Teslacoil

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TheTeslacoilisanelectricalresonanttransformercircuitdesignedbyinventorNikolaTesla
Teslacoil
in1891.[1][2]Itisusedtoproducehighvoltage,lowcurrent,highfrequencyalternating
currentelectricity.[3][4][5][6][7][8][9]Teslaexperimentedwithanumberofdifferent
configurationsconsistingoftwo,orsometimesthree,coupledresonantelectriccircuits.

Teslausedthesecircuitstoconductinnovativeexperimentsinelectricallighting,
phosphorescence,Xraygeneration,highfrequencyalternatingcurrentphenomena,
electrotherapy,andthetransmissionofelectricalenergywithoutwires.Teslacoilcircuits
wereusedcommerciallyinsparkgapradiotransmittersforwirelesstelegraphyuntilthe
1920s,[1][10][11][12][13][14]andinmedicalequipmentsuchaselectrotherapyandvioletray
TeslacoilatQuestacontheNationalScienceand
devices.Todaytheirmainuseisforentertainmentandeducationaldisplays,althoughsmall
TechnologycenterinCanberra,Australia
coilsarestillusedtodayasleakdetectorsforhighvacuumsystems.[9]
Uses Applicationineducational
demonstrations,noveltylighting,music

Contents Inventor NikolaTesla

Related Transformer,electromagneticfield,
1 Operation items resonance
1.1 Resonanttransformer
1.2 Operationcycle
1.3 Oscillationfrequency
1.4 Outputvoltage
1.5 Thetoploador"toroid"electrode
2 Types
3 History
3.1 Invention
3.2 Tesla'sdemonstrations
3.3 Wirelesspowerexperiments
3.4 Magnifyingtransmitter
3.5 Wardenclyffetower
3.6 Useinradio
3.7 Useinmedicine
3.8 Useinshowbusiness
3.9 Useineducation
3.10 Lateruses
4 ModerndayTeslacoils
4.1 Primaryswitching
5 Practicalaspectsofdesign
5.1 Highvoltageproduction
5.1.1 Tuningprecautions
5.1.2 Airdischarges
6 Applications
6.1 Entertainment
6.2 Vacuumsystemleakdetectors
7 Hazards
7.1 The'skineffect'
8 Relatedpatents
9 Seealso
10 References
11 Furtherreading
12 Externallinks

Operation
ATeslacoilisaradiofrequencyoscillatorthatdrivesanaircoredoubletunedresonanttransformertoproducehighvoltagesatlow
currents.[10][15][16][17][18][19]Tesla'soriginalcircuitsaswellasmostmoderncoilsuseasimplesparkgaptoexciteoscillationsinthetuned
transformer.Moresophisticateddesignsusetransistororthyristor[15]switchesorvacuumtubeelectronicoscillatorstodrivetheresonant
transformer.

Teslacoilscanproduceoutputvoltagesfrom50kilovoltstoseveralmillionvoltsforlargecoils.[15][17][19]Thealternatingcurrentoutputisin
thelowradiofrequencyrange,usuallybetween50kHzand1MHz.[17][19]Althoughsomeoscillatordrivencoilsgenerateacontinuous
alternatingcurrent,mostTeslacoilshaveapulsedoutput[15]thehighvoltageconsistsofarapidstringofpulsesofradiofrequencyalternating
current.
ThecommonsparkexcitedTeslacoilcircuit,shownbelow,consistsofthese
components:[16][20]

Ahighvoltagesupplytransformer(T),tosteptheACmainsvoltageuptoahigh
enoughvoltagetojumpthesparkgap.Typicalvoltagesarebetween5and30kilovolts
(kV).[20]
Acapacitor(C1)thatformsatunedcircuitwiththeprimarywindingL1oftheTesla
transformer
Asparkgap(SG)thatactsasaswitchintheprimarycircuit
TheTeslacoil(L1,L2),anaircoredoubletunedresonanttransformer,which
generatesthehighoutputvoltage.
Optionally,acapacitiveelectrode(topload)(E)intheformofasmoothmetalsphere
ortorusattachedtothesecondaryterminalofthecoil.Itslargesurfaceareasuppresses
prematureairbreakdownandarcdischarges,increasingtheQfactorandoutput
voltage. HomemadeTeslacoilinoperation,showingbrush
dischargesfromthetoroid.Thehighelectricfield
causestheairaroundthehighvoltageterminalto
Resonanttransformer
ionizeandconductelectricity,allowingelectricity
toleakintotheairincolorfulcoronadischarges,
ThespecializedtransformerusedintheTeslacoilcircuit,calledaresonanttransformer,
brushdischargesandstreamerarcs.Teslacoilsare
oscillationtransformerorradiofrequency(RF)transformer,functionsdifferentlyfroman
usedforentertainmentatsciencemuseumsand
ordinarytransformerusedinACpowercircuits.[22][23][24]Whileanordinarytransformeris publicevents,andforspecialeffectsinmovies
designedtotransferenergyefficientlyfromprimarytosecondarywinding,theresonant andtelevision.
transformerisalsodesignedtotemporarilystoreelectricalenergy.Eachwindinghasa
capacitanceacrossitandfunctionsasanLCcircuit(resonantcircuit,tunedcircuit),storing
oscillatingelectricalenergy,analogouslytoatuningfork.Theprimarycoil(L1)consistingofa
relativelyfewturnsofheavycopperwireortubing,isconnectedtoacapacitor(C1)throughthe
sparkgap(SG).[15][16]Thesecondarycoil(L2)consistsofmanyturns(hundredstothousands)of
finewireonahollowcylindricalforminsidetheprimary.Thesecondaryisnotconnectedtoan
actualcapacitor,butitalsofunctionsasanLCcircuit,theinductanceof(L2)resonateswithstray
capacitance(C2),thesumofthestrayparasiticcapacitancebetweenthewindingsofthecoil,and
thecapacitanceofthetoroidalmetalelectrodeattachedtothehighvoltageterminal.Theprimary
andsecondarycircuitsaretunedsotheyresonateatthesamefrequency,theyhavethesame
resonantfrequency.Thisallowsthemtoexchangeenergy,sotheoscillatingcurrentalternatesback
andforthbetweentheprimaryandsecondarycoils.
Manyresonancesareobservedonthe
Thepeculiardesignofthecoilisdictatedbytheneedtoachievelowresistiveenergylosses(highQ secondarycoil[21]
factor)athighfrequencies,[17]whichresultsinthelargestsecondaryvoltages:

Ordinarypowertransformershaveanironcoretoincreasethemagnetic
couplingbetweenthecoils.Howeverathighfrequenciesanironcore
causesenergylossesduetoeddycurrentsandhysteresis,soitisnot
usedintheTeslacoil.[24]
Ordinarytransformersaredesignedtobe"tightlycoupled".Duetothe
ironcoreandcloseproximityofthewindings,theyhaveahighmutual
inductance(M),thecouplingcoefficientisclosetounity0.951.0,
whichmeansalmostallthemagneticfieldoftheprimarywinding
passesthroughthesecondary.[22][24]TheTeslatransformerincontrastis
"looselycoupled",[15][24]theprimarywindingislargerindiameterand
spacedapartfromthesecondary,[16]sothemutualinductanceislower UnipolarTeslacoilcircuit.C2isnotan Amoredetailed
[25]
andthecouplingcoefficientisonly0.05to0.2. Thismeansthatonly actualcapacitorbutrepresentsthe equivalentcircuitof
5%to20%ofthemagneticfieldoftheprimarycoilpassesthroughthe capacitanceofthesecondarywindingsL2, thesecondary
[15][20] plusthecapacitancetogroundofthetoroid showingthe
secondarywhenitisopencircuited. Theloosecouplingslowsthe
exchangeofenergybetweentheprimaryandsecondarycoils,which electrodeE. contributionsof
allowstheoscillatingenergytostayinthesecondarycircuitlonger variousstray
beforeitreturnstotheprimaryandbeginsdissipatinginthespark. capacitances.
Eachwindingisalsolimitedtoasinglelayerofwire,whichreduces
proximityeffectlosses.Theprimarycarriesveryhighcurrents.Sincehighfrequency
currentmostlyflowsonthesurfaceofconductorsduetoskineffect,itisoftenmadeof
coppertubingorstripwithalargesurfaceareatoreduceresistance,anditsturnsare
spacedapart,whichreducesproximityeffectlossesandarcingbetweenturns.[26][27]

Theoutputcircuitcanhavetwoforms:

UnipolarOneendofthesecondarywindingisconnectedtoasinglehighvoltage
terminal,theotherendisgrounded.Thistypeisusedinmoderncoilsdesignedfor
entertainment.Theprimarywindingislocatednearthebottom,lowpotentialendofthe
VideodemonstratingthattheRFcurrentsfroma
secondary,tominimizearcsbetweenthewindings.Sincetheground(Earth)servesas
thereturnpathforthehighvoltage,streamerarcsfromtheterminaltendtojumptoany Teslacoildonotcauseelectricshock,butcan
nearbygroundedobject. lightafluorescenttubewhenbroughtnear.
BipolarNeitherendofthesecondarywindingisgrounded,andbotharebroughtoutto
highvoltageterminals.Theprimarywindingislocatedatthecenterofthesecondarycoil,equidistantbetweenthetwohighpotential
 terminals,todiscouragearcing.

Operationcycle

Thecircuitoperatesinarapid,repeatingcycleinwhichthesupplytransformer(T)
chargestheprimarycapacitor(C1)up,whichthendischargesinasparkthroughthe
sparkgap,creatingabriefpulseofoscillatingcurrentintheprimarycircuitwhich
excitesahighoscillatingvoltageacrossthesecondary:[18][20][24][28]

1.Currentfromthesupplytransformer(T)chargesthecapacitor(C1)toahigh
voltage.
2.Whenthevoltageacrossthecapacitorreachesthebreakdownvoltageofthe
sparkgap(SG)asparkstarts,reducingthesparkgapresistancetoaverylow
value.Thiscompletestheprimarycircuitandcurrentfromthecapacitor
flowsthroughtheprimarycoil(L1).Thecurrentflowsrapidlybackandforth
Unipolarcoildesign Bipolarcoil,usedintheearly
betweentheplatesofthecapacitorthroughthecoil,generatingradio
widelyusedinmodern 20thcentury.Therearetwohigh
frequencyoscillatingcurrentintheprimarycircuitatthecircuit'sresonant
frequency. coils.Theprimaryisthe voltageoutputterminals,each
3.Theoscillatingmagneticfieldoftheprimarywindinginducesanoscillating flatredspiralwindingat connectedtooneendofthe
currentinthesecondarywinding(L2),byFaraday'slawofinduction.Overa bottom,thesecondaryis secondary,withasparkgap
numberofcycles,theenergyintheprimarycircuitistransferredtothe theverticalcylindrical betweenthem.Theprimaryis12
secondary.Thetotalenergyinthetunedcircuitsislimitedtotheenergy coilwoundwithfinered turnsofheavywire,whichis
originallystoredinthecapacitorC1,soastheoscillatingvoltageinthe wire.Thehighvoltage locatedatthemidpointofthe
secondaryincreasesinamplitude("ringup")theoscillationsintheprimary terminalisthealuminum secondarytodiscouragearcs
decreasetozero("ringdown").Althoughtheendsofthesecondarycoilare torusatthetopofthe betweenthecoils.
open,italsoactsasatunedcircuitduetothecapacitance(C2),thesumofthe secondarycoil.
parasiticcapacitancebetweentheturnsofthecoilplusthecapacitanceofthe
toroidelectrodeE.Currentflowsrapidlybackandforththroughthe
secondarycoilbetweenitsends.Becauseofthesmallcapacitance,theoscillatingvoltageacrossthesecondarycoilwhichappearsonthe
outputterminalismuchlargerthantheprimaryvoltage.
4.Thesecondarycurrentcreatesamagneticfieldthatinducesvoltagebackintheprimarycoil,andoveranumberofadditionalcyclesthe
energyistransferredbacktotheprimary.Thisprocessrepeats,theenergyshiftingrapidlybackandforthbetweentheprimaryand
secondarytunedcircuits.Theoscillatingcurrentsintheprimaryandsecondarygraduallydieout("ringdown")duetoenergydissipated
asheatinthesparkgapandresistanceofthecoil.
5.Whenthecurrentthroughthesparkgapisnolongersufficienttokeeptheairinthegapionized,thesparkstops("quenches"),
terminatingthecurrentintheprimarycircuit.Theoscillatingcurrentinthesecondarymaycontinueforsometime.
6.ThecurrentfromthesupplytransformerbeginschargingthecapacitorC1againandthecyclerepeats.

Thisentirecycletakesplaceveryrapidly,theoscillationsdyingoutinatimeoftheorderofamillisecond.Eachsparkacrossthesparkgap
producesapulseofdampedsinusoidalhighvoltageattheoutputterminalofthecoil.Eachpulsediesoutbeforethenextsparkoccurs,sothe
coilgeneratesastringofdampedwaves,notacontinuoussinusoidalvoltage.[18]Thehighvoltagefromthesupplytransformerthatchargesthe
capacitorisa50or60Hzsinewave.Dependingonhowthesparkgapisset,usuallyoneortwosparksoccuratthepeakofeachhalfcycleof
themainscurrent,sotherearemorethanahundredsparkspersecond.Thusthesparkatthesparkgapappearscontinuous,asdothehigh
voltagestreamersfromthetopofthecoil.

Thesupplytransformer(T)secondarywindingisconnectedacrosstheprimarytunedcircuit.Itmightseemthatthetransformerwouldbea
leakagepathfortheRFcurrent,dampingtheoscillations.Howeveritslargeinductancegivesitaveryhighimpedanceattheresonant
frequency,soitactsasanopencircuittotheoscillatingcurrent.Ifthesupplytransformerhasinadequateleakageinductance,radiofrequency
chokesareplacedinitssecondaryleadstoblocktheRFcurrent.

Oscillationfrequency

Toproducethelargestoutputvoltage,theprimaryandsecondarytunedcircuitsareadjustedtoresonancewitheachother.[17][18][22][29]Sincethe
secondarycircuitisusuallynotadjustable,thisisgenerallydonebyanadjustabletapon theprimarycoil.Ifthetwocoilswereseparate,the
resonantfrequenciesoftheprimaryandsecondarycircuits, and ,wouldbedeterminedbytheinductanceandcapacitanceineachcircuit

However,becausetheyarecoupledtogether,thefrequencyatwhichthesecondaryresonatesisaffectedbytheprimarycircuitandthecoupling
coefficient ,andoccursatitsantiresonantfrequency[30][31]

Soresonance,andthehighestvoltagesoccurwhen
Thustheconditionforresonancebetweenprimaryandsecondaryis

HowevertheTeslatransformerisverylooselycoupled,andthecouplingcoefficient issmall,intherange0.05to0.2.Sothefactor
isclosetounity,0.98to0.999,sothetworesonantfrequenciesdifferby2%atmost.Thereforemostsources[17][18][22]statethetransformeris
resonantwhentheresonantfrequenciesofprimaryandsecondaryareequal.

TheresonantfrequencyofTeslacoilsisinthelowradiofrequency(RF)range,usuallybetween50kHzand1MHz.However,becauseofthe
impulsivenatureofthesparktheyproducebroadbandradionoise,andwithoutshieldingcanbeasignificantsourceofRFI,interferingwith
nearbyradioandtelevisionreception.

Outputvoltage

Inaresonanttransformerthehighvoltageisproducedbyresonancetheoutputvoltage
isnotproportionaltotheturnsratio,asinanordinarytransformer.[24][32]Itcanbe
calculatedapproximatelyfromconservationofenergy.Atthebeginningofthecycle,
whenthesparkstarts,alloftheenergyintheprimarycircuit isstoredinthe
primarycapacitor .If isthevoltageatwhichthesparkgapbreaksdown,which
isusuallyclosetothepeakoutputvoltageofthesupplytransformerT,thisenergyis

Duringthe"ringup"thisenergyistransferredtothesecondarycircuit.Althoughsome
islostasheatinthesparkandotherresistances,inmoderncoils,over85%ofthe
energyendsupinthesecondary.[18]Atthepeak( )ofthesecondarysinusoidal
voltagewaveform,alltheenergyinthesecondary isstoredinthecapacitance Largecoilproducing3.5meter(10foot)streamerarcs,
betweentheendsofthesecondarycoil indicatingapotentialofmillionsofvolts.

Assumingnoenergylosses, .Substitutingintothisequationandsimplifying,thepeaksecondaryvoltageis[17][18][24]

Thesecondformulaaboveisderivedfromthefirstusingtheresonancecondition .[24]Sincethecapacitanceofthesecondary
coilisverysmallcomparedtotheprimarycapacitor,theprimaryvoltageissteppeduptoahighvalue.[18]

Itmightseemthattheoutputvoltagecouldbeincreasedindefinitelybyreducing and .However,astheoutputvoltageincreases,it

reachesthepointwheretheairnexttothehighvoltageterminalionizesandairdischargescoronas,brushdischargesandstreamerarcs,break
outfromtheterminal.Thishappenswhentheelectricfieldstrengthexceedsthedielectricstrengthoftheair,about30kVpercentimeter,and
occursfirstatsharppointsandedgesonthehighvoltageterminal.Theresultingenergylossdampstheoscillation,sotheabovelosslessmodel
isnolongeraccurate,andthevoltagedoesnotreachthetheoreticalmaximumabove.[18][24][26]TheoutputvoltageofopenairTeslacoilsis
limitedtoaroundseveralmillionvoltsbyairbreakdown,buthighervoltagescanbeachievedbycoilsimmersedinpressurizedtanksof
insulatingoil.

Thetoploador"toroid"electrode

MostTeslacoildesignshaveasmoothsphericalortoroidalshapedmetalelectrodeonthehighvoltage
terminal.Theelectrodeservesasoneplateofacapacitor,withtheEarthastheotherplate,formingthe
tunedcircuitwiththesecondarywinding.Althoughthe"toroid"increasesthesecondarycapacitance,
whichtendstoreducethepeakvoltage,itsmaineffectisthatitslargediametercurvedsurfacereduces
thepotentialgradient(electricfield)atthehighvoltageterminal,increasingthevoltagethresholdat
whichcoronaandstreamerarcsform.[33]Suppressingprematureairbreakdownandenergylossallows
thevoltagetobuildtohighervaluesonthepeaksofthewaveform,creatinglonger,morespectacular
streamers.[24]

Ifthetopelectrodeislargeandsmoothenough,theelectricfieldatitssurfacemaynevergethigh
enoughevenatthepeakvoltagetocauseairbreakdown,andairdischargeswillnotoccur.Some
entertainmentcoilshaveasharp"sparkpoint"projectingfromthetorustostartdischarges.[33] SolidstateDRSSTCTeslacoilwith
pointedwireattachedtotoroidto
producebrushdischarge
NikolaTeslapatentedtheTeslacoilcircuitApril25,
1891.[44][2]andfirstpubliclydemonstrateditMay20,1891in
hislecture"ExperimentswithAlternateCurrentsofVeryHigh
FrequencyandTheirApplicationtoMethodsofArtificial
Illumination"beforetheAmericanInstituteofElectrical
EngineersatColumbiaCollege,NewYork.[45][46][47]Although
Teslapatentedmanysimilarcircuitsduringthisperiod,this
wasthefirstthatcontainedalltheelementsoftheTeslacoil:
highvoltageprimarytransformer,capacitor,sparkgap,andair
core"oscillationtransformer".

HenryRowland's1889sparkexcited StepsinTesla'sdevelopmentoftheTesla
resonanttransformer, [41]a transformeraround1891. [43](1)Closed
predecessortotheTeslacoil. [42] coretransformersusedatlowfrequencies,
(27)rearrangingwindingsforlowerlosses,
(8)removedironcore,(9)partialcore,(10
11)finalconicalTeslatransformer,(1213)
Teslacoilcircuits

Invention

DuringtheIndustrialRevolutiontheelectricalindustryexploiteddirectcurrent(DC)andlowfrequency
alternatingcurrent(AC),butnotmuchwasknownaboutfrequenciesabove20kHz,whatarenowcalledradio
frequencies.In1887,fouryearspreviously,HeinrichHertzhaddiscoveredHertzianwaves(radiowaves),
electromagneticwaveswhichoscillatedatveryhighfrequencies.[49][50][51]Thisattractedmuchattention,anda
numberofresearchersbeganexperimentingwithhighfrequencycurrents.

Tesla'sbackgroundwasinthenewfieldofalternatingcurrentpowersystems,soheunderstoodtransformersand
resonance.[50][47]In1888hedecidedthathighfrequencieswerethemostpromisingfieldforresearch,andsetup
alaboratoryat33SouthFifthAvenue,NewYorkforresearchingthem,initiallyrepeatingHertz'sexperiments. FirstdrawingofTeslacoil
circuitfromTesla'sApril
Hefirstdevelopedalternatorsassourcesofhighfrequencycurrent,butby1890foundtheywerelimitedto 25,1891patent. [2]
frequenciesofabout20kHz.[47]Insearchofhigherfrequenciesheturnedtosparkexcitedresonantcircuits.[50]
Tesla'sinnovationwasinapplyingresonancetotransformers.[52]Transformersfunctioneddifferentlyathigh
frequenciesthanatthelowfrequenciesusedinpowersystemstheironcoreinlowfrequencytransformers
causedenergylossesduetoeddycurrentsandhysteresis.[50]Tesla[43][52][47]andElihuThomson[42][53][54] DrawingofTeslacoil
independentlydevelopedanewtypeoftransformerwithoutanironcore,the"oscillationtransformer",andthe circuitfromTesla'sMay
Teslacoilcircuittodriveittoproducehighvoltages. 20,1891lectureat
ColumbiaCollege,New
TeslainventedtheTeslacoilduringeffortstodevelopa"wireless"lightingsystem,withgasdischargelightbulbs
York. [45]
thatwouldglowinanoscillatingelectricfieldfromahighvoltage,highfrequencypowersource.[50][47]Fora
highfrequencysourceTeslapoweredaRuhmkorffcoil(inductioncoil)withhishighfrequencyalternator.He
foundthatthecorelossesduetothehighfrequencycurrentoverheatedtheironcoreintheRuhmkorffcoiland
meltedtheinsulationbetweentheprimaryandsecondarywindings.TofixthisproblemTeslachangedthedesign
sothattherewasanairgapinsteadofinsulatingmaterialbetweenthewindings,andmadetheironcore
adjustablesoitcouldbemovedinoroutofthecoil[55]Heeventuallyfoundthehighestvoltagescouldbe ElihuThomson'sTesla
producedwhentheironcorewasomitted.Teslaalsofoundheneededtoputthecapacitornormallyusedinthe coil,publishedFebruary
Ruhmkorffcircuitbetweenhisalternatorandthecoil'sprimarywindingtoavoidburningoutthecoil.By 1892,identicaltoTesla's
adjustingthecoilandcapacitorTeslafoundhecouldtakeadvantageoftheresonancesetupbetweenthetwoto exceptforacompressedair
achieveevenhigherfrequencies.[56]Hefoundthatthehighestvoltagesweregeneratedwhenthe"closed" sparkblowout(J). [48]
primarycircuitwiththecapacitorwasinresonancewiththe"open"secondarywinding.[52][47]


OneofTesla'searly Prototype"magnifying Compactcoil

coilsathisNew transmitter" [57][58]inTesla's designedbyTesla
Yorklabin1892, NewYorklabaround1898 foruseasanozone
withaconical producing2.5millionvolts.The generatorforwater
secondary. round"spiderweb"secondary treatment[59]
coilisvisibleinbackground

Teslawasnotthefirsttoinventthiscircuit.[60][54]HenryRowlandbuiltasparkexcitedresonanttransformercircuit(above)in1889[42]and
ElihuThomsonhadexperimentedwithsimilarcircuitsin1890,includingonewhichcouldproduce64inch(1.6m)sparks,[48][61][62][41]and
othersourcesconfirmTeslawasnotthefirst.[53][63][54]Howeverhewasthefirsttoseepracticalapplicationsforitandpatentit.Tesladidnot
performdetailedmathematicalanalysesofthecircuit,relyinginsteadontrialanderrorandhisintuitiveunderstandingofresonance.[47]Heeven
realizedthatthesecondarycoilfunctionedasaquarterwaveresonatorhespecifiedthelengthofthewireinthesecondarycoilmustbea
quarterwavelengthattheresonantfrequency.[64][47]ThefirstmathematicalanalysesofthecircuitweredonebyAntonOberbeck(1895)[65][54]
andPaulDrude(1904).[66][44]

Tesla'sdemonstrations

Acharismaticshowmanandselfpromoter,in18911893TeslausedtheTeslacoilin
dramaticpubliclecturesdemonstratingthenewscienceofhighvoltage,highfrequency
electricity.[67]TheradiofrequencyACelectriccurrentsproducedbyaTeslacoildidnot
behaveliketheDCorlowfrequencyACcurrentscientistsofthetimewerefamiliarwith.
InlecturesatColumbiaCollegeMay20,1891,[45]scientificsocietiesinBritainand
Franceduringa1892Europeanspeakingtour,[69]theFranklinInstitute,Philadelphiain
February1893,andtheNationalElectricLightAssociation,St.LouisinMarch1893,[70]
heimpressedaudienceswithspectacularbrushdischargesandstreamers,heatedironby
inductionheating,showedRFcurrentcouldpassthroughinsulatorsandbeconductedbya
singlewirewithoutareturnpath,andpoweredlightbulbsandmotorswithoutwires.[67]
Hedemonstratedthathighfrequencycurrentsoftendidnotcausethesensationofelectric
Teslademonstratingwirelesslightingathis1891
shock,applyinghundredsofthousandsofvoltstohisownbody,[71][67]causinghisbodyto
lightupwithaglowingcoronadischargeinthedarkenedroom.Theselecturesintroduced lectureatColumbiaCollege. [67][68]Thetwometal
the"Teslaoscillator"tothescientificcommunity,andmadeTeslainternationally sheetsareconnectedtoaTeslacoiloscillator,which
appliesahighradiofrequencyoscillatingvoltage.
famous.[72][51]
Theoscillatingelectricfieldbetweenthesheets
ionizesthelowpressuregasinthetwolongGeissler
tubesheisholding,causingthemtoglowby
fluorescence,similartoneonlights,withoutwires.

Wirelesspowerexperiments

TeslaemployedtheTeslacoilinhiseffortstoachievewirelesspowertransmission,[75]hislifelongdream.Intheperiod1891to1900heusedit
toperformsomeofthefirstexperimentsinwirelesspower,[76][77][78]transmittingradiofrequencypoweracrossshortdistancesbyinductive
couplingbetweencoilsofwire.[77][78][79]Inhisearly1890sdemonstrationssuchasthosebeforetheAmericanInstituteofElectrical
Engineers[79]andatthe1893ColumbianExpositioninChicagohelitlightbulbsfromacrossaroom.[78]Hefoundhecouldincreasethe
distancebyusingareceivingLCcircuittunedtoresonancewiththeTeslacoil'sLCcircuit,[52]transferringenergybyresonantinductive
coupling.[78]AthisColoradoSpringslaboratoryduring18991900,byusingvoltagesoftheorderof10millionvoltsgeneratedbyhis
enormousmagnifyingtransmittercoil(describedbelow),hewasabletolightthreeincandescentlampsatadistanceofabout100feet
(30m).[73][6][80]TodaytheresonantinductivecouplingdiscoveredbyTeslaisafamiliarconceptinelectronics,widelyusedinIFtransformers
andshortrangewirelesspowertransmissionsystems[78][81]suchascellphonechargingpads.

Itisnowunderstoodthatinductiveandcapacitivecouplingare"nearfield"effects,[78]sotheycannotbeusedforlongdistance
transmission.[73][82][83][84]However,Teslawasobsessedwithdevelopingalongrangewirelesspowertransmissionsystemwhichcouldtransmit
powerfrompowerplantsdirectlyintohomesandfactorieswithoutwires,describedinavisionaryJune1900articleinCenturyMagazine"The
ProblemofIncreasingHumanEnergy".[85]Heclaimedtobeabletotransmitpoweronaworldwidescale,usingamethodthatinvolved
conductionthroughtheEarthandatmosphere.[74][86][87][75][88]TeslabelievedthattheentireEarthcouldactasanelectricalresonator,andthat
 Famousimageofmagnifying Coilinoperation,at12million Dischargeof Primarycircuit,showingoil
transmitterinoperationwith volts.The10ftdiameter"extra" samecoilwitha capacitorbank(boxes,
Teslasittingnexttoit.Thisisa coilisshown.The51ft. metalsphere foreground),40kVsupply
"trick"photo,adouble diametersecondarycoilis capacitive transformerandrotarysparkgap
exposureTeslawasnotinthe visibledimlyinbackground, terminal. (rear),andpartofsecondary
roomwhenthecoilwas andinthepreviousphoto. winding(wall,left)
operating. [103]
Thehuge"magnifyingtransmitter"coilatTesla'sColoradoSpringslaboratory,18991900,photosbyphotographer
DickensonAlleyDecember1899.Thelongarcsshownabovewerenotafeatureofthenormaloperationofthe
transmitterbecausetheywastedenergyforthesephotosTeslaforcedthemachinetoproducearcsbyswitchingthe
powerrapidlyonandoff. [103]

Wardenclyffetower

In1901,convincedhiswirelesstheorieswerecorrect,Teslawith
financingfrombankerJ.P.Morganbeganconstructionofahigh
voltagewirelessstation,nowcalledtheWardenclyffeTower,at
Shoreham,NewYork.[86][104]Althoughitwasbuiltasa
transatlanticradiotelegraphystation,Teslaalsointendeditto
transmitelectricpowerwithoutwiresasaprototypetransmitter
forhisproposed"WorldWirelessSystem".[99][92]Essentiallyan
enormousTeslacoil,itconsistedofapowerhousewitha400
horsepowergeneratoranda187foot(57m)towertoppedbya
68foot(21m)diametermetaldomecapacitiveelectrode.[99][105]
UnderneaththesurfacewasanelaborategroundsystemthatTesla
saidwasneededto"griptheearth"tocreatetheoscillatingearth
currentswhichhebelievedwouldtransmitthepower.

By1904hisinvestorshadpulledout[92]andthefacilitywasnever
completeditwastorndownin1916.[87][99]AlthoughTeslaseems
WardenclyffeTowerwirelessstation, Designonwhichthe
tohavebelievedhiswirelesspowerideaswereproven,[94]hehad essentiallyahugeTeslacoilintendedasa Wardenclyffeplantwasbased,
ahistoryofmakingclaimsthathehadnotconfirmedby prototypetransatlanticradiotelegraphyand fromTesla's1902patent[38]
experiment,[106][107][108]andthereseemstobenoevidencethathe wirelesspowertransmitter,builtbyTeslaat
evertransmittedsignificantpowerbeyondtheshortrange Shoreham,NY,19011902.Itwasnever
demonstrationsmentionedabove.[73][93][77][94][50][95][97][98][96]The completed.
fewreportsoflongdistancepowertransmissionbyTeslaarenot
fromreliablesources.Forexample,awidelyrepeatedmythisthat
in1899hewirelesslylit200lightbulbsatadistanceof26miles(42km).[93][94]Thereisnoindependentconfirmationofthissupposed
demonstration[93][94]Tesladidnotmentionit,[94]anditdoesnotappearinhislaboratorynotes.[89][109]Itoriginatedin1944fromTesla'sfirst
biographer,JohnJ.O'Neill,[6]whosaidhepiecedittogetherfrom"fragmentarymaterial...inanumberofpublications".[110]

Inthe100yearssince,otherssuchasRobertGolka[101][111][112]havebuiltequipmentsimilartoTesla's,butlongdistancepowertransmission
hasnotbeendemonstrated,[113][78][6][94]andthescientificconsensusishisWorldWirelesssystemwouldnothave
worked.[114][76][77][87][94][95][107][96]ContemporaryscientistspointoutthatwhileTesla'scoils(withappropriateantennas)canfunctionasradio
transmitters,transmittingenergyintheformofradiowaves,thefrequencyheused,around150kHz,isfartoolowforpracticallongrange
powertransmission.[77][94][97]Atthesewavelengthstheradiowavesspreadoutinalldirectionsandcannotbefocusedonadistant
receiver.[76][77][94][95][107]Tesla'sworldpowertransmissionschemeremainstodaywhatitwasinTesla'stime:abold,fascinatingdream.[87][95]

Useinradio

"[TheTeslacoil]wasinventednotforwirelessbutformakingvacuumlampsglowwithoutexternalelectrodes,anditlaterplayeda
principalpartinotherhandsintheoperationofbigsparkstations."WilliamH.Eccles,1933[117]

OneofthelargestapplicationsoftheTeslacoilcircuitwasinearlyradiotransmitterscalledsparkgaptransmitters.Thefirstradiowave
generators,inventedbyHeinrichHertzin1887,weresparkgapsconnecteddirectlytoantennas,poweredbyinductioncoils.[118][119][51]
Becausetheylackedaresonantcircuit,thesetransmittersproducedhighlydampedradiowaves.Asaresulttheirtransmissionsoccupiedan
extremelywidebandwidthoffrequencies.Whenmultipletransmitterswereoperatinginthesameareatheirfrequenciesoverlappedandthey
interferedwithoneanother,causinggarbledreception.Therewasnowayforareceivertoselectonesignaloveranother.[119][118]
EversinceTesla's1890slectures,Teslacoilshavebeenusedasattractionsineducational
exhibitsandsciencefairs.Theyhavebecomeawaytocounterthestereotypethatscience
isboring.[166]Intheearly20thcentury,expertslikeHenryTranstromandEarleOvington
gavehighvoltagedemonstrationsat"electricfairs".[154]HighschoolclassesbuiltTesla
coils.

From1933intothe1980s,betweenmoviejobsHollywoodspecialeffectsexpertKen
Strickfadenwouldtakehishighvoltageapparatusontheroadinanexhibitioncalled
"ScienceonParade"andlater"TheKenstricSpaceAgeScienceShow"tohighschools,
colleges,WorldFairsandexpositions.[166]Thesespectacularshows,whichreached48
states,hadaseminalinfluenceonthebirthofthemodern"coiling"movement.[163]A
numberofpresentdayTeslahobbyistssuchasWilliamWysocksaytheywereinspiredto
buildTeslacoilsbyseeingStrickfaden'sshow.[166] MillionvoltGriffithPark Demonstrationof
Observatorycoil,Los inductancewithaTesla
Oneoftheoldestandbestknowncoilsstillinoperationisthe"GPO1"atGriffithPark
Angeles.Over100years coil,1906. [165]RF
ObservatoryinLosAngeles.Itwasoriginallyoneofapairofcoilsbuiltin1910byEarle
old,itisoneoftheoldest
L.Ovington,afriendofTeslaandmanufacturerofhighvoltageelectrotherapy currentwillnotpass
workingTeslacoils. throughtheheavy
apparatus.[167][168][71]ForanumberofyearsOvingtondisplayedthemattheDecember
electricaltradeshowatMadisonSquareGardeninNewYorkCity,usingthemfor copperwirebecauseof
thebend,andpasses
demonstrationsofhighvoltagescience,whichTeslahimselfsometimesattended.[71]
throughthelamp
CalledtheMillionVoltOscillator,thetwincoilswereinstalledonthebalconyatthe
instead.
show.Everyhourthelightsweredimmedandthepublicwastreatedtoadisplayof10
footarcs.[168]OvingtongavethecoilstohisfriendDr.FrederickFinchStrong,aleading
figureinthealternativehealthfieldofelectrotherapy.In1937StrongdonatedthecoilstotheGriffith
Observatory.Themuseumdidn'thaveroomtodisplayboth,butonecoilwasrestoredbyKenneth
Strickfadenandhasbeenindailyoperationeversince.[71]Itconsistsofa48in.(1.2m)highconical
secondarycoiltoppedbya12in.(30cm)diametercopperballelectrode,witha9turnspiralprimaryof
2in.copperstrip,aglassplatecapacitor(replacingtheoriginalLeydenjars),androtarysparkgap.[167]
Itsoutputhasbeenestimatedat1.3millionvolts.[168]
SmalleducationalTeslacoilkit,1918

Lateruses

Inadditiontoitsuseinsparkgapradiotransmittersandelectrotherapydescribedabove,theTeslacoil
circuitwasalsousedintheearly20thcenturyinxraymachines,ozonegeneratorsforwater
purification,andinductionheatingequipment.Howeverinthe1920svacuumtubeoscillatorsreplacedit
inalltheseapplications.[10]Thetriodevacuumtubewasamuchbetterradiofrequencycurrentgenerator
thanthenoisy,hot,ozoneproducingspark,andcouldproducecontinuouswaves.Afterthis,industrial
useoftheTeslacoilwasmainlylimitedtoafewspecializedapplicationswhichweresuitedtoitsunique
characteristics,suchashighvoltageinsulationtesting. BreitandTuve's5MVTeslacoil
usedasparticleaccelerator,1928
In1926,pioneeringacceleratorphysicistsMerleTuveandGregoryBreitbuilta5millionvoltTeslacoil
asalinearparticleaccelerator.[169][170][171]Thebipolarcoilconsistedofapyrextubeameterlong
woundwith8000turnsoffinewire,withroundcoronacapsoneachend,anda5turnspiralprimarycoilsurroundingitatthecenter.Itwas
operatedinatankofinsulatingoilpressurizedto500psiwhichallowedittoreachapotentialof5.2megavolts.Althoughitwasusedfora
shortperiodin192930itwasnotasuccessbecausetheparticles'accelerationhadtobecompletedwithinthebriefperiodofahalfcycleofthe
RFvoltage.

In1970RobertK.GolkabuiltareplicaofTesla'shugeColoradoSpringsmagnifyingtransmitterinashedatWendoverAirForceBase,Utah,
usingdatahefoundinTesla'slabnotesarchivedattheNikolaTeslaMuseuminBeograd,Serbia.[101][111][112][40]Thiswasoneofthefirst
experimentswiththemagnifiercircuitsinceTesla'stime.Thecoilgenerated12millionvolts.GolkausedittotrytoduplicateTesla'sreported
synthesisofballlightning.

ModerndayTeslacoils
ModernhighvoltageenthusiastsusuallybuildTeslacoilssimilartosomeofTesla's"later"2coilaircoredesigns.Thesetypicallyconsistofa
primarytankcircuit,aseriesLC(inductancecapacitance)circuitcomposedofahighvoltagecapacitor,sparkgapandprimarycoil,andthe
secondaryLCcircuit,aseriesresonantcircuitconsistingofthesecondarycoilplusaterminalcapacitanceor"topload".InTesla'smore
advanced(magnifier)design,athirdcoilisadded.ThesecondaryLCcircuitiscomposedofatightlycoupledaircoretransformersecondary
coildrivingthebottomofaseparatethirdcoilhelicalresonator.Modern2coilsystemsuseasinglesecondarycoil.Thetopofthesecondaryis
thenconnectedtoatoploadterminal,whichformsone'plate'ofacapacitor,theother'plate'beingtheearth(or"ground").TheprimaryLC
circuitistunedsothatitresonatesatthesamefrequencyasthesecondaryLCcircuit.Theprimaryandsecondarycoilsaremagnetically
coupled,creatingadualtunedresonantaircoretransformer.EarlieroilinsulatedTeslacoilsneededlargeandlonginsulatorsattheirhigh
voltageterminalstopreventdischargeinair.LaterTeslacoilsspreadtheirelectricfieldsoverlargerdistancestopreventhighelectricalstresses
inthefirstplace,therebyallowingoperationinfreeair.MostmodernTeslacoilsalsousetoroidshapedoutputterminals.Theseareoften
fabricatedfromspunmetalorflexiblealuminumducting.Thetoroidalshapehelpstocontrolthehighelectricalfieldnearthetopofthe
secondarybydirectingsparksoutwardandawayfromtheprimaryandsecondarywindings.
AmorecomplexversionofaTeslacoil,termeda"magnifier"byTesla,usesamoretightlycoupledair
coreresonance"driver"transformer(or"masteroscillator")andasmaller,remotelylocatedoutputcoil
(calledthe"extracoil"orsimplytheresonator)thathasalargenumberofturnsonarelativelysmallcoil
form.Thebottomofthedriver'ssecondarywindingisconnectedtoground.Theoppositeendis
connectedtothebottomoftheextracoilthroughaninsulatedconductorthatissometimescalledthe
transmissionline.SincethetransmissionlineoperatesatrelativelyhighRFvoltages,itistypicallymade
of1"diametermetaltubingtoreducecoronalosses.Sincethethirdcoilislocatedsomedistanceaway
fromthedriver,itisnotmagneticallycoupledtoit.RFenergyisinsteaddirectlycoupledfromthe
outputofthedriverintothebottomofthethirdcoil,causingitto"ringup"toveryhighvoltages.The
combinationofthetwocoildriverandthirdcoilresonatoraddsanotherdegreeoffreedomtothe
system,makingtuningconsiderablymorecomplexthanthatofa2coilsystem.Thetransientresponse
Electricdischargeshowingthe
formultipleresonancenetworks(ofwhichtheTeslamagnifierisasubset)hasonlyrecentlybeen
lightninglikeplasmafilamentsfrom
solved.[172]Itisnowknownthatavarietyofusefultuning"modes"areavailable,andinmostoperating a'Teslacoil'
modestheextracoilwillringatadifferentfrequencythanthemasteroscillator.[173]

Primaryswitching

ModerntransistororvacuumtubeTeslacoilsdonotuseaprimarysparkgap.Instead,thetransistor(s)
orvacuumtube(s)providetheswitchingoramplifyingfunctionnecessarytogenerateRFpowerforthe
primarycircuit.SolidstateTeslacoilsusethelowestprimaryoperatingvoltage,typicallybetween155
and800volts,anddrivetheprimarywindingusingeitherasingle,halfbridge,orfullbridge Teslacoil(discharge).
arrangementofbipolartransistors,MOSFETsorIGBTstoswitchtheprimarycurrent.Vacuumtube
coilstypicallyoperatewithplatevoltagesbetween1500and6000volts,whilemostsparkgapcoils
operatewithprimaryvoltagesof6,000to25,000volts.Theprimarywindingofatraditionaltransistor
Teslacoiliswoundaroundonlythebottomportionofthesecondarycoil.Thisconfigurationillustrates
operationofthesecondaryasapumpedresonator.Theprimary'induces'alternatingvoltageintothe
bottommostportionofthesecondary,providingregular'pushes'(similartoprovidingproperlytimed
pushestoaplaygroundswing).Additionalenergyistransferredfromtheprimarytothesecondary
inductanceandtoploadcapacitanceduringeach"push",andsecondaryoutputvoltagebuilds(called
'ringup').Anelectronicfeedbackcircuitisusuallyusedtoadaptivelysynchronizetheprimaryoscillator
tothegrowingresonanceinthesecondary,andthisistheonlytuningconsiderationbeyondtheinitial
choiceofareasonabletopload. Teslacoilinterrarium(I)

InadualresonantsolidstateTeslacoil(DRSSTC),theelectronicswitchingofthesolid
stateTeslacoiliscombinedwiththeresonantprimarycircuitofasparkgapTeslacoil.
Theresonantprimarycircuitisformedbyconnectingacapacitorinserieswiththe
primarywindingofthecoil,sothatthecombinationformsaseriestankcircuitwitha
resonantfrequencynearthatofthesecondarycircuit.Becauseoftheadditionalresonant
circuit,onemanualandoneadaptivetuningadjustmentarenecessary.Also,an
interrupterisusuallyusedtoreducethedutycycleoftheswitchingbridge,toimprove
peakpowercapabilitiessimilarly,IGBTsaremorepopularinthisapplicationthan
bipolartransistorsorMOSFETs,duetotheirsuperiorpowerhandlingcharacteristics.A
currentlimitingcircuitisusuallyusedtolimitmaximumprimarytankcurrent(which
mustbeswitchedbytheIGBT's)toasafelevel.PerformanceofaDRSSTCcanbe
comparabletoamediumpowersparkgapTeslacoil,andefficiency(asmeasuredby
sparklengthversusinputpower)canbesignificantlygreaterthanasparkgapTeslacoil
operatingatthesameinputpower.
DemonstrationoftheNevadaLightningLaboratory
1:12scaleprototypetwinTeslaCoilatMakerFaire
Practicalaspectsofdesign 2008

Highvoltageproduction

AlargeTeslacoilofmoremoderndesignoftenoperatesatveryhighpeakpowerlevels,uptomanymegawatts(millionsofwatts[174]).Itis
thereforeadjustedandoperatedcarefully,notonlyforefficiencyandeconomy,butalsoforsafety.If,duetoimpropertuning,themaximum
voltagepointoccursbelowtheterminal,alongthesecondarycoil,adischarge(spark)maybreakoutanddamageordestroythecoilwire,
supports,ornearbyobjects.

Teslaexperimentedwiththese,andmanyother,circuitconfigurations(seeright).TheTeslacoilprimarywinding,sparkgapandtankcapacitor
areconnectedinseries.Ineachcircuit,theACsupplytransformerchargesthetankcapacitoruntilitsvoltageissufficienttobreakdownthe
sparkgap.Thegapsuddenlyfires,allowingthechargedtankcapacitortodischargeintotheprimarywinding.Oncethegapfires,theelectrical
behaviorofeithercircuitisidentical.Experimentshaveshownthatneithercircuitoffersanymarkedperformanceadvantageovertheother.

However,inthetypicalcircuit,thesparkgap'sshortcircuitingactionpreventshighfrequencyoscillationsfrom'backingup'intothesupply
transformer.Inthealternatecircuit,highamplitudehighfrequencyoscillationsthatappearacrossthecapacitoralsoareappliedtothesupply
transformer'swinding.Thiscaninducecoronadischargesbetweenturnsthatweakenandeventuallydestroythetransformer'sinsulation.
ExperiencedTeslacoilbuildersalmostexclusivelyusethetopcircuit,oftenaugmentingitwithlowpassfilters(resistorandcapacitor(RC)
networks)betweenthesupplytransformerandsparkgaptohelpprotectthesupplytransformer.Thisisespeciallyimportantwhenusing
transformerswithfragilehighvoltagewindings,suchasneonsigntransformers(NSTs).Regardlessofwhichconfigurationisused,theHV
Applications
Teslacoilcircuitswereusedcommerciallyinsparkgapradiotransmittersforwirelesstelegraphyuntilthe1920s,[1][10][11]andinelectrotherapy
andpseudomedicaldevicessuchasvioletray.Today,althoughsmallTeslacoilsareusedasleakdetectorsinscientifichighvacuumsystems[9]
andignitersinarcwelders,[175]theirmainuseisentertainmentandeducationaldisplays,Teslacoilsarebuiltbymanyhighvoltageenthusiasts,
researchinstitutions,sciencemuseums,andindependentexperimenters.Althoughelectroniccircuitcontrollershavebeendeveloped,Tesla's
originalsparkgapdesignislessexpensiveandhasprovenextremelyreliable.

Entertainment

Teslacoilsareverypopulardevicesamongcertainelectricalengineersandelectronicsenthusiasts.BuildersofTeslacoilsasahobbyarecalled
"coilers".AverylargeTeslacoil,designedandbuiltbySydKlinge,isshowneveryyearattheCoachellaValleyMusicandArtsFestival,in
Coachella,Indio,California,USA.Peopleattend"coiling"conventionswheretheydisplaytheirhomemadeTeslacoilsandotherelectrical
devicesofinterest.AustinRichards,aphysicistinCalifornia,createdametalFaradaySuitin1997thatprotectshimfromTeslaCoildischarges.
In1998,henamedthecharacterinthesuitDoctorMegaVoltandhasperformedallovertheworldandatBurningMan9differentyears.

LowpowerTeslacoilsarealsosometimesusedasahighvoltagesourceforKirlianphotography.[176]

Teslacoilscanalsobeusedtogeneratesounds,includingmusic,bymodulatingthesystem'seffective"breakrate"(i.e.,therateanddurationof
highpowerRFbursts)viaMIDIdataandacontrolunit.TheactualMIDIdataisinterpretedbyamicrocontrollerwhichconvertstheMIDIdata
intoaPWMoutputwhichcanbesenttotheTeslacoilviaafiberopticinterface.[177][178]TheYouTubevideoSuperMarioBrothersthemein
stereoandharmonyontwocoils(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B1O2jcfOylU)showsaperformanceonmatchingsolidstatecoils
operatingat41kHz.ThecoilswerebuiltandoperatedbydesignerhobbyistsJeffLarsonandSteveWard.Thedevicehasbeennamedthe
Zeusaphone,afterZeus,Greekgodoflightning,andasaplayonwordsreferencingtheSousaphone.Theideaofplayingmusiconthesinging
Teslacoilsfliesaroundtheworldandafewfollowers[179]continuetheworkofinitiators.Anextensiveoutdoormusicalconcerthas
demonstratedusingTeslacoilsduringtheEngineeringOpenHouse(EOH)attheUniversityofIllinoisatUrbanaChampaign.TheIcelandic
artistBjrkusedaTeslacoilinhersong"Thunderbolt"asthemaininstrumentinthesong.ThemusicalgroupArcAttackusesmodulatedTesla
coilsandamaninachainlinksuittoplaymusic.

Theworld'slargestcurrentlyexistingtwocoilTeslacoilisa130,000wattunit,partofa38foottall(12m)sculpturetitledElectrumownedby
AlanGibbsandcurrentlyresidesinaprivatesculptureparkatKakanuiPointnearAuckland,NewZealand.[180]Themostpowerfulconical
Teslacoil(1.5millionvolts)wasinstalledin2002attheMidAmericaScienceMuseuminHotSprings,Arkansas.[181]Thisisareplicaofthe
GriffithObservatoryconicalcoilinstalledin1936.

Vacuumsystemleakdetectors

Scientistsworkingwithhighvacuumsystemstestforthepresenceoftinypinholesintheapparatus(especiallyanewlyblownpieceof
glassware)usinghighvoltagedischargesproducedbyasmallhandheldTeslacoil.Whenthesystemisevacuatedthehighvoltageelectrodeof
thecoilisplayedovertheoutsideoftheapparatus.Thedischargetravelsthroughanypinholeimmediatelybelowit,producingacorona
dischargeinsidetheevacuatedspacewhichilluminatesthehole,indicatingpointsthatneedtobeannealedorreblownbeforetheycanbeused
inanexperiment.

Hazards
The'skineffect'

Thedangersofcontactwithhighfrequencyelectriccurrentaresometimesperceivedasbeingless
thanatlowerfrequencies,becausethesubjectusuallydoesnotfeelpainora'shock'.Thisisoften
erroneouslyattributedtoskineffect,aphenomenonthattendstoinhibitalternatingcurrentfrom
flowinginsideconductingmedia.Itwasthoughtthatinthebody,Teslacurrentstravelledcloseto
theskinsurface,makingthemsaferthanlowerfrequencyelectriccurrents.

AlthoughskineffectlimitsTeslacurrentstotheouterfractionofaninchinmetalconductors,the
'skindepth'ofhumanfleshisdeeperthanthatofametallicconductorduetohigherresistivityand
lowerpermittivity.CalculationsofskindepthofbodytissuesatthefrequencyofTeslacoilsshow
thatitcanbegreaterthanthethicknessofthebody.[182][183][184]Thusthereseemstobenothingto
preventhighfrequencyTeslacurrentsfrompassingthroughdeeperportionsofasubject'sbody,
suchasvitalorgansandbloodvessels,whichmaybebetterconducting.Thereasonforthelackof
painisthatahumanbeing'snervoussystemdoesnotsensetheflowofpotentiallydangerous
electriccurrentsabove1520kHzessentially,fornervestobeactivated,asignificantnumberof
ionsmustcrosstheirmembranesbeforethecurrent(andhencevoltage)reverses.Sincethebodyno
longerprovidesawarning'shock',novicesmaytouchtheoutputstreamersofsmallTeslacoils
withoutfeelingpainfulshocks.However,anecdotalevidenceamongTeslacoilexperimenters
indicatestemporarytissuedamagemaystilloccurandbeobservedasmusclepain,jointpain,or StudentconductingTeslacoilstreamers
tinglingforhoursorevendaysafterwards.Thisisbelievedtobecausedbythedamagingeffectsof throughhisbody,1909
internalcurrentflow,andisespeciallycommonwithcontinuouswave,solidstateorvacuumtube