 6-3. Cross section model of Greens Creek VMS deposit

(Newberry and others, 1997).
Stratabound, Sediment-hosted Deposits (SS)
Stratabound, sediment-hosted deposits (SS) have few or no volcanic rocks

associated with them, but they are included because it is assumed that some
process involving magma is involved. They typically form on the ocean floor,
typically around the edges of large, deep sedimentary basins. SS deposits are
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characterized by having very high zinc, lead, silver and barium values. Zinc
and lead occur mainly as sphalerite and galena, and silver occurs primarily as
argentiferous galena. The SS deposits in Alaska carry base metal sulfides or
barite or both, and they are located in the Brooks Range, with other localities in
southwestern, southeastern and east-central Alaska.
They are typically hosted in sequences of dark, fine-grained clastic sedimentary

rocks, particularly in black shales or mudstones (in the upper sections) and in
turbites (or layered, deep-water siltstones and mudstones, in lower sections).
Less commonly the deposits are hosted in limestone units forming a shelf-like
layers near the edges of the basins. Deep water varieties contain extremely
high zinc values as well as abundant lead, silver and barium.
Limestone-hosted varieties are characterized by their higher copper and cobalt
values.
Shale-hosted varieties tend to be laminated, and consist of zones of

fine-grained, disseminated sulfides. Limestone hosted deposits tend to occur
more as veins and be associated with breccias. Banded or layered deposits,
semi-concordant to the stratigraphic layering, are generally rich in zinc. The
sphalerite occurs as dense accumulations of fine-grained sulfides in parallel
layers or bands. This banding is generally parallel to layering in the overall
stratigraphy.
Althought the origin of the metals is uncertain, but the origin of the is fairly well
agreed to be involved with dewatering of the basinal sediments resulting from
compaction by the thick overlying column of water. During transport the fluids
ae heated by the geothermal gradient or by coming into close contact with
some type of magma body. High angle fault structures, near the edges of the
basin, appear to have channeled metal rich, hot water brines. As the fluids
migrated away from the feeder zone, chemical and physical changes of the
brines resulted in precipitation of the metals. The hydrothermal fluids
precipitated ore in several ways. Sometimes ore is formed by replacement of
wall rocks adjacent to a deep fissure. Ore can also be deposited near the top
of the fracture where it will typically be in the form of a breccia. Lastly, the
metal-rich waters migrate away from the fracture or vent and travel for some
distance. The brines accumulate in the deeps, and precipitate metals.
Evidence suggests some of these deposits formed under anoxic (lack of
oxygen) conditions.
General zoning sequence:
Proximal > > Distal >

Source Copper Lead-Zinc Barite
Vent/Rift
Alaskan Examples:
Red Dog, Brooks Range, Alaska: Hosted in Mississippian shale. Barite lens
caps the deposit (Figure 6-4).
Abundant replacement textures. Highly deformed and metamorphosed during

the Cretaceous.
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Fig. 6-4 Cross section deposit model or Red Dog zinc-lead-silver

deposit, Brooks Range, Alaska (Schmidt and others, 1979)
Epithermal Deposits
Epithermal deposits are those which form at relatively low temperatures

typically in the 100 300 deg. C range, and at very shallow depths or even at the
surface. They are most well known for occurrences of gold and silver, but also
have very high mercury, lead, zinc, copper, antimony, uranium and vanadium
values. The vast majority of known deposits are known to be related to Tertiary
or recent volcanic rocks, although a few appear to be caused by heating deeper
plutonic sources.
They are almost always localized near volcanic centers, such as calderas,
stratovolcanoes, volcanic necks, breccia pipes and shallow intrusions (a
caldera is a large circular region which is downdropped along a circular fault
system). They also tend to be associated with regional doming. The deposits
may occur in the volcanic rocks themselves, or the rocks the are extruded
onto. The extrusions can be in any form of extruded volcanic rock, and also as
shallow intrusions of various types (dikes, sills, pipes), or pyroclastic rocks. In
certain cases they are hosted in sedimentary rocks (Carlin). Epithermal
deposits occur in a wide range of geometries, ranging from tabular veins to
pipe- or funnel-shaped.
Ore minerals include native gold and silver, and telluride and sulfosalt minerals
containing variable proportions of gold, silver, lead and antimony. The ore
minerals occur in a gangue of quartz, chalcedony, carbonate minerals, fluorite,
barite, sericite, adularia and clay minerals (Figure 6-5). Banding of the ore and
gangue minerals is common. Other textures include drusy, comby, crusty,
vuggy and colloform. There is widespread alteration of rocks around the
deposits, especially to the minerals chlorite, sericite, quartz, pyrite, and locally
to carbonates and feldspar minerals.
A common metal zoning pattern seen in many examples shows high base
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metal values in the lower portion of veins and high precious metal values in the
upper portions. The ratio of gold to silver ratio typically decreases outward or
upward in the deposits. The decreasing temperatures of the hydrothermal
waters away from the igneous rock sources is the biggest influence on how the
metals are precipitated. Meteoric water influence, during later stages of the
volcanism, appears to be common in many examples.
Figure 6-5. General cross sectional model through epithermal vein deposit
showing composition and geomgetry of various alteration envelopes.(from SME
Mining & Engineering Handbook)
Examples:
Creede, Colorado: Rhyolite and latite flows, tuffs and sediments.

Well-developed circular, caldera complex. Green quartz good
indicator of proximity to mineralization. Repeated faulting and
breccia formation. Native gold and silver, and abundant silver
bearing minerals.
Central China: Antimony, arsenic and mercury rich. Occur as
stibnite-quartz veins and stibnite-galena- arsenopyrite replacement
bodies. Controlled by faults and hosted in breccias.
Delamar, Idaho: Hosted in silicified rhyolite tuff of Tertiary
(Miocene) age caldera complex. Bulk-mineable ore. Characterized
by low grade gold and high silver values.
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Class 7 Sedimentary Rocks & GPS Navigation http://www.dmtcalaska.org/course_dev/explogeo/class07/notes07.html
Introduction
Class 7: Sedimentary Rocks
Geology Low Temperature Sedimentary Rocks - Hosted Deposits
2. Rock Identification Methods GPS Navigation - Notes
Geologic Principles
3. Maps & Navigation Reading Assignment pp. 25 - 27
Geologic Maps
4. Igneous Rocks Sedimentary Rocks
Magmatic Deposits
5. Plutonic-Related Deposits Low Temperature Sediment-Hosted Deposits (LTS)
Air Photos Mississippi Valley Type Deposits (MVT)
6. Volcanic Rocks GPS Navigation
7. Sedimentary Rocks Objectives:
Low Temp. Deposits
GPS Navigation
1. To become familiar with the general features of sedimentary rocks, their
8. Hydrothermal Veins& origins, and the types of ore deposits which are associated with them.
Alteration
9. Metamorphic Rocks 2. To become familiar with the basics of Global Positioning Systems
Metamorphic Deposits (GPS), and satellite reception.
Structural Controls on Sedimentary Rocks
Mineralization
** Mid Term Sedimentary are formed from either debree of other rocks (clastic
11. Mechanical Erosion sedimentary rocks) or by chemical precipitation from a body of water.
Placer Deposits Processes of erosion and deterioration, such as mechanical and chemical
12. Geochemical Sampling erosion, weathering by wind water and ice, deposition in a body of water and
Methods
compaction and cementation are important in the formation of sedimentary
13. Adit/Trench Mapping rocks. Sediments are deposited in a wide variety of different environments,
Geochemical Methods
including oceanic, lacustrine (lake) and alluvial (stream) environments. In
14. Geophysical Methods
alluvial environments, larger particles can stay in suspension if the stream
15. Project Planning water is turbulent and in a high energy state. As the energy state and
Claim Staking
turbulence decreases, the large particles are the first to drop out of
Methods suspension. As the water continues to migrate to lower energy conditions
** Final Exam downstream, finer and finer particles are deposited, with clay-sized particles
being transported the furthest.
The most common constituents of sedimentary rocks include quartz, calcite,

clay, other minerals, and rock fragments. Quartz is the most abundant of
these minerals in sedimentary rocks, particularly in clastic sediments. Since it
is so hard, it resists degradation by mechanical erosion, and it is also very
stable in the surface environment and therefore resists chemical
decomposition. Calcite is the major component of limestone, where it occurs
as a direct precipitate from seawater or in the form of shells of shelled
organisms. Calcite is also a very common cementing agent in sandstones
and shales. Clay minerals form by the decomposition of feldspars an other
silicate minerals concentrated in the earths crust, particularly in igneous
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rocks. The fine-grain size of the clay particles means they can be transported
great distances, to quiet water environments where they can be deposited.
Sedimentary rock textures fall into three categories: 1) clastic textures

(containing fragments of other rocks), and 2) crystalline textures (grown from
solutions), and 3) organic.
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
Clastic sedimentary rocks are are made from fragments of other rocks (Figure
7-1) and are generally classified according to grain size of the grains or
fragments (Figure 7-2). Degree of rounding and sorting provides clues about
the history of the clastic sedimentary rock. The more rounded the grains of
the rock, the longer it has been exposed to abrasion. Rounded particles
usually indicates transport by wind or water, whereas angular particles usually
indicates transport by ice or directly by gravity movement. Degree of sorting
is another indicator of the history of the rock. Prolonged washing by water
and currents causes particles of similar size and density to become
concentrated together, which are said to be well-sorted sediments. Glacial
environments tend to deposit particles chaotically, mixing different sizes
together, and are said to generate poorly-sorted sediments. The sediments
finally become lithified and turned into rock when a cementing agent, such as
calcite, quartz, iron or chert, binds the particles together.
Fig. 7-1
A. Conglomerate B. Unsorted Sandstone C. Sort Sandstone
pending permission to use pending permission to use pending permission to use
Crystalline Sedimentary Rocks
When minerals are precipitated from seawater or lakes and develop a

network interlocking crystals they form what are called crystalline sedimentary
rocks. The most well known example is limestone, which forms by
precipitation of calcite from seawater. Crystalline sedimentary rocks are also
classified according to size of the grains (Figure 7-2). Some types are
microcrystalline, ie, the grains cannot be distinguished without the aid of a
microscope. The microcrystalline varieties are often characterized by the
presence of banding. Other varieties of limestone include oolitic limestone
(containing small spheres) and skeletal limestone. Oolitic textures form by
the accretion of calcium carbonate to a tiny shell fragment during wave action
on a beach. Skeletal textured limestone forms when shelled organisms die
and their hard calcite shells sink to the ocean floor and become lithified.
Other types of chemically precipitated sedimentary rocks include rock gypsum
and rock salt, which form evaporites, banded iron deposits, phosphorous
deposits and chalcedony.
pending permission Figure 7-2 A. Size classification of clastic sedimentary

to use rocks (from Hamblin & Howard, 1971).
pending permission Figure 7-2 B. Size classification of crystalline sedimentary
to use rocks (Hamblin & Howard, 1971).
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Organic Sedimentary Rocks & Other Substance
Organic sedimentary rocks include substances such as peat and coal, both of
which are formed from plant remains which accumulate in a swamp
environment. Peat is only partially disintegrated plant material, while coal is
plant material which is completely altered to carbon. The three main varieties
(in increasing order of competence) are lignite (brown coal), bituminous coal
(soft, black coal), and anthracite (hard, black coal). Petroleum might also be
classified in the same group with these other organic substances. Most
petroleum deposits are hosted in sedimentary rocks and their sources are
typically organic rich shales. During compaction and lithification of the shales,
the oil is liberated and may migrate through and be deposited in permeable
formations such as sandstones.
LowTemperature Sediment-Hosted Deposits (LTS)
Another type of sediment-hosted deposit are low temperature copper and

lead deposits hosted in clastic sedimentary rocks such as sandstone,
siltstone, shale and dolomite. Locally these deposits have significant silver
and cobalt content. The deposits are more or less stratiform, and have
relatively less deformation than many deposit types (Figures 7-3 and 7-4).
Evidence suggests the host rocks were not metamorphosed to any significant
extent. Other evidence suggests the mineralization may have been formed
during or just after diagenesis. The deposits consist of disseminated and
hosted in red bed and evaporite sequences, siltstones or dolomite. LTS
deposits often contain red bed units which are interbedded with organic-rich
siltstone, shale or sandstone. The organic rich unit typically serves as the
host rock for this type of mineralization.
Ores precipitate in the rocks as a result of complex oxidation and reduction

reactions. The deposits are associated with alternating beds of oxidized and
reduced mineral assemblages. The salty or briney fluids appear to have been
involved with the transport of the metals in solution. The high organic content
of the host rocks served to fix the metals from the solutions and cause
precipitation. The mineral assemblages show a regular change over time.
For example pyrite becomes replaced by chalcopyrite, which is later replaced
by bornite and magnetite and hematite.
Figure 7-3. Mufulira copper deposit, Zambia Copper Belt, example of LTS
deposit.
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Figure 7-4. Kuperschiefer LTS hosted copper, lead and zinc deposit (after
Rentzsch, 1974).
Mississippi Valley Type Deposits (MVT)
Mississippi Valley Type (MVT) deposits are similar to LTS deposits in that
they are hosted in sedimentary rock sequences and deposited by low
temperature, briney fluids. In contrast, they are always hosted in carbonate
rocks and have simple mineralogy consisting almost entirely of galena and
sphalerite, with locally abundant fluorite and barite. MVT do however have
evidence for multiple mineralizing events forming a complex history. They
typically occur as coarse- to fine-grained euhedral sulfides in open space
fillings in limestones and dolomites affected by karsting and dolomitization
processes. The geometry of MVTs ranges from veins to mantos (parallel,
subhorizontal layers).
GPS Navigation
Global positioning service (or GPS) is funded and controlled by the U.S.
Department of Defense. Satellites broadcast microwaves as they pass
overhead indicating their position. The handheld GPS unit picks up the
signals with its antenna and uses the information from several satellites to
triangulate your position. The once the unit locks in to at least 4 satellites, it
can provide a position location with relatively good accuracy (usually about 10
meters) depending on the signal reception quality. Greater accuracy can be
achieved by installing a base station receiver which records natural drift due
to the constantly migrating of the satellites in orbit. The more satellite signals
received, the more accurate the location information will be. There are 4
satellites in each of 6 orbital planes around the earth, and each satellite
passes the same point in the orbit in approximately 12 hours.
After the GPS unit is turned on, it must be configured. This includes setting
the various map datum and coordinate systems which will be used for
navigation purposes. Popular coordinate systems in use are
latitude-longitude and UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator). If the
longitude-latitude system is selected, then the coordinates will be shown in
degrees, minutes, seconds. If the UTM system is used, the coordinates will
be shown as northings and eastings, typically in meters. Great care must be
taken to set the GPS unit to the same units and map datum which is shown
on the maps being used to navigate in the field.
The signal strength of the satellite signals are typically shown in the form of a
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bar graph. The strength of the signals, and hence the quality of the reception,
is effected by several important factors. These include the height of the
satellite above the horizon, weather, steep terrain, and vegetation. Ideally the
satellites are situated at 45 to 60 degrees above the horizon.
Once the GPS has locked in to the satellites, it calculates your position. The
result is a set of coordinates showing the X and Y positions, and usually an
estimation of the Z position (elevation). The coordinates can be shown in
either as latitude longitude or meters. A position can be recorded as a
waypoint in the memory of the GPS, by pressing the mark or create
waypoint button and entering a name for the waypoint (Figure 7-5). Later the
waypoint can be plotted on a map, either by hand or electronically by
computer. Computer software designed to plot and store location data is
called GIS software (Geographic Information Systems).
GPS units can also be used to find a location in the field after extracting the
coordinates from a map and entering them into the GPS memory (waypoint
list). Typically the GPS units have a go to button which allows the user to
select the location they wish to travel to. After selection of the site using the
go to button, the GPS unit provides a bearing (direction) and distance which
must be covered to reach the spot. The bearing is usually given in degrees
azimuth, which aligns 0 degrees with true north, 90 degrees with due east,
180 degrees with due south, and 270 degrees with due west.
Figure 7-5. Handheld

Garmin 12 XL GPS
showing the functions of
the buttons and and
example of the map page.
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Figure 7-6. Examples of the 5 different windows or pages of the Garmin

handheld GPS.
6 of 6 5/26/2008 1:06 PM
Hydrothermal Veins and Alteration http://www.dmtcalaska.org/course_dev/explogeo/class08/notes08.html
Introduction
Class 8: Hydrothermal Veins and Alteration - Notes
Geology
Hydrothermal Alteration
Geologic Principles Hydrothermal Vein Deposit
3. Maps & Navigation Alteration Mapping
Geologic Maps
4. Igneous Rocks Hydrothermal Alteration
Magmatic Deposits
5. Plutonic-Related Deposits Rock alteration simply means changing the mineralogy of the rock. The old
Air Photos
minerals grow are replaced by new ones because there has been a change
6. Volcanic Rocks in the conditions. These changes could be changes in temperature,
pressure, or chemical conditions or any combination of these. Hydrothermal
7. Sedimentary Rocks alteration is a change in the mineralogy as a result of interaction of the rock
Low Temp. Deposits
GPS Navigation with hot water fluids, called hydrothermal fluids. The fluids carry metals in
8. Hydrothermal Veins& solution, either from a nearby igneous source, or from leaching out of some
Alteration
nearby rocks. Hydrothermal alteration is a common phenomena in a wide
9. Metamorphic Rocks variety of geologic environments, including fault zones and explosive
volcanic features.
Mineralization Hydrothermal fluids cause hydrothermal alteration of rocks by passing hot
** Mid Term water fluids through the rocks and changing their composition by adding or
removing or redistributing components. Temperatures can range from
11. Mechanical Erosion weakly elevated to boiling. Fluid composition is extremely variable. They
Placer Deposits
12. Geochemical Sampling may contain various types of gases, salts (briney fluids), water, and metals.
Methods The metals are carried as different complexes, thought to involve sulfur and
13. Adit/Trench Mapping chlorine.
Geochemical Methods
14. Geophysical Methods Sources of hydrothermal fluids are not well understood, however, there are
15. Project Planning three main possibilities that exist. One source can be the magmatic rocks
Claim Staking themselves, which exsolve water (called juvenile water) during the final
16. Exploration Drilling stages of cooling. In metamorphic terranes a potential source of the fluids is
Methods
dehydration reactions which take place during the metamorphic event. With
** Final Exam increasing temperature of metamorphism, early, low temperature, hydrous
minerals recrystallize into new, higher temperature, anhydrous minerals.
The excess water circulates through the surrounding rocks and may
scavenge and transport metals to sites where they can be precipitated as
ore minerals. Near surface groundwater is another source of water (called
meteoric water). Evidence from some ore deposits suggests meteoric
waters may mix with juvenile or metamorphic waters during late stages of
mineralization.
Hydrothermal fluids in plutonic settings are thought to circulate along a large

scale convective path. It would be analogous to a pot of boiling water:
hottest water rises fastest directly above the heat source, and at the surface
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changes flow direction to horizontal, and finally downwards along the sides
of the pot. In a similar manner, hydrothermal fluids circulate upward and
outward from an igneous intrusion at depth. Porous and permeable host
rocks (those containing lots of interconnected pore spaces) allow this to
happen more readily, for example, in a coarse-grained sandstone. Some
types of rocks, like shale or slate, are extremely impermeable. A layer of
shale can cause damming or ponding of the hydrothermal fluids, which can
lead to a concentration of mineralization behind the impermeable barrier.
Fluid migration can be also facilitated by the presence of lots of thin layers .
Hydrothermal fluids also circulate along fractures and faults. A which has a
well-developed fracture system may serve as an excellent host rock. Veins
form where the fluids flow through larger, open space fractures and
precipitate mineralization along the walls of the fracture, eventually filling it
completely. Fault zones are excellent places for fluids to circulate and
precipitate mineralization. Faulting may develop breccia and gouge, which
is often a good candidate for replacement style mineralization. The form of
mineralization and alteration associated with faults is highly variable, and
may include massive to fine-grained, networks of veinlets, and occasionally
vuggy textures in some breccias.
Alteration Zoning
Although mineral zoning patterns are not uncommonly developed around ore
deposits, they are not always present or obvious. The patterns can be
caused by changes in temperature, fluid chemistry or gas content. The
change in parameters over time, such as decreasing temperature of the
fluids, can cause overprinting of lower temperature minerals by higher
temperature minerals. Structural deformation, such as when a rock
shattering or faulting event affects the host rocks, can cause more
complexity.
Alteration zoning can occur in many different geometric forms, ranging from
concentric shells, to linear forms, to irregular and complex. Porphyry copper
deposits are characterized by concentric shell-shaped zones of alteration,
which overlap to some extent Figure 8 1 A. The core area contains
potassic alteration in the form of potassium feldspar and biotite. Further
outward is a zone of phyllic alteration consisting of the assemblage
quartz-sericite-pyrite. The outermost zone, called propylitic, is
characterized by the assemblage quartz-chlorite-carbonate and locally
containing epidote, albite or adularia. Epithermal deposits associated with
major structures (faults or fractures) have linear zones which parallel the
structure. The mineralogy is highly variable, as is the geometry. One
example of alteration zoning associated with a volcanic vent is shown in
Figure 8 1 B. This example indicates an inner zone of silicification forms
within a central breccia formation, and an outer zone of propylitic alteration
lies adjacent. Sericite is a common alteration mineral formed in zones along
fault structures or fault zones in low to moderate temperature settings.
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Figure 8 1. A. Concentric shell-shaped alteration zones and associated

mineralization pattern (after Lowell and Guilbert model). B. Alteration zones
associated with epithermal mineralization hosted in alkalic volcanic rocks.
Alteration Mapping
Alteration can be mapped graphically using patterns or colors in much the

same way that lithologic units are mapped. The primary characteristics to
note are the alteration mineralogy, style and intensity. The mineral
assemblages can be coded using patterns or colors. The style of alteration
refers to the form, which could be disseminated or massive or anything in
between. Another form of alteration is veinlet-controlled, which indicates
that alteration is restricted to narrow zones adjacent to veinlets. The
intensity of alteration refers to how well-developed the alteration is. It could
be incipient mineral growth due to weak development, or it may be pervasive
throughout the rock, indicating strong development.
Mapping alteration can be used to predict mineralization. In theory, this is

done by comparing the results of alteration mapping with known alteration
zoning patterns for known mineral deposits. In practice however, the
process is seldom so simple because every mineral deposit has some
uniqueness to its alteration zoning.
Alteration Types
There are as many alteration types as there minerals. The following types
are the most commonly described types:
Propylitic: (Chlorite, Epidote, Actinolite) Propylitic alteration turns

rocks green, because the new minerals formed are green. These
minerals include chlorite, actinolite and epidote. They usually form
from the decomposition of Fe-Mg-bearing minerals, such as biotite,
amphibole or pyroxene, although they can also replace feldspar.
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Propylitic alteration occurs at relatively low temperatures. Propylitic

alteration will generally form in a distal setting relative to other
alteration types.
Sericitic: (Sericite) Sericitic alteration alters the rock to the mineral
sericite, which is a very fine-grained white mica. It typically forms by
the decomposition of feldspars, so it replaces feldspar. In the field, its
presence in a rock can be detected by the softness of the rock, as it is
easily scratchable. It also has a rather greasy feel (when present in
abundance), and its color is white, yellowish, golden brown or
greenish. Sericitic alteration implies low pH (acidic) conditions.
Alteration consisting of sericite + quartz is called phyllic alteration.
Phyllic alteration associated with porphyry copper deposits may contain
appreciable quantities of fine-grained, disseminated pyrite which is
directly associated with the alteration event.
Potassic: (Biotite, K-feldspar, Adularia) Potassic alteration is a
relatively high temperature type of alteration which results from
potassium enrichment. This style of alteration can form before
complete crystallization of a magma, as evidenced by the typically
sinuous, and rather discontinuous vein patterns. Potassic alteration
can occur in deeper plutonic environments, where orthoclase will be
formed, or in shallow, volcanic environments where adularia is formed.
Albitic: (Albite) Albitic alteration forms albite, or sodic plagioclase.
Its presence is usually an indication of Na enrichment. This type of
alteration is also a relatively high temperature type of alteration. The
white mica paragonite (Na-rich) is also formed sometimes.
Silicification: (Quartz) Silicification is the addition of secondary
silica (SiO2). Silicification is one of the most common types of
alteration, and it occurs in many different styles. One of the most
common styles is called silica flooding, which results form
replacement of the rock with microcrystalline quartz (chalcedony).
Greater porosity of a rock will facilitate this process. Another common
style of silicification is the formation of close-spaced fractures in a
network, or stockworks, which are filled with quartz. Silica flooding
and/or stockworks are sometimes present in the wallrock along the
margins of quartz veins. Silicification can occur over a wide range of
temperatures.
Silication: (Silicate Minerals +/- Quartz) Silication is a general term
for the addition of silica by forming any type of silicate mineral. These
are commonly formed in association with quartz. Examples include the
formation of biotite or garnet or tourmaline. Silication can occur over a
wide range of temperatures. The classic example is the replacement of
limestone (calcium carbonate) by silicate minerals forming a skarn,
which usually form at the contact of igneous intrusions.
A special subset of silication is a style of alteration called
greisenization. This is the formation of a type of rock called greisen,
which is a rock containing parallel veins of quartz + muscovite + other
minerals (often tourmaline). The parallel veins are formed in the roof
zone of a pluton and/or in the adjacent country rocks (if fractures are
open). With intense veining, some wallrocks can become completely
replaced by new minerals similar to the ones forming the veins.
Carbonatization: (Carbonate Minerals) Carbonitization is a general
term for the addition of any type of carbonate mineral. The most
common are calcite, ankerite, and dolomite. Carbonatization is also
usually associated with the addition of other minerals, some of which
4 of 6 5/26/2008 1:06 PM
include talc, chlorite, sericite and albite. Carbonate alteration can form
zonal patterns around ore deposits with more iron-rich types occurring
proximal to the deposit.
Alunitic: (Alunite) Alunitic alteration is closely associated with certain
hot springs environments. Alunite is a potassium aluminum sulfate
mineral which tends to form massive ledges in some areas. The
presence of alunite suggests high SO4 gas contents were present,
which is thought to result from the oxidation of sulfide minerals.
Argillic: (Clay Minerals) Argillic alteration is that which introduces
any one of a wide variety of clay minerals, including kaolinite, smectite
and illite. Argillic alteration is generally a low temperature event, and
some may occur in atmospheric conditions. The earliest signs of
argillic alteration includes the bleaching out of feldspars.
A special subcategory of argillic alteration is advanced argillic. This
consists of kaolinite + quartz + hematite + limonite. feldspars leached
and altered to sericite. The presence of this assemblage suggests low
pH (highly acidic) conditions. At higher temperatures, the mineral
pyrophyllite (white mica) forms in place of kaolinite.
Zeolitic: (Zeolite Minerals) Zeolitic alteration is often associated with
volcanic environments, but it can occur at considerable distances from
these. In volcanic environments, the zeolite minerals replace the glass
matrix. Zeolite minerals are low temperature minerals, so they are
generally formed during the waning stages of volcanic activity, in
near-surface environments.
Serpentinization and Talc Alteration: (Serpentine, Talc)
Serpentinization forms serpentine, which recognized softness, waxy,
greenish appearance, and often massive habit. This type of alteration
is only common when the host rocks are mafic to ultramafic in
composition. These types of rocks have relatively higher iron and
magnesium contents. Serpentine is a relatively low temperature
mineral. Talc is very similar to the mineral serpentine, but its
appearance is slightly different (pale to white). Talc alteration indicates
a higher concentration of magnesium was available during
crystallization.
Oxidation: (Oxide Minerals) Oxidation is simply the formation of any
type of oxide mineral. The most common ones to form are hematite
and limonite (iron oxides), but many different types can form,
depending on the metals which are present. Sulfide minerals often
weather easily because they are susceptible to oxidation and
replacement by iron oxides. Oxides form most easily in the surface or
near surface environment, where oxygen from the atmosphere is more
readily available. The temperature range for oxidation is variable. It
can occur at surface or atmospheric conditions, or it can occur as a
result of having low to moderate fluid temperatures.
Zoned Vein Deposits
Zoned vein deposits are deposits which form along fractures and faults as
open-space fillings or replacements. They are generally polymetallic. Many
have been mined for copper, lead and zinc, although substantial gold and
silver credits occur locally. These deposits generally fall in the category of
low tonnage, high grade types of deposits. There are two broad categories:
1) vein deposits associated with porphyry base metal deposits, and 2) vein
deposits not associated with porphyry base metal deposits.
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Zoned vein deposits which are associated with porphyry base metal deposits
appear to form at lower temperatures during a later mineralization event.
These veins are characterized by a strong sense of zoning from high
temperature minerals in proximal (closer to the pluton) portions of the veins,
to low temperature minerals in distal (far away) portions of the veins.
Proximal portions of the veins are copper-rich and contain sulfide minerals
with high metal:sulfur ratios. Distal portions of the same veins are
lead-zinc-rich and contain sulfide minerals with lower metal:sulfur ratios. At
Butte, Montana, alteration halos adjacent to the veins change dramatically
along the length of the vein and with increasing distance from the central
porphyry copper-molybdenum deposit (Figure 8 2). Proximal portions of
the veins are characterized by advanced argillic alteration adjacent to the
vein which is superceded outwards by sericitic alteration. Distal portions of
the veins are characterized by propylitic alteration adjacent to the vein which
gives rise to fresh unaltered rock further away from the vein. Zoned vein
deposits which are not associated with porphyry base metal deposits are
characterized by having moderate, more uniform temperatures over a larger
area. Zoning in these types of vein deposits is usually a function changes in
the fugacity of sulfur along the length of the vein.
Figure 8 2. Example of proximal and distal zoning of base metal vein

deposit of the type associated with porphyry copper/molybdenum deposits.
6 of 6 5/26/2008 1:06 PM
Metamorphic Rocks http://www.dmtcalaska.org/course_dev/explogeo/class09/notes09.html
Introduction
Class 9 Metamorphic Rocks and Metamorphic Deposits - Notes
Geology
Metamorphic Rocks
2. Rock Identification Methods Metamorphic Deposits
Geologic Principles
Geologic Maps Metamorphic Rocks
4. Igneous Rocks
Magmatic Deposits Metamorphism
Air Photos Metamorphic rocks are the product of metamorphism, which is the partial
6. Volcanic Rocks or complete recrystallization of rocks. The original rock (called the
protolith) is either an igneous or sedimentary rock. The protolith is
7. Sedimentary Rocks subjected to a change, over time, in the physical and chemical conditions
Low Temp. Deposits
GPS Navigation surrounding it, resulting in the growth of new minerals at the expense of the
8. Hydrothermal Veins& old ones. The physical conditions include the temperature, lithostatic
Alteration pressure, hydrostatic pressure, directed pressure, vapor pressure, and other
9. Metamorphic Rocks forces. They are solid state changes, which means that they do not occur
as a result of magmatic crystallization, but instead occur much later.
Mineralization Changes in chemical conditions do occur, but are typically restricted to just
those changes involving local components (minerals and pore fluids).
** Mid Term
Generally these changes are When large amounts hydrothermal fluids
11. Mechanical Erosion become involved, bringing in new components or metals and causing more
Placer Deposits
or less wholesale replacement, the process is called metasomatism. A
Methods skarn (see Class 5 Notes) is an example of a metasomatic rock.
13. Adit/Trench Mapping Metasomatism usually causes near-complete destruction of the original
Geochemical Methods fabric of the rock due to the growth of new minerals. In contrast,
14. Geophysical Methods metamorphism usually retains the original fabric, called relict.
Claim Staking The two biggest variables in metamorphism are the temperature and
16. Exploration Drilling pressure. The general temperature and pressure conditions at a given point
Methods in time are called the metamorphic facies. Eskola (1915) created a
** Final Exam scheme to describe these conditions (Figure 9 1). The scheme is based
on indicator minerals - minerals which are characteristically associated with
some specific temperature pressure parameters. For example, at low
pressures, the minerals albite and epidote are stable at low temperatures
(300 450 deg. C), but give rise to the formation of hornblende at higher
temperatures (500 600 deg. C). Facies conditions such as the zeolite,
prehnite-pumpellyite, greenschist, albite-epidote and hornblende facies may
be conducive to growth of hydrous minerals (those containing water in their
crystal structure). Other higher temperature/pressure facies conditions
cause dehydration reactions to occur, and therefore favor the growth of
anhydrous minerals such as pyroxene and garnet.
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Figure 9 1. Metamorphic facies as a function of temperature and

pressure.
There are many ways that rocks can be subjected to new physical and
chemical conditions. These ways mostly involve plate tectonic activity over
long periods of geologic time. Movement along plate boundaries results in
subduction, shearing or rifting. In the subduction zone environment, several
different metamorphic facies conditions are present in different portions of
the system (Figure 9 2). Zeolite and prehnite-pumplellyite facies occur at
shallow crustal levels near the interface of the ocean and sediments, in a
trench setting. At greater depths (higher pressures) and higher
temperatures, regional metamorphism occurs (greenschist, amphibolite and
granulite facies). Magmas formed by partial melting ascend towards the
surface where they eventually form plutonic or volcanic rocks. The igneous
rocks intrude portions of the crustal rocks, at lower lithostatic and hydrostatic
pressures. As the plutons shoulder aside the adjacent rocks during ascent
towards the surface, they generate thermal changes in these adjacent rocks,
called country rocks. These high temperature, generally low pressure
conditions of metamorphism are called contact metamorphism. Contact
metamorphism occurs in a restricted aureole surrounding the igneous
intrusion. The temperature gradient of the contact aureole decreases
outward from the pluton in a series of concentric or irregular-shaped zones.
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Figure 9 2. Subduction zone setting showing locations of metamorphic

facies, including: 1) zeolite, 2) prehnite-pumpellyite, 3) glaucophane schist,
4) eclogite, 5) greenschist, 6) amphibolite, 7) granulite, 8) pyroxene hornfels,
9) hornblende hornfels, and 10) albite-epidote hornfels.
Metamorphic Zones
The heat source involved with a metamorphic event will typically set up a
gradient in the country rocks which decreases outward away from the source
of heat. The heat source can be can be an igneous pluton, a large-scale
igneous batholith, a small-scale dike, or just the normal geothermal gradient
of the earth which increases with depth. As a volume of the rock is
subjected to the new temperature conditions, the minerals comprising the
rock become unstable and react with adjacent minerals to create new
minerals which are stable at the higher temperatures. Some of the reactions
which are known to occur are summarized in the Figure 9-3.
The mineral assemblage present in the metamorphic rock provides the most
important evidence about the temperature and pressure conditions of the
past. Careful analysis of the mineral composition of the rock, or petrologic
evaluation, is required, often requiring the use of petrographic microscope or
electron microprobe to determine the exact composition of the individual
minerals. Key indicator minerals are used to identify the metamorphic zone.
The metamorphic zone is the manifestation of a certain set of physical and
chemical conditions. For example, look at the minerals which form by
contact metamorphism of an impure limestone (mostly calcite, but with
impurities of quartz and clay)(Figure 9 3). Calcite, quartz and clay
minerals react to form talc at low temperature. With increasing
temperatures, talc becomes unstable and reacts to form tremolite. Further
temperature increase causes tremolite to become unstable and react to form
diopside.
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Figure 9 3. Chart of metamorphic facies showing mineral reactions and

indicators for impure limestone, pelitic and mafic igneous protoliths (modified
from Brownlow, 1979).
Metamorphic Fabrics
The mineralogy of the a metamorphic rock is not the only line of evidence to
determine its history. The fabric of a metamorphic rock also tells of its
history. Typically metamorphic rocks develop some kind of metamorphic
fabric during the metamorphic event(s). The fabric can be either a planar
fabric, called foliation, or a linear fabric, called lineation.
figure will be added pending permission
Figure 9 4. Metamorphic rock fabrics. A. Schistosity formed by

muscovite and biotite. B. Lineation formed by stretching of round clasts. C.
Lineation formed by elongate mineral growth within schistosity plane
(from ).
The fabric develops because during recrystallization, the new minerals which
4 of 8 5/26/2008 1:06 PM
grow have a preferred sense of orientation with respect to directional forces

of pressure at work. The pressure may be static, as in the lithostatic
pressure which results from the weight of the overlying rocks. Pressure may
also be directed by tectonic forces, which can be tensional, compressional
or shear forces. The new minerals can grow in a number of different
orientations with respect to the lines of force, ranging from perpendicular to
parallel.
Planar fabrics, called foliations, develop in one of two ways: 1) by growth

of planar minerals, or 2) by development of compositional layering. The
most common planar minerals are the micas, but these are hydrous
minerals and generally occur in lower grade metamorphic rocks. This type
of fabric is called a schistosity, because it is characteristic of the
metamorphic rock called schist. Micas grow perpendicular to the
directions of force in most situations involving non-directed pressure, such
as simple burial metamorphism. In this situation the micas grow horizontally,
with the flat sides facing up, perpendicular to the pressure from the overlying
column of rock. Micas and other minerals also grow in conditions of directed
pressure, such as in environment in which there is compression and
shearing. In these situations, the micas grow with their flat sides parallel to
the direction of shearing. At very high grade metamorphic conditions, close
to the melting temperature of the rock, there can be larger scale movement
of chemical constituents, leading to the development of compositional
layering or banding. The effect is to create alternating mafic-rich and
quartz-feldspar-rich bands.
Metamorphic Lithologies
Metamorphic rocks are classified on the basis of their mineralogy and

texture:
special rock
mineralogy
texture name
Example: porphyroblastic garnet-mica-quartz schist
It is known that at higher grades of metamorphism, rocks tend to

recrystallize into coarser-grain sizes than at lower grades of metamorphism.
Arbitrary grain size ranges used to classify metamorphic rocks are < 0.1 mm
(fine-grained), 0.1 1.0 mm (medium-grained) and > 1.0
mm(coarse-grained). The grain size of the rock is specified in the rock
name itself, for example phyllite is medium-grained, schist is coarse-grained,
and gneiss is very coarse-grained (Figure 9 5). The most abundant
mineral is listed last, so garnet is least abundant and quartz is most
abundant. Porphyroblastic is a special textural name for metamorphic rocks
that have larger crystals forming bumps or knots, which disrupt the primary
foliation due to formation late in the metamorphic event.
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Figure 9 5. Metamorphic rock classification based

on grain size and protolith composition (from Mason,
1978).
Metamorphic ore deposits are those which form as a result of metamorphic

processes and are hosted in metamorphic rocks. This group does not
include previously existing ore deposits which are later altered or deformed
during a metamorphic event. It is not always clearcut whether a deposit is of
the former or the later category. The distinguishing feature all of these
deposits do have in common is the lack of a clear link to a causitive pluton,
ie, a pluton which provided both the metals and the fluids which generated
the deposit. Instead, the metals and hydrothermal fluids were derived from
the metamorphic rocks during the metamorphic process.
Metamorphic deposits are formed in different types of metamorphic

conditions, ranging from low to high temperature and low to high pressure.
The generation of fluids to transport and precipitate metals is critical. This
means one might expect more deposits to form in metamorphic conditions
which generate water as a by-product of dehydration reactions. In a regional
metamorphic setting these conditions are most likely to be met in the
greenschist facies of metamorphism. Further metamorphism into the
amphibolite facies tends to drive all water from the system. This is why
many metamorphic deposits form in greenschist facies rocks and relatively
few form in high grade metamorphic rocks. Brittle, massive rocks often
become good host rocks in areas affected by dynamic metamorphism
because shearing causes the rocks to shatter, thereby developing fluid
pathways and sites for mineralization. Mineralization may transcend across
different rock lithologies, indicating that bulk composition of the host rock is a
less important factor. Further evidence for syn-metamorphic ( formation is
the fact that the ore and gangue minerals comprising the cross-cutting
6 of 8 5/26/2008 1:06 PM
features are often compatible with the regional metamorphic grade,

indicating they did not form during a post metamorphic event of higher or
lower temperature. Three general types of metamorphic deposits are
known: 1) copper-rich, 2) gold-rich, and 3) lead-zinc-silver-rich.
Copper-Rich Types:
These metamorphic deposits are characteristically associated with very low

grade to low grade metamorphism. Most often they form in terrains where
mafic or ultramafic basement rocks are overlain upsection by organic-rich
sedimentary rocks. Background copper values of the mafic rocks are low,
nevertheless they are believed to provide the source of the copper by
liberation during a leaching process caused by passing of low temperature
hydrothermal fluids. The fluids move upwards above local hot spots, and
especially along fractures and faults. Richest zones are usually in close
proximity to a fault or other structure where fluids migrate. When the fluids
encounter the rock layers containing the organic matter, precipitation results.
Examples:
Kennicott, Alaska: Ore = Chalcocite + Bornite. Average grade 6

% copper, 14 opt silver. High grade veins were the Jumbo and
Bonanza-Mother Lode veins. Ore localized in the lower of the
Chitistone Limestone formation, which has high organic content.
Source of copper = Nikolai Greenstone = subaerial mafic
volcanic flows. The flows have naturally high copper values.
Doming of the rock layers caused fracture systems which
localized the ore. Local flat faults. (Figure 9 6)
White Pine, Michigan: Ore = chalcocite + bornite + chalcopyrite +

minor sphalerite Proterozoic subaerial basalts overlain by
sandstone-shale sequence. Shales contain high organic content
and are host rocks for the ore. Native copper occurs in the
basalts, which are altered to chlorite and zeolites.
Figure 9 6. Cross section of Kennicott copper deposit (source unknown).
Gold-Rich Types:
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Gold-rich metamorphic deposits are of two general types: 1) Archean iron

formation types, and 2) quartz-carbonate veins.
Archean Iron Formation Types: Occur mostly in Precambrian shield areas.

Vein morphology but most veins apparently concentrated in peculiar iron-rich
shales and sandstones which are upgraded by at least one and usually
several metamorphic events. Iron-bearing minerals form a mineral zonation
down dip from oxides (hematite, magnetite), to silicates (including Fe-rich
clays & chlorite), to carbonates (siderite), to sulfides (pyrite, pyrrhotite). The
zonation is thought to result from differences in water depth during
diagenesis. Gold occurs in quartz veins in the silicate or sulfide facies host
rocks.
Examples:
Precambrian of Wyoming
Jardine, Montana
Quartz-Carbonate Types: Often associated with greenstone belts in shield

areas. Serious deformation of host rocks. Ore formed in structural
zones/shear zones which are regional in scale. The districts usually contain
large scale folding as well. Typically dismembered. Associated with
greenschist facies rocks, namely greenstone. Also hosted in deformed
metaigneous rocks, particularly where they intrude shaley rocks. Moderately
high temperature fluids with significant CO2 content. Boiling (when CO2
exsolves from fluid) thought to be important mechanism in the precipitation
of gold. Typical mineralogy is quartz + carbonate + sericite (or chlorite) +
pyrite (or arsenopyrite) + native gold.
Examples:
Valdez Creek District, Alaska

Conn Mine, Eastern Canada
AJ Mine, southeast Alaska
Lead-Silver-Rich Types:
Lead-silver-rich types of metamorphic deposits typically contain galena,

sphalerite, and locally tetrahedrite and chalcopyrite as ore minerals. The
gangue is typically quartz and siderite (iron carbonate). Mineral zoning is
from galena + sphalerite in the lower portion of the veins to galena + siderite
in the upper portion of the veins.
Example:
Coer de Lane district, Idaho
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Class 10 Structural Geology http://www.dmtcalaska.org/course_dev/explogeo/class10/notes10.html
Introduction
Class 10 Structural Geology - Notes
Geology
Read pp. 87- 94
Geologic Principles
3. Maps & Navigation Structural Geology
Geologic Maps Structural Controls on Mineralization
4. Igneous Rocks
Magmatic Deposits Structural Geology
Air Photos Structural controls on mineralization are evident in almost every type of ore
6. Volcanic Rocks deposit. It is therefore important to recognize different types of structural
features which are present in rocks, and how the development of these
7. Sedimentary Rocks structures can influence ore deposition either directly or indirectly. Natural
Low Temp. Deposits
GPS Navigation forces, such as heat and pressure, can occur on any scale, large or small.
8. Hydrothermal Veins& The same forces can cause deformation of the rocks, which includes:
Alteration
9. Metamorphic Rocks folding: bending of the rocks
faulting: fracturing and displacement
10. Structural Geology shearing: sliding parallel to the plane of contact between two rocks
Mineralization compression: colliding together of two rocks
** Mid Term extension: separating, or increasing the distance between two rocks
11. Mechanical Erosion That such large scale forces exist is evidenced by the fact that many
Placer Deposits
12. Geochemical Sampling sedimentary rocks known to have been horizontal at the time of deposition
Methods are now tilted to any angle and in some cases are completely overturned.
13. Adit/Trench Mapping The action of these large scale forces results in the formation of folds and
Geochemical Methods faults in rocks, which may be visible on the on a small scale, such as in
14. Geophysical Methods hand specimen or outcrop. However, when present on a large scale these
15. Project Planning features may not be so obvious. To identify these features on a large scale,
Claim Staking geologists must measure the geometry of the rocks on the outcrop scale
16. Exploration Drilling and plot the information on a map. The patterns which emerge can indicate
Methods
the presence of these large scale features either at the surface or
** Final Exam underground. The method used is to measure the strike and dip of the
rocks, which are two vectors used to describe the geometry of planar
features of rocks using an imaginary horizontal plane as a reference.
Strike: direction of a line formed by the intersection of the inclined surface

(bedding, fault plane, etc...) and an imaginary horizontal plane (Figure 10
1). The direction of the line is expressed as the bearing, which is the
angular difference between true north and the strike line. The standard
system to describe the direction is the azimuth system. In the azimuth
system true north has an azimuth of 0, due east has an azimuth of 90, due
south has an azimuth of 180, and due west has an azimuth of 270. The
bearing of the strike shown in Figure 10 1 is due north, or 0.
1 of 7 5/26/2008 1:07 PM
Dip: angle of the inclined surface below the imaginary horizontal plane.
The dip is always measured perpendicular to the strike line (Figure 10 1).
Figure 10 1. Illustration of strike and

dip.
Folds
Folds result from plastic deformation, ie, deformation which does not rupture
or fracture the rocks, but instead causes them to permanently bend. Plastic
deformation most often occurs well below the earths surface, where
conditions of high heat and pressure allow the rocks to behave in this
manner. Folds are easiest to recognize in sedimentary or metamorphic
rocks where some type of layering or fabric is discernable. Every fold has
the following components (Figure 10 2):
axial plane: the imaginary plane which divides the fold in half as
symmetrically as possible.
fold axis: the line formed where the axial plane intersects a folded
rock layer (line a b).
fold limbs: the two segments of the fold on each side of the axial
plane.
Figure 10 2. Fold axis, axial plane, and fold limbs.
Folds which have both limbs dipping away from the fold axis are called
2 of 7 5/26/2008 1:07 PM
anticlines; folds which have both limbs dipping towards the fold axis are
called synclines (Figure 10 3). When an anticline is uplifted and eroded,
older rocks are exposed near the fold axis and younger rocks are exposed
away from the axis. When a syncline is uplifted and eroded, younger rocks
are exposed near the fold axis and older rocks are exposed away from the
axis (Figure 10 3).
figure 10-3 pending permission
Figure 10 3. Anticline and syncline (modified from Putnam, 1973).
Each type of fold can be further classified by the relationship of the axial
plane to the limbs. For example, observe the four types of anticlines shown
in Figure 10 4:
symmetrical anticline: limbs form a mirror image of each other.

asymmetrical anticline: one limb dips steeper than the other.
overturned anticline: both limbs dip the same direction.
recumbent anticline: both limbs are nearly horizontal.
Figure 10 4. Types of anticlines.
The same terminology and geometry of fold axes shown in Figure 10 4

also applies to synclines.
Faults
Faults are breaks in rocks where slippage occurs. The surface where the
slippage occurs is called the fault plane. The fault plane can form at any
geometric orientation from horizontal to vertical. The orientation of the fault
plane is defined by measuring the strike and dip, just as with any other
3 of 7 5/26/2008 1:07 PM
planar feature in rocks. If the fault plane is vertical, the fault is called a
vertical fault. The relative motion which can occur includes:
dip slip: the relative motion of blocks on each side of the fault plane is
parallel to the dip of the fault plane.
strike slip: the relative motion of blocks on each side of the fault plane
is parallel to the strike of the fault plane.
oblique slip: the relative motion of blocks on each side of the fault
plane is oblique, ie, displacement is at anoblique angle to both the dip
and the strike of the fault plane.
Dip slip faults which dip less than 90 degrees are further defined by the
relative displacement of the blocks on each side of the fault plane. The
block of rock which occurs above the fault plane is called the hanging
wall. The block which occurs below the fault plane is called the footwall
(Figure 10 5).
normal fault: the hanging wall moves down relative to the footwall.
reverse fault: the hanging wall moves up relative to the footwall.
thrust fault: special type of reverse fault in which the fault plane dips
at a low angle.
Strike slip faults typically have near vertical fault planes, and since the
displacement is parallel to the strike of the fault plane, there generally is no
hanging wall or foot wall. Strike slip faults are defined by the relative motion
of the block on the opposite side of the fault from the point of observation.
For example, if the relative motion on the opposite side of the fault is to the
left, it is called a left-lateral strike slip fault. If the relative motion on the
opposite side of the fault is to the right, it is called a right-lateral strike slip
fault (Figure 10 5).
Figure 10 5. Faults.
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Evidence of Faulting
Direct evidence of faulting can often be difficult to locate due to the effects
of weathering at the surface which tend to obscure the features which
develop when rocks rupture and slide past each other. Geologists seek
several types of features which provide direct evidence of faulting:
slickensides: perfectly parallel grooves which result from frictional

sliding and typically form on a flat, polished-looking surface.
Orientation of the grooves indicate the direction of the most recent
movement.
breccia: rock or unconsolidated material consisting of fragments of
rocks forming. Occurs on either or both sides of the fault plane, or
may form a zone which obscures the fault plane entirely.
gouge: very fine-grained, unconsolidated material consisting of
pulverized rock
Indirect evidence of faulting can also be present. This type of evidence may
include the juxtaposition of two map units which are usually not contiguous,
such as two sedimentary rock formations of different ages, or a intrusive in
sharp contact with a country rock instead of containing a hornfels or skarn
zone in between. Geologists also examine topographic maps and aerial
photographs for linear features on the surface. Lastly, aeromagnetic
anomalies or other linear aeromagnetic features can be indicative of large
scale fault structures.
Joints
The cracks or fractures found in most rocks exposed at the surface are
called joints. Joint spacing is often rather consistent within a specific rock
type in a specific environment. For example, fine-grained rocks tend to
have close-spaced joints, while coarse-grained rocks tend to have
wide-spaced joints. The jointing pattern within a specific rock type is
sometimes so consistent that it can often be a useful aid for geologic
mapping.
Joints form in several different ways. One way is by deformation of the

rocks, such as folding. These types of joints are particularly common in the
apical region of folds. Joints can form by contraction in mud which dries,
and be preserved when the mud becomes lithified into a mudstone. Joints
can also form in volcanic or subvolcanic rocks during cooling (also a result
of contraction). In this situation, joints form perpendicular to cooling
surfaces, and generally form columns with five or six sides (called
columnar jointing). Another type of jointing develops when cracks form
parallel to the topographic surface, called sheeting. These types of joints
result when uplift and erosion removes the confining pressure of the
overlying rock layers. As a result the rocks rebound and tend to break into
slab-like layers.
Structural Controls on Mineralization
Nearly all hydrothermal deposits exhibit some degree of structural control on

mineralization. Structures (fractures, faults or folds) which form prior to a
mineralizing event are referred to as pre-mineral (Figure 10 6).
Geologists are keenly interested in pre-mineral structures because these
structures influence the localization of ore by hydrothermal fluids utilizing
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these pathways. By mapping these structures and projecting the geometry

in the subsurface, new ore deposits may be discovered. Structures which
form after a mineralizing event, and hence may be responsible for offset or
removal of mineralized zones, are referred to as post-mineral. In some
cases the formation of structures and mineralization appear to be nearly
synchronous (Figure 10 7). In these situations, shearing was probably
ongoing during the mineralization event. This is evidenced by ore minerals
localized along a fault plane which are deformed.
Fractures and fault zones provide excellent pathways for hydrothermal fluids
to circulate through. Open-space filling has long been recognized as the
primary method of vein formation. The formation of breccia and gouge due
to the grinding action of the rocks adjacent to the fault plane increases the
structural porosity, which in turn increases the permeability. Under certain
conditions, breccia or gouge may itself provide the host for mineralization.
Intersections of structural features often are better locations to prospect for
mineralization, especially where the structures are high angle. It is thought
that the intersection of high angle structures provides pathways for fluids
from deep sources to move closer to the surface.
Figure 10 6. Fracture systems in rocks overlying an igneous intrusion. A

& B: radial fractures above a circular intrusion. C & D: longitudinal
fractures above an elliptical intrusion (from Emmons, 1937).
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Figure 10 7. Cross section of Ft. Knox granite-hosted gold deposit,

Fairbanks District, Alaska, showing late-stage shear zones containing high
grade gold mineralization ( 1.0 ounce per ton) (after Bakke, 1991).
7 of 7 5/26/2008 1:07 PM
Class 11 Mechanical Erosion - Notes http://www.dmtcalaska.org/course_dev/explogeo/class11/notes11.html
Introduction
Class 11 Mechanical Erosion - Notes
Geology
Read pp. 95 - 112
Geologic Principles
3. Maps & Navigation Erosion
Geologic Maps Placer Deposits
4. Igneous Rocks
Magmatic Deposits
Erosion
Air Photos
Erosion is the break down of materials forming the earths crust, otherwise
6. Volcanic Rocks known as weathering. The two principle types of weathering include
chemical and mechanical weathering. Chemical weathering involves
Low Temp. Deposits decomposition of rocks and their constiuent minerals by subjecting them to
GPS Navigation generally acidic waters, either in the form of acid rain or acidic groundwater.
8. Hydrothermal Veins& Soluble minerals, such as calcite, are particularly effected, but many other
Alteration
minerals, including silicates and sulfide minerals can also be dramatically
9. Metamorphic Rocks effected. Chemical reactions (including solution, oxidation, carbonation and
hydration reactions) separate the constituents of the minerals themselves.
Structural Controls on In contrast, mechanical weathering involves physical forces which
Mineralization disintegrate rocks into constituent minerals, but do not dissociate the
** Mid Term minerals into elemental their components. Ultimately this process results in
11. Mechanical Erosion the creation of soil. These forces include the movement of water, the
Placer Deposits freezing and thawing action of ice, the prying action of plant roots, or wind
12. Geochemical Sampling action.
Methods
13. Adit/Trench Mapping Mechanical erosion loosens and wears away materials and transports these
Geochemical Methods
materials to a new location. The most pervasive type of mechanical erosion
14. Geophysical Methods in temperate climates is that caused by running water. Rainfall begins the
15. Project Planning process. The water then flows down slope or soaks into the ground. The
Claim Staking
washing action of the water on hillsides carries rocks, and mineral grains
16. Exploration Drilling formed by rock decomposition, down the slope where they eventually
Methods
become stream sediments. The turbulence of the water, especially in
** Final Exam steeper areas where the current is faster, continues to carry the sediments
in suspension downstream. These suspended sediments are called the
stream load. Larger rocks which skip along the bottom of the stream bed
due to sheer mass, are called the stream bed load.
Placer Deposits
Placer deposits, or simply placers, are accumulations of valuable minerals
concentrated in overburden, in stream sediments or in beach materials by
natural processes. The minerals are freed from solid rock by mechanical
and chemical weathering, and then transported usually by water or wind
action to the final resting place. Most of the placer deposits being mined
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today are Cenezoic or younger and occur in unconsolidated materials.

However, some ancient placers, or paleo-placers, are found in
sedimentary rocks as old as Precambrian in age. In fact, some
paleo-placers which are eroded become the source of present day placer
deposits.
Placer Minerals
Two types of minerals form placers: 1) minerals which are more resistant to
chemical and mechanical erosion (called resistate minerals), and 2)
minerals which have high specific gravities (called heavy minerals). There
are three categories of resistate minerals, including those which are
relatively inert (non-reactive), those which are maleable (tend to bend rather
than break), and those which have greater hardness :
Inert Minerals:
Inert Oxide Minerals:
Cassiterite (tin
oxide)
Chromite
(chromium oxide)
Rutile (titanium
oxide)
Magnetite (iron
oxide)
Ilmenite (iron
titanium oxide)
Inert Silicate Minerals:
Wolframite
Zircon
Maleable Minerals:
Native Metals:
Gold
Platinum
Bismuth
Hard Minerals:
Diamond
Corundum
Garnet
Examples of heavy minerals include native metals, sulfide minerals

(including pyrite and galena), magnetite and scheelite. The high density of
these minerals enables them to be concentrated because they are less
easily mobilized by water currents. As a result, less dense mineral grains
surrounding them are winnowed (washed away) with ease leaving the
heavy minerals to lag behind. Winnowing also occurs as a result of wave
2 of 5 5/26/2008 1:07 PM
action on beaches, and even as a result of wind action. The minerals most
likely to accumulate in placers are those which are both resistates and
heavy. This is the reason gold and magnetite (often called black sand) are
the most common minerals to accumulate in placers.
Other factors influence the ability of a mineral to become concentrated in a

placer, such as the settling rate. The settling rate is a function of the grain
size, grains shape, specific gravity, surface roughness and electrostatic
charge. Larger grains, because they are heavier, settle faster than small
ones. Thin, flat grains (such as gold flakes) tend to catch currents and be
whisked away more easily than rounded grains (such as gold nuggets).
Surface roughness causes greater friction, inhibiting ease of movement.
Some mineral grains are known to carry electrostatic charges which cause
them to stick to other grains the way a balloon rubbed against your shirt will
stick to your hand.
Placer gold occurs in many shapes and sizes. Larger pieces (generally > 10
mesh) are called nuggets, and smaller, flat pieces are called flakes.
Colors are the tiny pieces (generally < 0.001 oz) which are found by
panning or sluicing. Placer gold is not pure, but instead is a mixture of gold
and other native metals (usually silver, copper or bismuth). The purity of
placer gold is referred to as the fineness, which is essentially the volume
percent of gold stated in parts gold per 1000 millileters. As gold particles
travel further downstream, the metal impurities are leached out, causing an
increase in gold fineness downstream. The texture of gold is also an
indication of distance of downstream transport. Rough, angular texture is
generally considered to be an indication of close proximity to the source.
Hydrologic Environments
A general understanding of present day (or past) hydrologic environments is

necessary in order to predict where placer minerals are deposited. These
environments include the action of water currents in streams and the action
of waves on beaches. Current velocity is faster in steeper areas. Faster
currents cause greater the turbulence, which in turn affects the ability of the
stream to carry heavy minerals in the suspended load or bed load. For this
reason, where the stream gradient suddenly decreases is generally a good
area to look for placer deposits.
The ideal environments for heavy minerals to drop out of suspension are so
called velocity shadows, where the current suddenly looses velocity due to
a stream obstruction (Figure 11 1). One example is where the current
meets a an island or large boulder in the middle of the stream. The current
splits and goes around each side and then merges back together on the
downstream side. Suction eddies occurring directly behind the boulder
cause a velocity shadow where heavy minerals drop to the stream bed.
Similar eddies form both upstream and downstream from obstructions on
the sides of streams, such as rock outcrops or bluffs.
FIG 11-1 pending permission
Figure 11 1. Hypothetical stream showing hydrologic environments

(above) and associated heavy mineral accumulations (from Boyle, 1979).
3 of 5 5/26/2008 1:07 PM
Placer minerals also accumulate in alluvial fan deposits, which are

fan-shaped areas of unconsolidated, unsorted stream sediments at the
mouths of major stream drainages. This is due to the sudden decrease in
the stream gradient and consequent decrease in stream velocity and
turbulence. The maximum amount of winnowing occurs in the middle
portion of the fan, called the mid-fan facies, hence this is where the largest
accumulations of placer minerals occur in the fans. Ancient fan deposits
which have been buried and lithified are the source of some very rich placer
gold deposits in an area of South Africa called the Witwatersrand District.
Most of the concentration of heavy minerals occurs during flooding, when

current velocity and winnowing are at a maximum. Each time a flood
occurs, heavy minerals which were once randomly scattered within the
sediments end up resting on the new stream bed created by the scouring
action of the flood (Figure 11 2). Periodically, large scale floods scour the
stream bed completely down to bedrock, resulting in deposition and
accumulation of the heavy minerals on bedrock. This is why the richest pay
streaks of placer gold and other heavy minerals is usually found on or very
near bedrock.
Figure 11 2. Profile of a stream showing how placer deposits form by the

action of floods, and how major floods cause most placer deposits to
accumulate on bedrock (after Faulkner, 1986).
Coarse-grained gold and other heavy minerals are usually found associated
with coarse sediments, such as pebbles, cobbles, boulders and coarse
sands. The coarser sediments, due to size and weight, drop out of
suspension in the same hydrologic environments that deposit the heavy
minerals. Similarly, fine-grained heavy minerals are usually found
associated with deposits of sand or silt.
Wave action on beaches winnows away light minerals and leaves heavy
minerals to lag behind, similar to the manner in which water currents operate
in the stream environment. As each wave retreats it washes light minerals
back towards the the ocean or lake. As a result, heavy minerals, along with
larger pebbles and cobbles, lag behind. These lag deposits form a linear
band which is generally parallel to the shoreline. Regional subsidence can
result in these deposits becoming submerged beneath the water, forming
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offshore placer deposits. Regional uplift can result in these deposits

occurring on high benches further inland, which represent ancient
shorelines.
Bedrock Traps
The shape of the stream bed, in particular the shape of the bedrock floor of
the stream bed, is also a major factor determining how and where placer
minerals accumulate. Depressions or any type, such as plunge pools at the
base of waterfalls, act as natural traps because the current lacks the force to
move the heavy minerals out of the depression (Figure 11 3). Joints or
fractures of any type also tend to trap the heavy minerals. The ideal
bedrock floor contains natural riffles, where a series of resistant layers of
rock occur at right angles to the axis of the stream. Heavy minerals may
accumulate on either the upstream or downstream side of these
obstructions.
FIG 11-3 Pending permission
Figure 11 3. Hypothetical stream profile showing different types of traps in

bedrock. A = joints or fractures, B = recent faults, C = outcrops of resistant
dikes, D = outcrops of resistant beds, E = plunge pool (from Guilbert & Park,
1986).
5 of 5 5/26/2008 1:07 PM
Class 12 Geochemical Sampling and Geostatistics http://www.dmtcalaska.org/course_dev/explogeo/class12/notes12.html
Introduction
Class 12 Geochemical Sampling and Geostatistics - Notes
Geology
2. Rock Identification Methods Read pp. 61-65
Geologic Principles
3. Maps & Navigation Geochemical Sampling
Geologic Maps Geostatistics
4. Igneous Rocks
Magmatic Deposits
Air Photos Geochemical Sampling
6. Volcanic Rocks
Volcanic-Related Deposits Geochemical sampling methods are methods which involve collecting and
7. Sedimentary Rocks analyzing various types of geological materials (such as soils, stream sediments
Low Temp. Deposits and rocks) or certain biological materials (such as plants). Historically these
GPS Navigation
methods have been some of the most productive in of any methods used in
Alteration mineral exploration. Sometimes mineralization can be extremely subtle, if not
Metamorphic Rocks impossible to recognize, in hand specimen. Without the use of geochemical
9.
Metamorphic Deposits sampling methods, many known ore deposits would probably not have been
10. Structural Geology discovered.
Mineralization After discovery, geochemical sampling plays a key role in the delineation of
** Mid Term mineralization. For example, geochemical sampling of soils is often employed to
11. Mechanical Erosion outline the general distribution of mineralization at shallow depths where outcrops
Placer Deposits of bedrock are minimal or nonexistent. The procedure involves collection of
12. Geochemical Sampling materials in the field, laboratory (or field) analysis of the geochemistry of the
Methods
materials, plotting of the geochemical values on maps, and interpretation of the
Geochemical Methods results. The materials may be analyzed for any number of elements. Which
elements are chosen for analysis depends on budget, the geology of the area,
and the commodity which is being sought after. Often there are specific elements
15. Project Planning or suites of elements which are known to be associated with specific types of
Claim Staking
Exploration Drilling mineralization. Therefore it is possible to evaluate the potential for the existence
16.
Methods of certain types of mineralization by evaluating which elements are associated in a
** Final Exam given area.
Dispersion Halos
Dispersion is the process of dispersing elements outward from a source. A
dispersion halo is a zone around a mineral deposit where the metal values are
less than those of the deposit but significantly higher than background values
found in the country rocks around the deposit. Geochemical sampling and testing
can be used to outline the dispersion halo.
Primary Dispersion Halos: Primary dispersion refers to dispersion

which occurs in rocks at or near the time of formation of a mineral
deposit. It is usually the result of hydrothermal (hot aqueous) fluids
which are responsible for creating the deposit. Fluid movements in
rocks are so variable that the halo formed by primary dispersion may
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or may not reflect the shape of the ore deposit itself. The extent of the
primary dispersion halo can range from inches to hundreds of feet.
The extent of the primary halo is dependent on very dependent on the
nature of the rock. Extremely porous or highly fractured rocks usually
develop more extensive primary dispersion halos.
Secondary Dispersion Halos: Secondary dispersion refers to

dispersion which occurs in the secondary environment (soils, stream
sediments or plants) long after the formation of a mineral deposit. This
type of dispersion is usually the result of mechanical and/or chemical
weathering. Mechanical weathering is caused primarily by breakage
due to freezing and thawing. Chemical weathering is caused by
chemical reactions between minerals and groundwater resulting in
chemical decomposition of minerals. Chemical decomposition can
also be caused by bacterial action.
The dominant means of chemical breakdown of minerals in the near

surface environment is oxidation. Oxidation has dramatic effects on
the behavior of iron and sulfur, which happen to key elements in many
types of ore deposits. After decomposition, the elements from the
minerals are released into groundwater or surface water, which carries
the elements outward. Halos caused by secondary dispersion are
usually much more widespread than those caused by primary
dispersion. For this reason, sampling of soils, stream sediments or
plants can detect the presence of a mineral deposit from a much
further distance.
Groundwater and surface waters migrate and transport metallic ions

away from ore deposits. Weathering, oxidation and water migration
also produce and transport iron and manganese ions, which are
paritcularly abundant in and around ore deposits. Iron and
manganese ions tend to precipitate easily once they leave acidic water
conditions around a weathered ore deposit and come into contact with
normal pH water conditions. They precipitate as hydroxides forming
solid particles which are abundant in soils and silt size stream
sediments. These hydroxides are negatively charged, and behave
like magnets to metallic cations in solution, causing them to be
precipitated also. This process, called adsorption, leads to small
accumulations of metallic ions in soils and stream sediments (Figure
12 1).
2 of 7 5/26/2008 1:08 PM
Figure 12 1. Dispersion of metallic ions in soils near ore body (SME

Mining & Engineering Handbook).
Dispersion results in the transport of metallic ions away from a source. Some of
these ions are precisely the ones sought after, and others are called pathfinder
metals or elements. Pathfinder elements are those which are closely associated
with the metal of interest. High values of pathfinder elements may be more
significant because they have better mobility, resulting in greater dispersion. For
example, arsenic and bismuth are good pathfinders for gold.
Stream Sediment Sampling Surveys

Stream sediment surveys are very useful for mineral exploration because of
greater dispersion in the stream environment. Greater dispersion means greater
ability to detect an ore body from a greater distance. A drainage basin is an area
with a network of streams like the branches of a tree: smaller streams join
together leading into larger and larger streams. It is assumed that the values will
decrease downstream from the source, so following the path of increasing
values upstream. may lead to mineralization (Figure 12 2).
3 of 7 5/26/2008 1:08 PM
Figure 12 2. Stream sediment anomaly pattern (SME Mining & Engineering

Handbook).
Mechanical erosion leads to the breakdown of host rocks containing ore

minerals. Consequently, tiny grains of the minerals occur in the suspended load
of the stream. Turbulence of the water keeps the particles in suspension.
Turbulence is greatest in steeper areas where the stream water flows faster.
Downstream where the topography is gentler the stream waters move slower,
thereby decreasing turbulence. This causes the suspended load to drop out,
resulting in deposition of the mineral grains in the stream sediments. Heavy
minerals, like ore minerals, tend to drop out first because less turbulence is
needed to keep them in suspension.
Studies have shown that the preferred material to collect for a stream sediment
sample is the 100 mesh size fraction, which corresponds with silt size. About
to 1 cup of this size material is sufficient in most cases. If gravel or organic
material is mixed with the silt, then a larger sample needs to be collected. Steep
areas may lack the hydrologic conditions which allow silt and fine grained
sediments to settle, which can make sample collection very difficult. The
downstream sides of large boulders are sometimes the best place to look in these
areas. Moss growing on boulders within the stream can act as a filter, trapping
finer grained sediments, and can be collected to provide samples from these
more difficult areas. The material needs to be collected from the active stream
channel, not dried up side channels.
A single sample taken at the mouth of a large drainage basin may be a good way
to quickly evaluate potential of a large area, but it provides little detail of the
location of a source of mineralization. By sampling the entire stream network of
an area, the location of mineralization can be narrowed down considerably. This
can be done by collecting samples at close spacings (approximately -mile
spacing is common) and by sampling both sides of every stream fork. In this
manner, if an anomaly occurs on one side and not on the other, only the fork with
the anomaly needs to be considered in locating the source. The trail of anomalies
forms a path upstream towards the source. Generally the values will increase
upstream towards the source and reach a maximum value in close proximity to
the source, and then drop to background values further upstream from the source.
Another type of survey which relies on collection of alluvium is the pan

concentrate survey. In a pan concentrate survey, coarse materials (generally
pebble-sized) are collected and screened to inch or smaller and placed in a
gold pan. The screened material is then panned using a standardized method,
down to a volume size of approximately cup. This will be further processed in a
laboratory setting and then analyzed. Pan concentrate samples give an
indication of the types of heavy minerals present in an area. Due to inherent
inconsistencies in sample collection and panning methods, results from these
surveys are difficult to evaluate statistically. To help remedy this problem, special
methods are sometimes employed in the field which use screening and collection
of specified volume of material, and minimize or eliminate the use of actual
panning of the materials (ie, concentration of heavy minerals).
Soil Sampling Surveys

Soils are the product of weathering of bedrock, decomposition of organic material
at the surface, and deposition of other materials which have been transported.
Generally speaking the soils tend to form certain layers called horizons. The
lowermost horizon consists largely of decomposed bedrock and is called the C
horizon. The uppermost horizon, called the A horizon, is variable in
4 of 7 5/26/2008 1:08 PM
composition. In vegetated areas the A horizon consists largely of organic

material. The B horizon is between the A and C horizons, and is essentially a
mixed zone. Dispersion is generally greatest in the A and B horizons. For this
reason, soil samples collected from the B horizon can detect a mineral deposit
from a greater distance. In arctic regions, the B horizon tends to be poorly
developed (if present at all). It is best to collect soil samples from the C horizon
in these regions.
Soil surveys are typically situated to investigate target areas outlined by previous
geophysical survey or stream sediment surveys, or they may be positioned to
cover certain structural features or rock units which are known. Generally close
spacing (< 500 feet) is needed to detect subsurface mineralization, because large
spacings may miss the target. The pattern which usually emerges is one which
shows highest values directly over the ore, and a broad area surrounding these
with highly elevated values corresponding to alteration in the host rocks adjacent
to the main ore zone (Figure 12 - 3).
Figure 12 - 3). Soil anomaly profile (SME Mining & Engineering Handbook).
The strategy most often employed is to collect samples at set line or grid
spacings. The tighter the spacing, the more likely it will be to locate a soil
anomaly over a buried ore deposit. A grid survey has a big advantage over a line
survey because the anomalies which are discovered may form a trend indicating
the trend of the buried mineralization. An anomaly discovered along a line survey
gives no indication of trend, and usually must be followed up with a grid survey.
Geostatistics
Geostatistics is the use of statistics to evaluate geochemical data. Numerous
samples of different types of rocks and other materials comprising the earths
crust have been analyzed. As a result, the average abundance of trace elements
in these materials is fairly well established. The average value for a specified rock
is called the background value. We are interested in values which are much
greater than average or anomalous because these values may indicate the
presence of an ore body. A cutoff value, or threshold value, is the value above
which all values are considered anomalous. The threshold value can be selected
arbitrarily by simply viewing the data, or it can be selected by statistical methods.
Geologists endeavor to select which values of a data set are truly significant and
therefore worthy of follow-up geochemical sampling or other types of exploration.
Most element concentrations in geological materials follow a lognormal
distribution. This is demonstrated by plotting of histograms which show a skewed
distribution of values towards either the high or low values. Plotting the log values
instead of the real values yields a typical bell-shaped distribution. Plotting the of
geochemical values using geostatistical methods helps define the following types
of values:
Threshold Value: the value chosen above which values are considered
5 of 7 5/26/2008 1:08 PM
anomalous.
Anomalous Values: any value above the selected threshold value.
Background Values: normal values for the given environment; majority of
values are background values.
Threshold values can be selected in several different ways.
Arbitrary threshold find the highest value, find the median value (the value
at which half of the samples have higher values and half of the samples
have lower values), and select a value in between, but closer to the highest
value.
Cumulative frequency diagrams line up values in by rank; determine class

intervals; determine frequency percent and cumulative frequency percent;
plot a graph with class intervals on the X axis and concentration on the Y
axis using log probability paper. Then specify the percentile to use as the
threshold value. This often selected at the 97.5 percentile value (second
standard deviation), however, lower cutoffs may be selected to highlight a
greater number of anomalous values. This method also highlights the
presence of different populations of values which may be related to
different geologic features or rock types.
The evaluation of results depends largely of the type of samples being studied.
For stream sediment, pan concentrate, and in some cases soil samples, the
procedure is often to plot all the values on a map, determine an arbitrary or
statistical threshold and highlight the anomalous values. This will suffice to look
for general mineralization trends.
For soil sample grids: 1) contour the data; look for trends 2) make a thematic
map which color codes the samples according to specified class intervals; look for
patterns and trends.
One method is to assign a color code system or use symbols for specified ranges
of values. This type of map is called a thematic map (Figure 12 4). The
advantage of thematic maps is that they are simple to make and provide the
reader with a quick understanding of the distribution of anomalies in an area.
Another method is to create a geochemical contour map (Figure 12 5). Here
the values are contoured: lines of equal value (called isopleths) are extrapolated
between every data point and the adjacent points. This type of map accentuates
possible mineralization trends but is much more tedious to construct.
6 of 7 5/26/2008 1:08 PM
Figure 12 4. Thematic geochemistry map showing highest values in red and

lowest values in blue.
Figure 12 5. Geochemical contour map showing highest values in red and

lowest values in gray.
7 of 7 5/26/2008 1:08 PM
Class 13 Adit/Trench Mapping and Geological Methods http://www.dmtcalaska.org/course_dev/explogeo/class13/notes13.html
Introduction
Class 13 Adit/Trench Mapping and Geological Methods -
Geology Notes
Geologic Principles Rock Sampling
3. Maps & Navigation Trench/Adit Mapping
Geologic Maps
4. Igneous Rocks Rock Sampling
Magmatic Deposits
5. Plutonic-Related Deposits Rock sampling reveals the true potential of an area for containing a mineral
Air Photos
6. Volcanic Rocks deposit. An anomaly in a rock sample from bedrock has had no effects of
Volcanic-Related Deposits secondary dispersion, so the location of the sample is the location of the
7. Sedimentary Rocks source. A rock sample anomaly will provide much more valuable
Low Temp. Deposits information about the location of the mineral deposit because its source is
GPS Navigation
within the mineralizing system, ie, it helps delineate the zone of primary
8. Hydrothermal Veins& dispersion. However, this applies only to rock samples collected from
Alteration
bedrock. Rock samples of float (rock material suspended in colluvium with
Metamorphic Deposits no indication of proximity to the bedrock source), talus, glacial material, etc...
10. Structural Geology give no indication of location of the source, so even if they are highly
Structural Controls on mineralized, they are of limited value. Rubble (rock material suspended in
Mineralization
colluvium and due to consistency or other information suggests proximity to
** Mid Term the bedrock source) in some cases may be worthwhile to sample.
Placer Deposits Several different types of rock samples are collected for mineral
12. Geochemical Sampling exploration. Most importantly, rock samples are collected to determine the
Methods
concentration of metals, including both the major and trace metals. This
13. Adit/Trench Mapping type of sample is most commonly referred to as a geochem sample. Trace
Geochemical Methods
metal values are often useful as pathfinders, which means they are closely
associated with the metal of interest and may occur within a halo
15. Project Planning surrounding the mineralization of interest.
Claim Staking
16. Exploration Drilling Rock geochem samples are collected in different manners depending on the
Methods
** Final Exam goal of the sampling. The principle types include:
Grab Samples: A grab sample is a sample of rock material from a

confined area (< 1 foot across). It can be a single piece of rock.
These are the most common types of samples collected. If it is not
specified otherwise, one usually assumes that is the sample type. The
sample usually consists of a single piece of rock, or chunks, which are
representative of a specific type of rock or mineralization.
Composite Samples: A composite sample consists of small chips of

uniform rock material collected over a large area (generally > 5 feet
across). These are the ideal representative samples. The procedure
is to collect small pieces of rock over a large area (usually at least 10
1 of 6 5/26/2008 1:08 PM
feet across) and to make the sample as homogenous as possible. A

composite sample might be collected to determine the background
values of trace elements in a particular type of rock, or to determine if
ore grade mineralization is present over a large area.
High Grade Samples: A high grade sample consists of selective

pieces of the most highly mineralized material, in which an effort is
made to exclude less mineralized material. Consequently, a high
grade sample is generally not representative of the overall
mineralization type. A high grade sample might be collected to get an
idea what the best possible values are, or to provide material for
certain types of trace element analyses. If a such a selective sample
does not return good results, then it is unlikely that valuable
mineralization is present. When a high grade sample is collected it is
important to note that it is a high grade sample so its values will not be
misinterpreted as representing the average values.
Chip Channel Samples: A chip channel sample consists of small

chips of rock collected over a specified interval. The objective is to
obtain the most representative sample possible for the specified
sample interval. Most of the time chip channel samples are collected
in succession along a sample line which is laid out in advance using a
tape. This provides a great deal of information about the width and
other aspects of the geometry of a mineralized zone. Often the chip
channel samples are collected along the floors or walls of trenches or
adits. When chip channel sampling along walls, sometimes a piece of
canvas or plastic is laid out for the material to fall on so as to avoid
contamination and make the collection easier. The freshest material
possible is sampled, preferably chipping directly from bedrock.
Sample intervals are set at a specified width, usually ranging from 1 to
20 feet. For example, in a five foot interval, at the end of the first foot,
20 % of the sample bag should be filled, at the end of the second foot
the bag should be filled to 40 %, etc... Due to the method of sampling,
chip channel samples tend to be rather large (up to 20 pounds for a
five foot interval).
Several other types of rock samples are sometimes collected to help

interpret the history of mineralization in an area, to better understand the
relationships between different ore minerals, or to determine more detailed
geochemistry. These types of samples are often collected to evaluate the
mineralization in a regional context, or to compare the mineralization with
models which might apply to a given situation. Although they can might be
costly, the information they provide can be invaluable. Some of these
sample types include:
Whole Rock Major Oxide Samples: Whole rock major oxide

samples are most often collected to study the whole rock geochemistry
of plutonic and volcanic rocks. The sample must be completely fresh,
unweathered, and unoxidized. If necessary the weathered rind must
be removed by chipping or by using a rock saw. Samples must also
be unaltered by hydrothermal alteration (this adds new components
and removes others, such that it will no longer represent the parent
magma composition). The sample is analyzed for the principle oxides,
including, SiO2, Al2O3, CaO, Fe2O3, FeO, K2O, MgO, MnO, Na2O,
P2O5, TiO2. Usually at least 98 % of the rock is made up of minerals
2 of 6 5/26/2008 1:08 PM
comprised of some combination of these components. Not

uncommonly igneous rocks contain up to 1 % water. This water is lost
when the rock is oxidized in the furnace (referred to as LOI or loss on
ignition). Major oxide analyses are used to classify igneous rocks
based on their chemical composition. These can be used to compare
intrusions within a district or to use in regional studies by comparing
the analyses with those for known models.
Age Date Samples: Age date samples are used to determine the
age of the rocks. There are several methods, including 40Ar/39Ar,
U/Pb, K/Ar, Rb/Sr, and Carbon 14. They are all based on the half life
theory, which states that certain isotopes of certain elements decay to
radioactive daughter products at a specific rate, called a decay
constant. Knowing the constant, the amount of parent and daughter
product material in the sample is measured and then used to calculate
the age of the rock. The 40Ar/39Ar method can provide reliable age
dates up to several hundred million years. Argon gas forms by decay
of potassium and gets locked in the crystal lattice. The U/Pb method
is also quite reliable, and can be used to date rocks up to billions of
years old. Older rocks have longer histories, and during those longer
histories more events can occur which cause problems. For example,
metamorphism and tectonic activity. These can cause opening of the
crystal lattice of the mineral being dated, and loss of the daughter
product material, causing erroneous results. Typically these effects
cause the methods to yield ages which appear to be younger than the
actual age of the rock. Minerals can also obtain overgrowths during
remelting events, causing excess parent material to be present, also
making the rock appear younger. Ar-Ar and U-Pb age dates can be
obtained can be obtained from very small amounts of material. The
procedure involves separating the grains of one mineral type to be
dated. Ar-Ar age dates are usually obtained on minerals such as mica
or hornblende. U-Pb age dates are usually obtained on zircon or other
accessory minerals which are known to contain small amounts of
uranium.
Petrographic Samples: Petrographic samples are collected to

conduct thin section petrographic analysis of the rock, which is the
identification and evaluation of the minerals comprising the rock by
using a microscope equipped with both plane and polarized light. A
thin section is made of the rock, which is a paper thin slice of the rock
mounted on a glass slide. Different minerals have different optical
properties when the plane light or polarized light is transmitted through
the thin section. Textural relationships also become apparent, which
provides information about the order of crystallization (or
paragenesis). The proceedure is to cut a flat side and use special
epoxy to glue the piece of rock called a plug, to the glass slide. Thin a
special trim saw cuts off the part opposite the glass. Then the rock
wafer is polished with special grinders to achieve the desired
thickness. The thickness must be very precise to compare the optical
properties with known standards.
Fluid Inclusion: Fluid inclusion samples are typically samples of

quartz (others include fluorite, sphalerite or tourmaline). The samples
are prepared similar to a thin section, and examined using a special
microscope equipped with a heating stage. The inclusions can contain
3 of 6 5/26/2008 1:08 PM
solid, liquid or gas, or any combination of these. The inclusions are

formed when they are trapped on the surface as a new layer of the
mineral crystallizes. As the mineral cools down, the phases separate.
The sample is heated gradually while being examined under the
special microscope to find the temperature at which the gas or solid
crystal in the fluid inclusion will goes back into solution. This provides
valuable information about the temperature and pressure of formation
of the ore forming fluids.
Polish Section: to look at reflected light properties of ore minerals;

ie, sulfide and oxide minerals.
Microprobe: highly sophisticated method to determine mineral

compositions and textures using electron beams.
Trench/Adit Mapping
Trench or adit mapping is the process of creating a geologic map, which
shows the geology of the floor and walls of the trench or adit. Adit mapping
emphasizes mapping of the walls more than the floor because the floor is
often poorly exposed due to the presence of a layer of debree which results
from blasting and mucking. Trench mapping emphasizes floor mapping
because: 1) the floor is usually scraped as clean as possible with a dozer or
backhoe, and 2) because floor mapping shows a map view. Trench or adit
mapping always involves setting up a base line using a tape. Footage or
meter marks are then painted or flagged and labeled. The base line and
footage marks are then drawn to scale on the map page to facilitate
mapping. Often the same base line is used to accomplish a chip channel
sampling program.
One approach is to first draw the outline of the floor, which will be oriented
with respect to true north and drawn to scale. The geology of the floor is
then mapped just as an ordinary geologic map is made. The corner of the
trench or adit matches the edges of the strip showing the geology. This is
the map view (looking straight down) of the geology of the floor. The
edges of the strip map represent the two bottom corners of the trench.
The walls of the trench or adit are mapped adjacent to the strip map such
that the right wall is mapped as if looking at the vertical on the right, and the
left wall is mapped as if looking at the vertical wall on the left. These can be
labeled to indicate they represent the geology of the walls, even though it is
usually obvious. This gives a 3-D perspective of the geology, which greatly
facilitates the interpretation of the geometry of features. For example in
determining the dip of layers, faults, joints, etc... on the floor of the trench, it
is useful to show where the feature trends as it intersects the adjacent
walls. Structural measurements can be put directly on the map, in notation
form next to the appropriate footage mark.
Another simpler approach used to make mapping more rapid is to sketch

the floor outline at a standard, average width and not worry about the exact
width. The outline is drawn parallel to the edge of the map sheet without
regard to actual geographic orientation. The azimuth of the axis of the
trench or adit floor is carefully measured and noted on the map. If the
trench or adit contains bends, then the new orientation is noted at the
appropriate footage mark on the map.
4 of 6 5/26/2008 1:08 PM
The alteration style can be added to one side or the other of the map if
desired. The alteration can be mapped using colors, patterns or other
designators, in the same way the rock types are mapped.
Figure 13 1. Example of Trench 5 map oriented to true north.
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Figure 13 2. Example of Trench 5 map with trench axis parallel with map
page edges.
6 of 6 5/26/2008 1:08 PM
Class 14 Magnetic, Gravity and Electrical Methods http://www.dmtcalaska.org/course_dev/explogeo/class14/notes14.html
Introduction
Class 14 Magnetic, Gravity and Electrical Methods - Notes
Geology
Read pp. 67-79
Geologic Principles
3. Maps & Navigation Magnetic Methods
Geologic Maps Gravity Methods
4. Igneous Rocks Electrical Methods
Magmatic Deposits
5. Plutonic-Related Deposits Magnetic Methods
Air Photos
6. Volcanic Rocks Magnetism has been studied for a very long time in human history. Early
Greek philosophers new about the attraction of iron to a magnet. The first
Low Temp. Deposits magnets consisted of a naturally occurring rock called lodestone, a variety of
GPS Navigation massive magnetite (almost pure iron oxide). Magnetite is the only naturally
8. Hydrothermal Veins& occurring mineral with distinctly obvious magnetic properties. Only a few
Alteration
other minerals have any detectable magnetism. However, extremely
9. Metamorphic Rocks sensitive magnetometers can detect trace magnetism in many different
minerals. Iron, because of its atomic structure, has the greatest tendency to
Structural Controls on become magnetized or aligned. Other elements, such as cobalt and nickel,
Mineralization also have lesser tendency to become magnetic. Any mineral or rock which
** Mid Term contains any of these elements is likely be more magnetic.
Placer Deposits Magnetism occurs when like poles of adjacent individual atoms are in
12. Geochemical Sampling alignment, creating a dipole effect. Another word for this alignment effect
Methods is called polarization. An analogy can be made with the north and south
13. Adit/Trench Mapping poles of a typical bar magnet. Poles having the same charge repel each
Geochemical Methods
other; poles oppositely charged attract each other. At extreme
14. Geophysical Methods temperatures, the vibrations of the atoms cause a loss of alignment, leading
15. Project Planning to a loss of magnetism. Experiments have shown this loss of magnetism
Claim Staking
Exploration Drilling
occurs at a temperature of approximately 550 o C (also known as the Curie
16.
Methods point).
** Final Exam
Magnetic Minerals
Magnetic strength of a mineral or rock is therefore a function of two things:

1) the amount of iron, nickel or cobalt, and 2) the amount of alignment which
takes place. The measure of magnetic strength of a mineral or rock is called
the magnetic susceptibility (Table 14 - 1). This can be measured
qualitatively with a simple magnet by testing the pull. It can also be
measured with a magnetometer. The susceptibility of a completely
nonmagnetic substance is equal to 0. The susceptibility of a highly magnetic
mineral (such as magnetite) is about 20. Every mineral has at least some
very minor amount of magnetic susceptibility, but for most minerals it is
virtually nil.
1 of 10 5/26/2008 1:08 PM
Rock/Mineral Magnetic
Susceptibility
Rocks
Salt 0 0.001
Slate 0 0.002
Limestone 0.00001 0.0001
Granulite 0.0001 0.05
Rhyolite 0.00025 0.001
Greenstone 0.0005 0.001
Basalt 0.001 0.1
Gabbro 0.001 0.1
Dolerite 0.01 0.15
Minerals
Pyrite 0.0001 0.005
Hematite 0.001 0.0001
Pyrrhotite 0.001 1.0
Chromite 0.0075 1.5
Magnetite 0.1 20.0
Table 14 1. Magnetic susceptibilities of selected rocks and minerals.
Earths Magnetic Field

There is much uncertainty about the origin and nature of the earths
magnetic field. A simplistic model is that of a giant bar magnet with a dipole
field surrounding it (Figure 14 1). Measurements made of the orientation
and strength of the magnetic field in thousands of locations around the earth
suggest the bar magnet model, which is roughly spherical and has lines of
force plunging into the polar regions, is a good approximation of the real
magnetic field. The earths core is thought to be largely made up of molten
iron, which might be the source of the field. Siesmic studies indicate that the
inner core is solid and the outer core is liquid. The inner core is above the
Curie temperature, so it cannot contribute to the Earths magnetic field.
Modern theories suggest the magnetic field is caused by flow of material in
the outer core which generates a flow of electrical current, which probably
also contributes to the formation of an electromagnetic field.
Figure 14 1. Generalized cross section of the simplistic bar magnet model

of the Earths magnetic field.
2 of 10 5/26/2008 1:08 PM
Magnetic Instruments
The magnetic instrument we are most familiar with is the compass. A piece
of lodestone suspended from a string will align itself with the earths
magnetic field. In the 12th century the Chinese discovered that rubbing a
needle against a piece of lodestone will cause the needle to become
magnetic. Later, someone tried suspending the magnetized needle, which
led to the creation of the first compass.
A magnetometer is a very complex instrument which measures both the

orientation and strength of a magnetic field. When the magnetic field of a
rock sample is measured, the result is actually a measurement of the
interaction of the magnetic field of the sample and the magnetic field of the
earth. Sophisticated instruments can be used to separate one from the
other. In the same manner, large bodies of rock under the surf.
Magnetic Surveys
Geophysicists have been able to develop a mathematical model for its

shape and intensity, which is called the magnetosphere. It is not a perfect
sphere, but instead is an imperfect sphere with many bumps and
irregularities, which may be related to the complex movements of the molten
iron in the outer core.
Large bodies of magnetic rocks which are either underground or exposed at

the surface also have inherent magnetic fields surrounding them. These
local magnetic fields interact with the earths magnetic field, causing
abnormal readings which do not fit the magnetoshere model, called
magnetic anomalies. In a aerial or ground-based magnetic survey is
conducted, the total magnetic field is measured and compared with the
readings predicted from the magnetoshphere model. A magnetic high is
where the measured field strength is higher than the value predicted by the
model; a magnetic low is where the measured field strength is lower than the
value predicted by the model. This allows a method to predict the presence
of magnetic rocks below the surface.
Strong magnetic anomalies are interpreted to be caused by rocks containing

magnetite, pyrrhotite, chromite, or ilmenite, while weaker anomalies may be
caused by the presence of less magnetic minerals. Mafic igneous rocks,
such as gabbro, diorite or basalt, are usually the cause of the magnetic
highs. Other types of rocks which cause magnetic highs less frequently
include skarns, and a few metamorphic rocks like greenstone
(metamorphosed basalt). Felsic igneous rocks (such as granite or rhyolite)
and most sedimentary rocks are notably non-magnetic except in rare cases.
These rocks typically cause distinct magnetic lows. Magnetic lows can be
important for mineral exploration because they can be indicative of certain
types of alteration.
Gravity Methods
The earths gravity field, like the earths magnetic field, is an invisible force
field. In the late 1600s Isaac Newton demonstrated the relationship
between the density (or mass) of objects and gravitational attraction
between them. He theorized the gravitational pull between two objects is
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their masses.
3 of 10 5/26/2008 1:08 PM
In mathematical terms: F = (G)(m1)(m2) / r2 , where F is the force of

gravity, m1 and m2 are the masses of the objects, and r is the distance
between the centers of the two objects, and G is the gravitational constant.
Any two objects have some gravitational force of attraction between them.
The amount of attraction decreases as the distance between the objects
increases.
One might think of the gravitational force field of the earth as vectors
radiating outward from its center. The strength of the field decreases
outward along the vectors. Knowing the distance between the earths center
and the center of any object on the surface, and knowing the mass of the
earth and the object, the gravitational force can be calculated. It would
seem a simple matter to make this calculation, however, it is not quite that
simple for two reasons. First, the earths gravitational field is not completely
uniform because the earth is not completely round. The field is proportional
to the radius of the Earth (remember r 2 in the equation above). The radius
of the earth varies slightly from the poles to the equator (the radius at the
equator is 21 km longer than the radius at the poles). Additionally, the
surface of the earth is not smooth, but instead has many topographic
irregularities, such as mountains and oceans. Second, the mass of the
earth is not uniform. The mass of the core (solid iron and nickel) is much
greater than the mass of crustal material. Furthermore, the crustal portion of
the earth is made of a wide variety of different rock types, each with a
different density depending on its composition. For example, basalt has a
very high density compared to rhyolite.
Density and Specific Gravity
Density is defined as mass per unit volume. The density of a substance is

directly related to the atomic weight of the element composing it, ie,
elements with higher atomic weight can be thought of as being heavier.
Another way of stating this is that equal volumes of two different substances
have different densities because each different substance has a different
mass (ie, atomic weight) and crystal structure. Measurements of mass can
be made in a variety of different units (pounds, grams, etc...), likewise,
measurements of volume can also be made in a variety of different units
(cubic feet, cubic centimeters, etc...). Density is most commonly measured
in grams/cubic centimeter.
Minerals (or rocks) vary greatly in density, depending on their chemical make
up. Density is such a characteristic property of a substance that it may be
used to identify the substance. Geologists have found it useful to develop a
system of comparing densities of different minerals or rocks. This is done by
measuring the specific gravity, which is essentially a comparison of the
density of the substance to an equal volume of water. For example, the
specific gravity of granite is about 2.7. This means that a cubic foot of
granite, which weighs 168 pounds, is about 2.7 times heavier than a cubic
foot of water, which weighs about 62.5 pounds. Typical rock-forming,
silicate minerals, such as quartz and feldspar, have specific gravity values
in the range of about 2.6 to 2.8 (Table 14 2). Specific gravity values of
sulfide minerals range from about 5 (pyrite) to 7.5 (galena). Native metals
(gold, platinum, etc...) have very high specific gravities ranging from about
15 to 22.
4 of 10 5/26/2008 1:08 PM
Rock Type Specific Mineral Specific

Gravity Gravity
Coal 1.2 1.5 Sphalerite 3.8 4.2
Chalk 1.9 2.1 Chalcopyrite 4.1 4.3
Salt 2.1 2.4 Pyrrhotite 4.4 4.7
Serpentinite 2.5 2.6 Chromite 4.5 4.8
Granite 2.5 2.7 Pyrite 4.9 5.2
Quartzite 2.6 2.7 Hematite 5.0 5.2
Limestone 2.6 2.7 Magnetite 5.1 5.3
Gneiss 2.65 Galena 7.3 7.7
2.75
Basalt 2.7 3.1
Gabbro 2.7 3.3
Peridotite 3.1 3.4
Table 14 2. Specific gravity values for selected common rocks and
minerals.
Gravity Surveys
The standard method of measuring the force of the earths gravitational field
is to measure the acceleration due to gravity, which was defined by Isaac
Newton: g = (G)(m1) / r2 (where g is the acceleration due to gravity), and F
= (m2)(g). What the formula implies is that an object which is dropped from
some height accelerates (increases its velocity) as it falls. The acceleration
can be calculated by measuring the velocity at two different times during the
fall. Likewise, the gravitational force, or gravity field, can be calculated at
any specific location on the earth using the same principle. The value of the
gravity field (acceleration) is directly related to the mass (density) of the
earth beneath the station where the measurement is made. The
acceleration is measured with an instrument called a gravimeter. A
gravimeter measures the acceleration by sensing the pull by the earths
gravitational field on a mass suspended from a very sensitive spring. Gravity
measurements made anywhere on the earth vary by only a few percent.
Gravity surveys use the milligal or mgal (=0.0001 gal.) as the standard
unit of measure (named after Galileo). The acceleration for one gal is
equal to 1 cm per second per second.
Gravimeters are used in mineral or petroleum exploration for irregularities in

the predicted model of the earths gravity field. The gravimeter measures
very tiny increases in acceleration, which suggest the presence dense rocks
or minerals (such as sulfides or other dense minerals) in the subsurface
(Figure 14 2). The values can be plotted either along a profile or on a map
(Figure 14 3). Anomalous gravity highs may indicate where basement
rocks are closer to the surface, or where fold structures (which may form oil
traps) are located in the subsurface.
5 of 10 5/26/2008 1:08 PM
Figure 14 2. Gravity anomaly created by dense subsurface rocks.
Figure 14 3. Gravity map of western Alaska (from USGS website).
Gravity Data Reduction

Before the field data is plotted, it must be reduced, which is the process of
removing effects of local features which mask the true gravity value at any
given location. This brings the measurements to a common imaginary
spherical surface called a geoid. If after the corrections are made an
anomalous gravity value still exists, then it is considered real. Numerous
corrections are made, and only a few of these are described below:
Free Air Correction: The height above sea level will have an obvious effect
on the gravity value, because the higher the elevation (ie, the further from
the earths center) the lower the gravity measurement will be.
Measurements collected at higher elevations must be corrected with a
positive correction factor; lower elevation measurements are corrected with
a negative correction factor.
Bouguer Correction: This correction is also related to elevation. It

accounts for the gravitational attraction of the subsurface by approximating
the density of the rocks underlying the station. It assumes an infinite slab of
specified density lies between the station and sea level. The thickness of
the slab is equivalent to the elevation of the station above sea level. This
correction can have either a positive or negative effect, depending on the
density assumed for the slab.
Latitude Correction: As mentioned, the earth is not a perfect sphere.

Instead, its radius is larger at the equator than at the poles. Polar regions
6 of 10 5/26/2008 1:08 PM
have higher gravity values, so a negative correction is made.
Terrain Correction: If a measurement is made at the base of a hill, the

mass of the portion of the hill situated topographically above the station
causes an upward pull due to the attraction of the mass of the hill. Since this
counteracts the pull downward by the gravitational field, a negative
correction must be made. Likewise, if a measurement is made adjacent to a
depression such as a large valley, a positive correction must be made.
Electrical Methods
Electrical methods are generally referred to as resistivity surveys. Metallic
minerals are relatively good conductors of electricity. In contrast, common
rock forming minerals are generally poor conductors. This fact is the basis
for geophysical exploration methods which measure conductivity to evaluate
the metal content of rocks. The methods also provide some limited
information about the geometry of the subsurface metallic mineralization.
Surface electrical methods are limited to shallow depths (<500 feet), but the
electrical properties of rocks can be measured at much greater depths by
using special instruments sent down deep drill holes.
Active electrical methods are those which introduce an artificial electrical

field into the ground. These methods utilize two electrodes placed in the
ground and charged to create an electrical current which passes through the
ground between them. The resistance caused by the ground is measured
and used to give an indication of the metal content. Passive methods
measure current flow related to natural electrical currents. Passive
methods measure the electric potentials which develop due to the
electrochemical action between minerals and pore fluids.
Native metals, metallic sulfide minerals and graphite are the best mineral
conductors (Table 14 3). Rocks containing abundant pore waters are also
excellent conductors, in fact without these pore waters, resistivity methods
would not be possible. In general, the abundance and chemical composition
of pore waters have a greater influence on conductivity than do metallic
mineral grains. For example, pore waters containing salts (sodium chloride,
etc...) are the best conductors of all. Clay minerals containing slight
amounts of moisture are also excellent conductors.
Common Rocks/Materials Resistivity Ore Minerals Resistivity
(ohm meters) (ohm meters)

Clay 1 100 Pyrrhotite 0.001 0.01
Graphitic Schist 10 500 Galena 0.001 100
Topsoil 50 100 Cassiterite 0.001 10,000
Gravel 100 600 Chalcopyrite 0.005 0.1
Weathered Bedrock 100 1000 Pyrite 0.01 100
Gabbro 100 500,000 Magnetite 0.01 1,000
Sandstone 200 8,000 Hematite 0.01 1,000,000
Granite 200 100,000 Sphalerite 1000 1,000,000
Basalt 200 100,000
Limestone 500 10,000
Slate 500 500,000
Quartzite 500 800,000
Greenstone 500 200,000
7 of 10 5/26/2008 1:08 PM
Table 14 3. Resistivity of common rocks and minerals.
Resistivity Surveys
When two electrodes are placed in the ground and voltage is applied across
them, current flows from one electrode to the other. The source of current is
a transmitter attached to one of the electrodes. The other electrode is
attached to a receiver. In a homogenous conductor, the electron flow
lines are perpendicular to the lines along which the potential is constant
(Figure 14 - 4). Zones of abnormally high or abnormally low conductivity
cause the current flow lines to become distorted, causing variations from the
predicted values. These variations, or anomalies, can then be mapped out
to try to locate buried ore deposits.
Figure 14 4. Geometry of current flow lines and equipotential lines in a

vertical section below the surface for voltage generated at stations A and B
(from Dobrin, 1976).
Conductivity is the opposite of resistivity, which is essentially the resistance

to the flow of electricity. At a constant voltage, the relationship between
resistance and current are expressed mathematically by Ohms Law:
V=IR
where V is the voltage ( in volts), I is the current (in amps), and R is the
resistance (in ohms).
The resistance is a function of the composition (metallic or conductive
minerals) and physical condition (pore fluids, etc..) of the rock. Two other
factors must be quantified to evaluate the resistivity, including the length
(distance between electrodes) and cross-sectional area of the
cylindrical-shaped region through which the electrical current is being
passed. Resistivity is expressed by the formula:
r = (R)(S) / l
where r is the resistivity (in ohm-meters), S is the unit area of the cylinder
cross-section, and l is theunit length of the cylinder.
In practice, several different pairs of electrodes are set up at different

spacings, called d-spacings. As the spacing between the electrode pairs
increases, the detection depth increases. In this manner, changes in
resistivity with depth can be plotted on a type of cross section called a
psuedosection. This provides a means of mapping out zones of high or low
resistivities. Zones with distinctly high resistivity (low conductivity) may
correspond to areas containing abundant quartz or silicification, such as vein
deposits. Zones with distinctly low resistivity may correspond to zones
containing abundant metallic sulfides. The frequency is also varied during
the survey. If metallic minerals are present, the resistivity does not change
8 of 10 5/26/2008 1:08 PM
as the frequency is varied. If metallic minerals are present, the resistivity

varies dramatically as the frequency is varied.
I.P. Surveys
I.P. surveys are a special type of resistivity survey. Current flowing through
the ground causes some rocks to become electrically polarized or charged
the way a car battery is charged by an alternator when the car is running.
Chargeability is measured by sending a pulsating current through the
ground. This creates an exchange of ions between the mineral grains and
surrounding pore fluids. The exchange actually creates a voltage which acts
as a barrier to current flow. Extra voltage, called overvoltage is necessary
to drive the current through the barrier. When the current supply is suddenly
stopped, the voltage drops immediately to an intermediate value, and then
gradually dissipates. The behavior is called induced polarization or I.P..
Chargeability is related to the ratio of the overvoltage value to the
intermediate voltage value, and the lapse time it takes the ground to
uncharge after the electrical charge is cut off at the transmitter.
Most modern electrical surveys measure both the resistivity and the
chargeability (or I.P. effect). The same equipment and electrode
configuration can be used for both types of surveys. There are at least eight
different electrode configurations (or arrays) in use. High chargeability is
usually caused by the presence of metallic or conductive minerals, in
contrast to high conductivity, which can be caused be salty pore fluids.
During the 1960s, the I.P. method was used extensively to search for
disseminated sulfide ores (particularly porphyry copper deposits) because of
its extreme sensitivity to the presence of low grade disseminated
mineralization.
I.P. survey results plot the chargeability values and resistivity values on a
pair of psuedosections (Figure 14 - 5). The values are plotted at regular
depth intervals which correspond to the dipole spacing intervals, and along
angular projections below the surface. Color coding and/or contouring of the
values used to accentuate the zones of high chargeability. The values also
give an idea of the general dip direction of the conductive or resistive zones.
Figure 14 5. Psuedo-section showing chargeability values and pants leg

shaped anomaly typically associated with a shallow conductor (from Milsom,
1996).
Self Potential Surveys

Self potential is the natural electrical potential which exists in many rocks. It
is caused by electrochemical action between minerals and groundwater
solutions. When this action occurs in the oxidizing zone above the water
table, current is generated (Figure 14 - 6). An ore body containing metallic
minerals, acting as a conductor, carries the current downward towards the
9 of 10 5/26/2008 1:08 PM
reducing zone below the water table. The overall effect is to create a
negative potential in the rocks around the ore body as the electrons move
downward. Pyrite (iron sulfide) oxidizes readily to hematite (iron oxide) in
the groundwater environment. Therefore, ore deposits containing pyrite
develop very strong negative self potentials. Other minerals which are
known to generate strong negative potentials are pyrrhotite and magnetite.
Lead and zinc sulfides do not develop strong self potential fields.
Figure 14 6. Current flow and natural self potential field developed around
a sulfide ore body (from Dobrin, 1976).
10 of 10 5/26/2008 1:08 PM
Class 15 Claim Staking and Exploration Project Planning http://www.dmtcalaska.org/course_dev/explogeo/class15/notes15.html
Introduction
Class 15 Claim Staking and Exploration Project Planning -
Geology Notes
Geologic Principles Claim Staking
3. Maps & Navigation Exploration Project Planning
Geologic Maps
4. Igneous Rocks Claim Staking
Magmatic Deposits
5. Plutonic-Related Deposits The right of an individual or company to secure mineral rights to extract
Air Photos
6. Volcanic Rocks valuable minerals goes back to the General Mining Law of 1872 which
Volcanic-Related Deposits states all valuable mineral deposits belonging to the U.S. (shall be) free
7. Sedimentary Rocks and open to exploration and purchase. This authorized individuals and
Low Temp. Deposits corporations to stake claims. However, the land status (ie, ownership) and
GPS Navigation
state and federal regulations ultimately determine whether a site or area can
8. Hydrothermal Veins& be staked. Petroleum, coal, gas, oil shale, salt and sulfer prospects on
Alteration
public lands are not open to staking, but instead must be leased (assuming
Metamorphic Deposits the area is open to leasing). Other materials such as sand, gravel, cinders,
10. Structural Geology pumice and clay likewise must be leased.
Mineralization
On Federal lands, the BLM (Bureau of Land Management) controls all
** Mid Term surface and mining activity. Lands open to mineral entry include unreserved
11. Mechanical Erosion public land, some National Forests. National Monuments, National Parks,
Placer Deposits Wildlife Refuges, etc.. are not open to mineral entry. Federal claims can be
12. Geochemical Sampling staked by U.S. citizens, and Canadians from the Yukon or Northwest
Methods
Territory. There are no age restrictions on staking federal mining claims.
Geochemical Methods
On Alaska State lands, the Department of Natural Resources controls all
14. Geophysical Methods mining and exploration activity. Most state lands are open to mineral entry
15. Project Planning except State Parks, road and utility corridors, water reservoirs and salmon
Claim Staking
streams. To stake mining claims, leases or prospecting sites in Alaska, a
16. Exploration Drilling person 1) must be a U.S. citizen, and 2) must be at least 19 (unless they are
Methods
** Final Exam part of a legal entity such as a corporation). Corporations which stake
claims must be registered with the Alaska Department of Economic
Development.
Native lands in the state of Alaska are not open to staking or mineral entry,
unless an exclusive agreement is obtained with the Native corporations
which control the area of interest.
The right to stake a claim is based upon a sufficient discovery, which

means a valuable mineral must be found in such quantity and under such
conditions as would justify an ordinary prudent person to expend further
time, labor and money upon the property, with a reasonable expectation of
developing an economically viable mine (otherwise known as the prudent
1 of 5 5/26/2008 1:08 PM
man test). Mining claims, etc... cannot be staked for purposes other than
active development of a mine.
State of Alaska Mining Claims and Prospecting Sites
The claim staker must first have a discovery. The maximum claim size is 40
acres (1320 x 1320 ft), and the claim boundaries must be oriented with the
cardinal directions when possible, and must meet criteria for the MTRSC
system (meridian, township, range, section, corner system). A state mining
claim covers both the subsurface lode and placer rights. It is important that
having a claim does not imply surface ownership, only the rights extract
subsurface minerals.
Each claim must have cornerposts at each of the four corners. By

regulation the posts must be at least 3 inches in diameter and at least 3 feet
off the ground. The cornerposts must be clearly labeled as to the claim
name and which corner of the claim it represents. A claim notice must be
placed on the northeast cornerpost. The claim notice forms are available
from the Division of Mining, and will contain information such as 1) claim
name, 2) name & address of locator or locators, 3) date of discovery, 4)
date of posting, 5) description of dimensions, 6) location information using
the MTRSC system, and 7) signature.
The maximum size for a prospecting site is 2640 x 2640 ft, and the same
rules apply to its location description and cornerposts. The other key
difference is that a prospecting site does not require a discovery.
Prospecting sites can be held for up to two years before they must be
converted into a mining claim(s). The staker of the prospecting site has the
exclusive right to stake mining claims there.
After staking a claim or prospecting site, the deadline for filing the claim
form with the State of Alaska district recorder is 45 days. Filing and
payment of the first year of rent to the Division of Mining must also be
made. Each year the rental payment must be made between September 1
and November 30. Each year assessment work must be performed on the
claims, in the amount of $100 per claim, by August 31. An affidavit of
assessment describing the work must be filed with the district recorder
annually by November 30. Acceptable types of assessment work include all
types of geological surveys (by qualified individuals), excavations, bulk
sampling and drilling. Permits are required for any type of excavation, road
building or drilling acitvity.
Federal Mining Claims
Federal mining claims differ from state mining claims in that placer rights
are not included with lode rights. A separate placer claim must be staked
to obtain placer mining rights. A lode by definition is a reasonably
continuous body of mineral-bearing rock in the general mass of bedrock and
having greater value than the surrounding country rock. Another major
difference is in the maximum size of a federal claim (600 x 1500 ft for lode
claims and 660 x 1320 ft for placer claims). Federal mining claims are also
not required to be oriented with the cardinal directions as is the case with
state mining claims. Otherwise many of the same staking rules, fees, and
assessment requirements are similar to those which apply to state mining
claims.
2 of 5 5/26/2008 1:08 PM
Exploration Project Planning

The extensive effort, high costs, and short field season require a great deal
of planning for an exploration project to be successful. Details pertaining to
the logistics of transportation, field camps, geological surveys, field
equipment, communications, and emergency procedures are some of the
more important aspects which must be considered.
Transportation
Many field projects in remote areas require the use of transportation by

fixed-wing aircraft or helicopter, which are the most expensive forms of
transportation. Fortunately there are numerous short, but sometimes crude,
airstrips around the state, particularly in the known mining districts. There
are also many airstrips on private land, which might be used if permission
can be obtained. Other areas may have airstrips built for hunting and
fishing access, but if these are maintained by private individuals, permission
should also be obtained, even if they are located on public land. The right
type of airplanes equipped with the right kind of landing gear (large tires)
can utilize gravel bars along some of the major rivers. Floatplanes can
access the larger rivers as well as lakes in some areas. Rates for air travel
by small fixed-wing aircraft range up to a few hundred dollars per hour.
Helicopters are the ultimate transportation method for remote areas, but are
also much more expensive, typically ranging from $500 to $800 per hour
depending on the type of helicopter used. The most commonly used types
are the Bell Jet Ranger and the Hughes 500, but several others are also
available and suitable for remote work. The Hughes 500 has a reputation
for ability to land in very tight spots due to the greater height and shorter
span of the rotors. The big advantage to the use of a helicopter is the small
landing area needed, which means they can be used to mobe gear and
personnel to camps in very remote locations. The helicopter can be used to
drop off geologists at the beginning of the day at locations high on ridges,
which would otherwise take many long hours of uphill hiking to access.
Then the geologist can design their daily reconnaissance traverses to cover
a much larger area and obtain many more samples.
Various types of boats can also be used for transportation in remote

settings. Airboats are particularly advantageous in shallow, inland river
settings because of the minimal water depth needed.
If a project is fortunate enough to be on a road or trail system, 4-wheelers,

or even 4-wheel drive vehicles, may be used. The use of these vehicles
can provide great cost savings when considering the larger area which is
made accessible.
Field Equipment
Numerous equipment items are necessary to conduct geological field

work. Table 15 1 is a partial list of equipment items. Obviously each
different type of work activity requires a different selection of work-related
equipment. For example, claim staking requires different equipment than
geologic mapping, and stream-sediment sampling requires different
equipment than soil sampling. It is the responsibility of the field geologist or
assistant to make sure they depart for the field with everything they need to
3 of 5 5/26/2008 1:08 PM
conduct in an efficient manner the work they set out to do. It is also their
responsibility to make sure they have the items necessary to ensure their
safety and comfort. This means they need to carry an adequate food and
water supply. If the logistics call for a helicopter pick up, they should plan
for the possibility that weather or mechanical problems may prevent the
helicopter from picking them up when and where planned. They may need
to carry a tool such as a brush ax or saw to create a landing zone (or LZ)
for the helicopter.
Personal Comfort & Safety Work-Related

Good raingear (jacket & pants) Large pack w/ good support system
Warm hat & gloves Rock hammer
Work gloves Small shovel
Water supply Sample bags
Food supply Waterproof marker
Good leather boots (rocky areas) Pencil
Good rubber boots (wet areas) Field notebook
Warm jacket Mineral I.D. kit
First aid kit Hand lens
Toilet paper Brunton compass &/or Silva Ranger
compass
Gun & ammunition Handheld GPS
Bear spray Hip chain and thread
Cowbell &/or whistle Field maps & navigation maps
Sun hat Brush ax or machete
Bug dope Colored pencils
Mosquito headnet Plastic garbage bag (for wet samples)
Signal mirror Fluorescent spray
Sunglasses Tape
Waterproof matches or lighter Pick ax
Rescue blanket Handheld radio w/ extra battery
Pocket knife Extra AA batteries for GPS
Parachute cord Field vest
Water filter Gold pan
Sample tags
Field Communications
For many field work projects, the ability to communicate in the field
dramatically affects the efficiency of the operation and the safety of the
workers. Communications which are important include person-to-person
(or person-to-base camp), person-to-aircraft, and camp-to-town. Equipment
includes the handheld radio, cell phones, Irridium satellite phones, regular
satellite phones, and single sideband radios.
The handheld radio is the most common equipment used for

person-to-person, person-to-base camp, and person-to-aircraft
communication. Some handhelds transmit for up to tens of miles, but the
limiting factor is that they only transmit and receive line-of-sight. This
means one cannot communicate through obstructions (usually topographic
features) in the line-of-sight path. Better line-of-sight is often gained by
climbing to higher elevations. A handheld radio can only communicate with
other handheld radios if they are all on the same frequency. The handheld
radio uses a rechargeable battery which usually only lasts a couple days. It
is important to always carry an extra radio battery.
Cell phones, due to their small size, low cost, and extended range, are
becoming increasingly popular for camp-to-town communications. Areas
4 of 5 5/26/2008 1:08 PM
covered by cell phone networks are constantly becoming more widespread

as more and more repeater stations are constructed and antennae systems
become more powerful. Cell phones still require line-of-sight to the
antennae or repeater, so this is a limitation in many instances.
Satellite phones are the most desirable means of camp-to-town

communications because of the dependability, size, and the fact that they
can be used in extremely remote areas. Two factors prevent their
widespread use, including 1) cost (usually $3 to $5 per minute), and 2)
reception is only as good as the satellite view (or the clearness of the path
between the satellite phone and the satellites). Due to the fact that the
satellites are constantly moving, and never rise much more than about 10
degrees above the horizon, the reception at a given location will vary greatly
over the course of the day. There is also a safety consideration, because
satellite phones transmit using microwave radiation, which is harmful to
anyone in the path of the radiation. Caution is imperative !! There are
several different satellite networks orbiting the earth, including both public
and military networks. The Irridium network is owned by the U.S. military,
but is also used for public communications. A Canadian company called
Global Star owns another network used by the public.
Single sideband (or SBX) radios were the standard means of camp-to-town
communications prior to the age of cell and satellite phones. SBX radios
transmit low frequency radio waves (1.5 6.0 Mhz) which can travel
extremely long distances. This is because the radio waves bounce back
and forth between the ionosphere and the earth. However, this only applies
to fair weather conditions. The advantage of using the SBX radio is the low
cost, long range, and the fact they can be used in valleys and at lower
elevations successfully. Disadvantages of the SBX are that they wave
transmission is drastically affected by solar activity, and in some situations
by the presence of high power electrical transmission lines. They also
require setting up a fairly elaborate antennae system.
5 of 5 5/26/2008 1:08 PM
Class 16 Exploration Drilling Methods and Drill Sections http://www.dmtcalaska.org/course_dev/explogeo/class16/notes16.html
Introduction
Class 16 Exploration Drilling Methods and Drill Sections - Notes
Geology
Exploration Drilling Methods
Geologic Principles Drill Sections
Geologic Maps Exploration Drilling Methods
4. Igneous Rocks
Magmatic Deposits
Drilling is the culmination of the mineral exploration process where the third
Air Photos dimension of a prospect, the subsurface geometry, is defined. Drilling provides
Volcanic Rocks most of the information for the final evaluation of a prospect and will ultimately
6.
Volcanic-Related Deposits determine if the prospect is mineable. Geochemical analyses of the drill samples
7. Sedimentary Rocks provide the basis for determining the average grade of the ore deposit. Careful
Low Temp. Deposits logging of the drill samples helps delineate the geometry and calculate the volume
GPS Navigation
of ore, and provides important structural details. The two principle types of drilling
Alteration are diamond core drilling and reverse circulation drilling (or RVC drilling).
Metamorphic Deposits Diamond Core Drilling
Structural Controls on Diamond core drilling uses a diamond bit, which rotates at the end of drill rod (or
Mineralization pipe) (Figure 16 1). The opening at the end of the diamond bit allows a solid
** Mid Term column of rock to move up into the drill pipe and be recovered at the surface.
11. Mechanical Erosion Standard core sizes are 7/8 inch (EX), 1 3/16 inch (AX), 1 5/8 inch (BX) and 2 1/8
Placer Deposits inch (NX). Most drill rods are 10 feet long. After the first 10 feet is drilled, a new
12. Geochemical Sampling section of pipe is screwed into the top end, so the combination of pipes can be
Methods
driven another 10 feet into the ground. The diamond bit is rotated slowly with
Geochemical Methods
gentle pressure while being lubricated with water to prevent overheating. The drill
depth is estimated by keeping count of the number of drill rods.
Claim Staking
Methods
** Final Exam
Figure 16 1. Diamond bit.
The driller listens to the drill very carefully to evaluate the condition of the drilling
below. He will adjust the rotation speed, pressure and water circulation for
different rock types and drilling conditions so as to avoid problems, such as
getting the bit stuck or overheated. Highly fractured rocks (often encountered
near the surface), in addition to the risk of a stuck bit, allow the fluids to escape,
leading to overheating. The problem is minimized by injecting drilling mud (or
sawdust or other materials) into the drill hole to plug the fractures and prevent
escape of the fluids.
Inside the drill pipe is a core tube, which has a latching mechanism attached to a
1 of 6 5/26/2008 1:09 PM
cable. At the end of each 10 foot run, the cable is used to winch the core tube
containing the new rock core to the surface where it can be recovered. The drill
core is stored in specially designed core boxes containing compartments to hold
sections of the core. Standard core boxes are 2.5 feet long and contain four
compartments, so ten feet of core can be stored in each box.
The drill core is first washed and logged by a qualified geologist, and then split in
half to provide a sample for geochemical analysis. Since so much time, effort and
money is expended to obtain the drill core, it is worthwhile to study and log the
core very carefully. A standardized log form is used to log the core. The form has
columns for each of the types of information which will be recorded, with tick
marks indicating the footage. The information typically shown includes the
recovery %, lithology, alteration, mineralization, rock quality data (RQD), and
structural details. Although the strike and dip of planar features such as bedding,
foliation, faults and veins is not known, the angle of these features with respect to
the axis of the drill core axis is noted, because it still provides valuable information
about the geometry of the features. Mineral testing may also be done, including
testing for fluorescence (scheelite), testing for effervescence with dilute HCl
(carbonate alteration), or mineral staining (feldspars or carbonates). Often the
core will be photographed as well. The recovery % is the ratio of the actual core
length compared to the drill interval indicated. Voids and fracture zones cause
poor recovery. For example, if a drill run of 10 feet obtains 8 feet of drill core, the
recovery is 80 %. The drill logs used to construct drill sections (cross sections
showing the drill holes) which illustrate the subsurface geometry of the ore body.
The current trend is to create drill logs in digital or spreadsheet format, which
facilitates the construction of drill sections by computer.
Core splitting is done using a rock saw or an impact core splitter. There is always
the problem of obtaining a representative split of the core. Great care must be
taken to avoid this problem. Sometimes the entire core is analyzed to avoid this
problem, but usually only if logging is extremely thorough. In some cases a series
of small chips are collected along the length of the core to form a skeleton core
for archiving purposes.
RVC Drilling
RVC drilling is fundamentally different from diamond core drilling, both in terms of
equipment and sampling. One major difference is that RVC drilling creates small
rock chips instead of solid core. Other major differences are in the rate of
penetration and cost per foot. RVC drilling is much faster than diamond core
drilling, and also much less expensive.
RVC drilling requires much larger equipment, including a high capacity air
compressor. The compressor forces air down the outer space of a double wall
pipe (Figure 16 - 2). The air circulates back up through the inner pipe carrying the
rock chips, which are recovered at the surface. The chips travel at such high
velocity they must be slowed down first, using a cyclone. The return pipe
directs the chips to glance off the inside wall of the cyclone chamber, and then
spiral downward to the bottom of the cyclone, loosing velocity in the process. The
chips are collected continuously as the drill advances into the ground. Drill pipes
used for RVC drilling are usually either 6 or 8 in diameter and 20 feet in length.
Each pipe is extremely heavy and requires the use of a winch to lift and position
over the drill hole.
2 of 6 5/26/2008 1:09 PM
Figure 16 - 2. RVC double wall drill pipe (with tricone bit) showing air path (from
NEW ERA Engineering Corp).
RVC drill bits are also completely different from diamond drill bits. One type is
called a hammer bit, named for the way it rapidly pounds and pulverizes the rock
interface. This type of bit works well in dry drilling conditions (ie, above the water
table) and in rock formations which are dense and hard. Below the water table,
the water in the formation actually cushions the bit, making it much less effective
at shattering the rock. Another type of drill bit, called a tricone bit, has three
revolving cone-shaped grinders, which rotate together like the differential gears in
a car transmission. Tricone bits are slower drilling in hard formations, but are very
effective in soft formations and in wet drilling conditions.
Samples of drill cuttings are usually collected over five foot intervals. The large
diameter of the drill hole creates a huge volume of material for each sample,
which is typically split into a reasonable volume to handle and send to the lab for
analysis. In dry drilling conditions (above the water table), a dry splitter is used
(also know as a Jones splitter) (Figure 16 - 3). Usually a split of 1/8 of the total is
collected. The Jones splitter is made up of tiers, each of which splits the sample
in half. After the third tier split, 1/8 of the original total sample remains, which is
collected in a bin or bucket. When the drill reaches the depth of the water table,
rotary wet splitter is used (Figure 16 - ). The wet splitter spins around and splits
the sample using a series of fins, similar to the fins in a turbine engine. Every
other chamber directs material to a pipe which funnels the material into a bucket.
3 of 6 5/26/2008 1:09 PM
Figure 16 - 3. Typical dry splitter samping (A) and wet splitter sampling (B)
arrangements.
Small representative samples of the chips are collected continuously during the
sampling process and placed in plastic boxes with compartments called chip
trays. These are carefully observed and logged by a competent geologist. Of
course some types of information, such as structural details, are not possible to
obtain in the absence of solid rock. In spite of this disadvantage, much valuable
information can still be obtained from the rock chips. For example, the chips are
much easier to examine under a microscope. Testing of fluorescence and
effervescence are easily accomplished.
Drill Sections
Drill data is interpreted by constructing drill sections, which show the drill holes in
a vertical profile analogous to cross sections. Construction of the drill section
begins in the same manner as a geologic cross-section, by creating a topographic
profile. Then the collar locations (where the drill enters the ground) are plotted
along the topographic profile. A vertical drill hole (plunge = -90 deg) will plot as a
vertical line on the drill section, and angle drill holes are plotted showing the
appropriate inclination. The length of the line(s) which illustrate the drill hole are
determined by the scale of the drill section. For example, if the drill section scale
is 1 inch = 10 feet, then a drill hole with a total depth (TD) of 100 feet will be 10
inches long.
Drill holes which are not situated exactly along the drill section line can be
projected onto the plane of the drill section (within a reasonable distance)
(Figure 16 4). The projection is done along a line perpendicular to the drill
section line. If an inclined drill hole does not plunge directly into the vertical plane
of the drill section, then its inclination on the drill section will appear as an
apparent dip. The apparent dip angle is always less than the true dip. The
apparent dip angle is a function of the true dip and the angle between the drill
section line and the drill hole surface trace in a map view (Table 16 1).
If a drill hole intersects a tabular-shaped mineralized zone or rock layer at a 90

degree angle, then the thickness of the zone or layer seen in the drill core or
recorded in the drill log represents the true thickness. If the drill hole intersects
the zone or layer at any angle less than 90 degrees, then the thickness observed
is called apparent thickness. The true thickness of the mineralized zone must
be known in order to calculate the volume of the zone (Volume = length x width x
thickness). If the dip of the mineralized zone is known, and the inclination of the
4 of 6 5/26/2008 1:09 PM
drill hole is known, then the true thickness can be calculated using simple
trigonometry.
Figure 16 - 4. Map showing the projection of several drill hole collar locations onto
drill section line.
Table 16 1. Apparent Dip Angles as function of true dip and strike orientation.
Each drill hole on the drill section should show the name of the drill hole above
and the total depth (TD) below (Figure 16 - 5). At this point, a decision is made as
to which information will be shown. Typically each drill hole shows the intervals
containing significant or ore grade values. Often this is done by highlighting or
bracketing these intervals. Now the geologist may interpret the geometry of the
ore zone by extrapolating between drill holes, which is a matter of connecting the
upper and lower contacts of the zone from one drill hole to the next. The geology
may be interpreted in different ways by different geologists (Figure 16 - 6). To
help with the interpretation, additional drill sections may be constructed which
show different aspects of the drill data. For example, another drill section may be
constructed which shows a specific alteration or mineralization type.
5 of 6 5/26/2008 1:09 PM
Figure 16 5. Drill section with ore intercepts and geology.
Figure 16 - 6. Two different interpretations of the same drill section (from SME
Mining & Engineering Handbook).
6 of 6 5/26/2008 1:09 PM

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Introduction to Exploration Geology Class Syllabus http://www.dmtcalaska.org/course_dev/explogeo/intro.

1. Igneous Rocks, 1. Plutonic Rocks (optional)

1. Plutonic-Related 1. Air Photo Exercise pp.31-38

1. Volcanic Rocks 1. Volc.s/ Volc.Rock Web Sites

1. Sedimentary Rocks 1. UTM Exercise pp.25-27

1. Hydrothermal 1. Alteration Map Plotting

1. Metamorphic Rocks 1. Cross Section Exercise

1. Structural Geology 1. Structure 3 Point Problem pp.87-94

1. Mechanical 1. Panning Exercise pp.95-112

1. Geochemical 1. Soil Geochem Contouring pp. 61-65

1. Rock Sampling 1. Adit Map Exercise

1. Geophysical 1. Gravity Survey Plotting Ex. pp. 67-79

1. Claim Staking 1. Claim Form Exercise

1. Exploration Drilling 1. Drill Section Plotting Exercise

Approximately 0.5 oz of dilute (<10%) Hydrochoric Acid is

Recommended minerals: galena, chalcopyrite, pyrite, chalcocite, stibnite,

Miners Inc. (1-800-824-7452, www.minerox.com)

Geosource (1-970-223-5511, http://geoed.com/GE-contact-pg.html

Sources of Lab Supplies:

Miners Inc. (1-800-824-7452, www.minerox.com)

Geosource (1-970-223-5511, http://geoed.com/GE-contact-pg.html

Wards Scientific (1-800-962-2660, www.wardsci.com)

Overview of Exploration Geology

The Exploration Process

If bedrock is exposed anywhere at or around a prospect, then surface bedrock mapping is an

COSMIC ORIGIN OF THE EARTH

decay of radioactive elements.

OVERVIEW OF PLATE TECTONICS

Geochemical Characteristics of the Earth

Periodic Table of Elements

WEB SITE: WEB PERIODIC TABLE

GEOPHYSICAL FEATURES OF THE EARTH

WEB SITE: EARTHS GRAVITY FIELD

Earths Magnetic Field

WEB SITE: EARTHS MAGNETIC FIELD

The rock composition is found by determining which minerals make up the

Petrographic methods involve the use of a microscope to examine the optical

Other instruments which can be used to make mineral identification include

X-Ray Diffraction Techniques

Another method to identify small mineral grains is using X-ray powder

In X-ray spectrometry, another method to identify minerals, the X-rays cause

The texture of a rock is defined by observing two criteria: 1) grain sizes, 2)

different (Figure 1).

Grain Shape: the general shape of the mineral grains (crystal

Sedimentary: Shale Siltstone Sandstone Wacke

Metamorphic: Slate Phyllite Schist

Clastic .06 - .125 mm .125 - .25 mm .25 - .5 mm .5 1 mm 1 2 mm

Metamorphic < .25 mm .25 1 mm 1 2 mm > 2 mm

Igneous < 1 mm 1 5 mm 5 20 mm > 20 mm

Figure 1. Grain size examples. Sizes are median diameter of grains in

Law of Cross-cutting Relationship;

The Law of Cross-cutting Relations is a principle which is useful to employ

Figure 2. Vein crosscutting relations. Vein A is cut by Vein B. Vein C cuts

The Law of Superposition is a law which applies to sedimentary rocks. It

Figure 3. Slightly deformed sedimentary rocks (Eagle Bluff, Alaska).

The Principle of Uniformitarianism states that the earth is a result of natural

Difficulty is encountered when attempting to correlate rocks which are not in

EXPLORATION GEOLOGY TERMS

The following terms are useful to know:

Gangue Minerals: the minerals having no commercial value, they just

Prospect: potential ore deposit, based on preliminary exploration.

Orebody or Ore Deposit: naturally occurring materials from which a

Mineral Deposit: similar to an ore deposit, but is implied to be subeconomic