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Historyoftheworld
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Thehistoryoftheworld(orworldhistory)describesthehistoryofhumanity(orhumanhistory),basedon
archaeologyand,beginningwiththeinventionofwriting,onwrittenandotherrecords.

Humanity'shistorywasprecededbyitsprehistory,beginningwiththe
PalaeolithicEra("EarlyStoneAge"),followedbytheNeolithicEra("New
StoneAge").TheNeolithicsawtheAgriculturalRevolutionbegin,between
8000and5000BCE,intheNearEast'sFertileCrescent.TheAgricultural
Revolutionmarkedafundamentalchangeinhistory,withhumans
beginningthesystematichusbandryofplantsandanimals.[2]Asagriculture
advanced,mosthumanstransitionedfromanomadictoasettledlifestyleas
farmersinpermanentsettlements.Therelativesecurityandincreased
Worldpopulation,10,000BCE productivityprovidedbyfarmingallowedcommunitiestoexpandinto
2,000CE(verticalpopulationscaleis increasinglylargerunits,fosteredbyadvancesintransportation.
logarithmic)[1]
Whetherinprehistoricorhistorictimes,peoplealwayshadtobenear
reliablesourcesofwater.Citiesdevelopedonriverbanksasearlyas3000
BCE,whensomeofthefirstwelldevelopedsettlementsaroseinMesopotamia,[3]onthebanksofEgypt'sNile
River,[4][5]intheIndusRivervalley,[6]andalongChina'srivers.[7][8]Asfarmingdeveloped,grainagriculture
becamemoresophisticatedandpromptedadivisionoflabourtostorefoodbetweengrowingseasons.Labour
divisionsledtotheriseofaleisuredupperclassandthedevelopmentofcities,whichprovidedthesubstrateas
wellastheverynameforcivilization.Thegrowingcomplexityofhumansocietiesnecessitatedsystemsof
accountingandwriting.[9]

Withcivilzationsflourishing,ancienthistory("Antiquity")uptoabout500CEsawtheriseandfallofempires.
Postclassicalhistory("theMiddleAges",c.500c.1500CE)witnessedtheriseofChristianity,theIslamic
GoldenAge(c.750CEc.1258CE),andtheearlyItalianRenaissance(fromaround1300CE).Theearlymodern
period,fromabout1500to1800,includedtheAgeofEnlightenmentandtheAgeofDiscovery.Themid15th
centuryinventionofmodernprinting,employingmovabletype,[10]revolutionizedcommunicationandfacilitated
everwiderdisseminationofinformation,helpingendtheMiddleAgesandusherintheScientificRevolution.[11]

Bythe18thcentury,theaccumulationofknowledgeandtechnology,especiallyinEurope,hadreachedacritical
massthatbroughtabouttheIndustrialRevolution.[12]OutsidetheEasternHemisphere,includingancientChina
andancientIndia,historicaltimelinesunfoldeddifferently.However,bythe18thcentury,duetoextensiveworld
tradeandcolonization,thehistoriesofmostcivilizationshadbecomesubstantiallyintertwined.Inthelastquarter
millennium,theratesofgrowthofpopulation,knowledge,technology,communications,commerce,weapons
destructiveness,andenvironmentaldegradationhavegreatlyaccelerated,creatingopportunitiesandperilsthatnow
confronttheplanet'shumancommunities.[13]

Contents
1 Periodization
2 Prehistory
2.1 Earlyhumans

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2.2 Riseofcivilization
3 Ancienthistory
3.1 Cradlesofcivilization
3.2 AxialAge
3.3 Regionalempires
3.4 Declines,fallsandresurgence
4 Postclassicalhistory
4.1 MiddleEast,CentralAsiaandNorthAfrica
4.2 Europe
4.3 SubSaharanAfrica
4.4 SouthAsia
4.5 EastAsia
4.6 SoutheastAsia
4.7 Oceania
4.8 TheAmericas
5 Modernhistory
5.1 Earlymodernperiod
5.2 LateModernperiod
5.3 Contemporaryhistory
6 Seealso
7 Notes
8 Citations
9 References
10 Furtherreading
11 Externallinks

Periodization
ThehistoryoftheOldWorld(particularlyEuropeandtheMediterranean)iscommonlydividedintoancienthistory
(orAntiquity),uptoabout500CE.[14]TheClassicalAgerunsfromabout500BCEtoabout500CE.[15]Post
classicalhistory(ortheMiddleAgesasitisgenerallyknowninEuropeanhistory)isconsideredtorunfromabout
500to1500CE.[16]Theearlymodernperiodextendsfromaround1500to1800,[17]sometimesitisreferredtoas
the"EuropeanAge".[18]Themodernperiodbeginsaround1800andincludesthecurrentday.[19]

Prehistory
Earlyhumans

GeneticmeasurementsindicatethattheapelineagewhichwouldleadtoHomosapiensdivergedfromthelineage
thatwouldleadtochimpanzees(theclosestlivingrelativeofmodernhumans)around4.6to6.2millionyears
ago.[20]AnatomicallymodernhumansaroseinAfricaabout130,000yearsago,[21]andreachedbehavioural
modernityabout50,000yearsago.[22]

ModernhumansspreadrapidlyfromAfricaintothefrostfreezonesofEuropeandAsiaaround60,000years
ago.[23]TherapidexpansionofhumankindtoNorthAmericaandOceaniatookplaceattheclimaxofthemost
recenticeage,whentemperateregionsoftodaywereextremelyinhospitable.Yet,humanshadcolonizednearlyall
theicefreepartsoftheglobebytheendoftheIceAge,some12,000yearsago.[24]OtherhominidssuchasHomo
erectushadbeenusingsimplewoodandstonetoolsformillennia,butastimeprogressed,toolsbecamefarmore
refinedandcomplex.Perhapsasearlyas1.8millionyearsago,butcertainlyby500,000yearsago,humansbegan
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Cavepainting,Lascaux,France,c.
15,000BCE
areasofhighprimaryproductivitywhileavoidingdenseforestcover.[29]
usingfireforheatandcooking.[25]Theyalso
developedlanguageinthePaleolithicperiod[26]anda
conceptualrepertoirethatincludedsystematicburialof
thedeadandadornmentoftheliving.Earlyartistic
expressioncanbefoundintheformofcavepaintings
andsculpturesmadefromivory,stone,andbone,
showingaspiritualitygenerallyinterpretedas "Venusof
animism,orevenshamanism.[27]Duringthisperiod, Willensdorf",
allhumanslivedashuntergatherers,andwere Austria,c.
26,500BCE
generallynomadic.[28]Archaeologicalandgeneticdata
suggestthatthesourcepopulationsofPaleolithic
huntergathererssurvivedinsparselywoodedareasanddispersedthrough

Riseofcivilization

TheNeolithicRevolution,beginningaround10,000BCE,sawthedevelopmentofagriculture,which
fundamentallychangedthehumanlifestyle.Farmingdevelopedaround10,000BCEintheMiddleEast,around
7000BCEinwhatisnowChina,about6000BCEintheIndusValleyandEurope,andabout4000BCEinthe
Americas.[30]Cultivationofcerealcropsandthedomesticationofanimalsoccurredaround8500BCEinthe
MiddleEast,wherewheatandbarleywerethefirstcropsandsheepandgoatsweredomesticated.[31]IntheIndus
Valley,cropswerecultivatedby6000BCE,alongwithdomesticatedcattle.TheYellowRivervalleyinChina
cultivatedmilletandothercerealcropsbyabout7000BCE,buttheYangtzeRivervalleydomesticatedriceearlier,
byatleast8000BCE.IntheAmericas,sunflowerswerecultivatedbyabout4000BCE,andcornandbeanswere
domesticatedinCentralAmericaby3500BCE.PotatoeswerefirstcultivatedintheAndesMountainsofSouth
America,wherethellamawasalsodomesticated.[30]Metalworking,startingwithcopperaround6000BCE,was
firstusedfortoolsandornaments.Goldsoonfollowed,withitsmainusebeingforornaments.Theneedformetal
oresstimulatedtrade,asmanyoftheareasofearlyhumansettlementwerelackinginores.Bronze,analloyof
copperandtin,isfirstknownfromabout2500BCE,butdidnotbecomewidelyuseduntilmuchlater.[32]

Thoughearly"cities"appearedatJerichoandCatalHuyukaround6000
BCE,[33]thefirstcivilizationsdidnotemergeuntilaround3000BCEin
Egypt[34]andMesopotamia.[35]Theseculturesgavebirthtotheinvention
ofthewheel,[36]mathematics,[37]bronzeworking,sailingboats,thepottery
wheel,wovencloth,constructionofmonumentalbuildings,[38]and
writing.[39]Writingdevelopedindependentlyandatdifferenttimesinfive
areasoftheworld:[40]Egypt(c.3200BCE),[41]India(c.3200BCE),[42]
Mesopotamia(c.3000BCE),[43]China(c.1600BCE),[44]and
Mesoamerica(c.600BCE).[41]

Farmingpermittedfardenserpopulations,whichintimeorganizedinto
states.Agriculturealsocreatedfoodsurplusesthatcouldsupportpeoplenot
Cuneiformwriting,Mesopotamia
directlyengagedinfoodproduction.[45]Thedevelopmentofagriculture
permittedthecreationofthefirstcities.Thesewerecentresoftrade,
[46]
manufacturingandpoliticalpower. Citiesestablishedasymbiosiswiththeirsurroundingcountrysides,
absorbingagriculturalproductsandproviding,inreturn,manufacturedgoodsandvaryingdegreesofmilitary
controlandprotection.

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Thedevelopmentofcitieswassynonymouswiththeriseofcivilization.[a]EarlycivilizationsarosefirstinLower
Mesopotamia(3000BCE),[48][49]followedbyEgyptiancivilizationalongtheNileRiver(3000BCE),[5]the
HarappancivilizationintheIndusRiverValley(inpresentdayIndiaandPakistan2500BCE),[50][51]andChinese
civilizationalongtheYellowandYangtzeRivers(2200BCE).[7][8]Thesesocietiesdevelopedanumberofunifying
characteristics,includingacentralgovernment,acomplexeconomyandsocialstructure,sophisticatedlanguage
andwritingsystems,anddistinctculturesandreligions.Writingfacilitatedtheadministrationofcities,the
expressionofideas,andthepreservationofinformation.

Ascomplexcivilizationsarose,sodidcomplexreligions,andthefirstoftheirkindapparentlyoriginatedduring
thisperiod.[52]EntitiessuchastheSun,Moon,Earth,sky,andseawereoftendeified.Shrinesdeveloped,which
evolvedintotempleestablishments,completewithacomplexhierarchyofpriestsandpriestessesandother
functionaries.TypicaloftheNeolithicwasatendencytoworshipanthropomorphicdeities.Amongtheearliest
survivingwrittenreligiousscripturesaretheEgyptianPyramidTexts,theoldestofwhichdatetobetween2400and
2300BCE.

Ancienthistory
Cradlesofcivilization

TheBronzeAgeispartofthethreeagesystem(StoneAge,BronzeAge,
IronAge)thatforsomepartsoftheworlddescribeseffectivelytheearly
historyofcivilization.Duringthiserathemostfertileareasoftheworld
sawcitystatesandthefirstcivilizationsdevelop.Thesewereconcentrated
infertilerivervalleys:theTigrisandEuphratesinMesopotamia,theNilein
Egypt,theIndusintheIndiansubcontinent,[50]andtheYangtzeandYellow
RiversinChina.

Sumer,locatedinMesopotamia,isthefirstknowncomplexcivilization,
GreatPyramidsofGiza,Egypt
developingthefirstcitystatesinthe4thmillenniumBCE.[49]Itwasin
thesecitiesthattheearliestknownformofwriting,cuneiformscript,
appearedaround3000BCE. [41][53]Cuneiformwritingbeganasasystemofpictographs.Thesepictorial
representationseventuallybecamesimplifiedandmoreabstract.[53]Cuneiformtextswerewrittenonclaytablets,
onwhichsymbolsweredrawnwithabluntreedusedasastylus.[41]Writingmadetheadministrationofalarge
statefareasier.

Transportwasfacilitatedbywaterwaysbyriversandseas.TheMediterraneanSea,atthejunctureofthree
continents,fosteredtheprojectionofmilitarypowerandtheexchangeofgoods,ideas,andinventions.Thisera
alsosawnewlandtechnologies,suchashorsebasedcavalryandchariots,thatallowedarmiestomovefaster.

Thesedevelopmentsledtotheriseofterritorialstatesandempires.In
Mesopotamiathereprevailedapatternofindependentwarringcitystates
andofaloosehegemonyshiftingfromonecitytoanother.InEgypt,by
contrast,firsttherewasadualdivisionintoUpperandLowerEgyptwhich
wasshortlyfollowedbyunificationofallthevalleyaround3100BCE,
followedbypermanentpacification.[54]InCretetheMinoancivilization
hadenteredtheBronzeAgeby2700BCEandisregardedasthefirst
Fresco,Knossos,MinoanCrete

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civilizationinEurope.[55]Overthenextmillennia,otherrivervalleyswouldseemonarchicalempiresriseto
power.Inthe25th21stcenturiesBCE,theempiresofAkkadandSumeraroseinMesopotamia.[56]

Overthefollowingmillennia,civilizationswoulddevelopacrosstheworld.Tradewouldincreasinglybecomea
sourceofpowerasstateswithaccesstoimportantresourcesorcontrollingimportanttraderouteswouldriseto
dominance.By1400BCE,MycenaeanGreecebegantodevelop.[57]InIndiathiserawastheVedicperiod,which
laidthefoundationsofHinduismandotherculturalaspectsofearlyIndiansociety,andendedinthe6thcentury
BCE.[58]Fromaround550BCE,manyindependentkingdomsandrepublicsknownastheMahajanapadaswere
establishedacrossthesubcontinent.[59]

AscomplexcivilizationsaroseintheEasternHemisphere,theindigenoussocietiesintheAmericasremained
relativelysimpleandfragmentedintodiverseregionalcultures.DuringtheformativestageinMesoamerica(about
1500BCEto500CE),morecomplexandcentralizedcivilizationsbegantodevelop,mostlyinwhatisnow
Mexico,CentralAmerica,andPeru.TheyincludedcivilizationssuchastheOlmec,Maya,Zapotec,Moche,and
Nazca.Theydevelopedagriculture,growingmaize,chilipeppers,cocoa,tomatos,andpotatoes,cropsuniqueto
theAmericas,andcreatingdistinctculturesandreligions.Theseancientindigenoussocietieswouldbegreatly
affected,forgoodandill,byEuropeancontactduringtheearlymodernperiod.

AxialAge

Beginninginthe8thcenturyBCE,the"AxialAge"
sawthedevelopmentofasetoftransformative
philosophicalandreligiousideas,mostly
independently,inmanydifferentplaces.Chinese
Confucianism,IndianBuddhismandJainism,and
Jewishmonotheismareallclaimedbysome
scholarstohavedevelopedinthe6thcenturyBCE.
(KarlJaspers'AxialAgetheoryalsoincludes
PersianZoroastrianism,butotherscholarsdispute
histimelineforZoroastrianism.)Inthe5thcentury
BCE,SocratesandPlatomadesubstantialadvances
inthedevelopmentofancientGreekphilosophy.

IntheEast,threeschoolsofthoughtwould Socrates
dominateChinesethinkinguntilthemodernday.
ThesewereTaoism,Legalism,andConfucianism.
Buddha TheConfuciantradition,whichwouldbecomeparticularlydominant,lookedfor
politicalmoralitynottotheforceoflawbuttothepowerandexampleoftradition.
ConfucianismwouldlaterspreadtotheKoreanPeninsulaandtowardJapan.

IntheWest,theGreekphilosophicaltradition,representedbySocrates,Plato,Aristotle,andotherphilosophers,[60]
alongwithaccumulatedscience,technology,andculture,diffusedthroughoutEurope,Egypt,theMiddleEast,and
NorthwestIndia,startinginthe4thcenturyBCEaftertheconquestsofAlexanderIIIofMacedon(Alexanderthe
Great).[61]

Regionalempires

Themillenniumfrom500BCEto500CEsawaseriesofempiresofunprecedentedsizedevelop.Welltrained
professionalarmies,unifyingideologies,andadvancedbureaucraciescreatedthepossibilityforemperorstorule
overlargedomainswhosepopulationscouldattainnumbersupwardsoftensofmillionsofsubjects.Thegreat
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empiresdependedonmilitaryannexationofterritoryandontheformationofdefendedsettlementstobecome
agriculturalcentres.Therelativepeacethattheempiresbroughtencouragedinternationaltrade,mostnotablythe
massivetraderoutesintheMediterranean,themaritimetradewebintheIndianOcean,andtheSilkRoad.In
southernEurope,theGreeks(andlatertheRomans),inaneraknownas"classicalantiquity,"establishedcultures
whosepractices,laws,andcustomsareconsideredthefoundationofcontemporaryWesternculture.

Therewereanumberofregional
empiresduringthisperiod.The
kingdomoftheMedeshelpedto
destroytheAssyrianEmpirein
tandemwiththenomadicScythians
andtheBabylonians.Nineveh,the
capitalofAssyria,wassackedby
theMedesin612BCE.[62]The
MedianEmpiregavewayto
Parthenon,AthenianEmpire Persepolis,AchaemenidEmpire,5th
successiveIranianempires,
centuryBCE
includingtheAchaemenidEmpire
(550330BCE)andtheSasanian
Empire(224651CE).

Severalempiresbeganinmodern
dayGreece.FirstwastheDelian
League(from477BCE)[63]andthe
succeedingAthenianEmpire(454
404BCE),centredinpresentday
Greece.Later,AlexandertheGreat
(356323BCE),ofMacedon,
foundedanempireofconquest, PillarerectedbyIndia'sMaurya
extendingfrompresentdayGreece DynastyEmperorAshoka
topresentdayIndia.[64][65]The
empiredividedshortlyafterhis
death,buttheinfluenceofhisHellenisticsuccessorsmadeforanextended
Hellenisticperiod(32331BCE)[66]throughouttheregion.
Trajan'sColumn,Rome InAsia,theMauryaEmpire(322185BCE)existedinpresentday
India[67]inthe3rdcenturyBCE,mostofSouthAsiawasunitedtothe
MauryaEmpirebyChandraguptaMauryaandflourishedunderAshokatheGreat.Fromthe3rdcenturyCE,the
GuptadynastyoversawtheperiodreferredtoasancientIndia'sGoldenAge.Fromthe4thto6thcenturies,
northernIndiawasruledbytheGuptaEmpire.InsouthernIndia,threeprominentDravidiankingdomsemerged:
theCheras,Cholas,[68]andPandyas.TheensuingstabilitycontributedtoheraldinginthegoldenageofHindu
cultureinthe4thand5thcenturies.

InEurope,theRomanEmpire,centredinpresentdayItaly,beganinthe7thcenturyBCE.[69]Beginninginthe3rd
centuryBCE,theRomanRepublicbeganexpandingitsterritorythroughconquestandalliances.[70]Bythetimeof
Augustus(63BCE14CE),whobecamethefirstRomanEmperor,Romehadalreadyestablisheddominionover
mostoftheMediterranean.Theempirewouldcontinuetogrow,controllingmuchofthelandfromEnglandto
Mesopotamia,reachingitsgreatestextentundertheemperorTrajan(d.117CE).Inthe3rdcenturyCE,theempire
wouldsplitintowesternandeasternregions,with(sometimes)separateemperors.TheWesternempirewouldfall,

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in476CE,toGermaninfluence
underOdoacer.Theeasternempire,
nowknownastheByzantine
Empire,withitscapitalat
Constantinople,wouldcontinuefor
anotherthousandyears,until
overthrownbytheOttomanEmpire
in1453CE.

InChina,theQindynasty(221
206BCE),thefirstimperialdynasty
ofChina,wasfollowedbytheHan
Empire(206BCE220CE).The
HanDynastywascomparablein
powerandinfluencetotheRoman
Empirethatlayattheotherendof
theSilkRoad.WhiletheRomans
Terracottaarmy,China,c.210BCE ObeliskofAksum,Ethiopia
constructedavastmilitaryof
unprecedentedpower,HanChina
wasdevelopingadvancedcartography,shipbuilding,andnavigation.TheEastinventedblastfurnacesandwere
capableofcreatingfinelytunedcopperinstruments.AswithotherempiresduringtheClassicalPeriod,HanChina
advancedsignificantlyintheareasofgovernment,education,mathematics,astronomy,technology,andmany
others.[71]

InAfrica,theKingdomofAksum,centredinpresentdayEthiopia,
establisheditselfbythe1stcenturyCEasamajortradingempire,
dominatingitsneighboursinSouthArabiaandKushandcontrollingthe
RedSeatrade.Itminteditsowncurrencyandcarvedenormousmonolithic
stelessuchastheObeliskofAxumtomarktheiremperors'graves.

SuccessfulregionalempireswerealsoestablishedintheAmericas,arising
fromculturesestablishedasearlyas2500BCE.[72]InMesoamerica,vast
preColumbiansocietieswerebuilt,themostnotablebeingtheZapotec
Empire(700BCE1521CE),[73]andtheMayacivilization,whichreached
itshigheststateofdevelopmentduringtheMesoamericanClassicperiod(c.
250900CE),[74]butcontinuedthroughoutthePostClassicperioduntil
thearrivaloftheSpanishinthe16thcenturyCE.Mayacivilizationaroseas
theOlmecmotherculturegraduallydeclined.ThegreatMayancitystates
slowlyroseinnumberandprominence,andMayaculturespread
throughouttheYucatnandsurroundingareas.Thelaterempireofthe
Aztecswasbuiltonneighbouringculturesandwasinfluencedby
conqueredpeoplessuchastheToltecs.
Mayaobservatory,ChichenItza,
Someareasexperiencedslowbutsteadytechnologicaladvances,with Mexico
importantdevelopmentssuchasthestirrupandmoldboardplougharriving
everyfewcenturies.Therewere,however,insomeregions,periodsof
rapidtechnologicalprogress.Mostimportant,perhaps,wastheMediterraneanareaduringtheHellenisticperiod,
whenhundredsoftechnologieswereinvented.[75]Suchperiodswerefollowedbyperiodsoftechnologicaldecay,
asduringtheRomanEmpire'sdeclineandfallandtheensuingearlymedievalperiod.

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Declines,fallsandresurgence

Theempiresfacedcommonproblemsassociatedwithmaintaininghugearmiesandsupportingacentral
bureaucracy.Thesecostsfellmostheavilyonthepeasantry,whilelandowningmagnatesincreasinglyevaded
centralizedcontrolanditscosts.Barbarianpressureonthefrontiershastenedinternaldissolution.China'sHan
dynastyfellintocivilwarin220CE,beginningtheThreeKingdomsperiod,whileitsRomancounterpartbecame
increasinglydecentralizedanddividedaboutthesametimeinwhatisknownastheCrisisoftheThirdCentury.
ThegreatempiresofEurasiawerealllocatedontemperateandsubtropicalcoastalplains.FromtheCentralAsian
steppes,horsebasednomads(mainlyMongolsandTurks)dominatedalargepartofthecontinent.The
developmentofthestirrupandthebreedingofhorsesstrongenoughtocarryafullyarmedarchermadethe
nomadsaconstantthreattothemoresettledcivilizations.

ThegradualbreakupoftheRomanEmpire,spanningseveralcenturies
afterthe2ndcenturyCE,coincidedwiththespreadofChristianityoutward
fromtheMiddleEast.[76]TheWesternRomanEmpirefellunderthe
dominationofGermanictribesinthe5thcentury,[77]andthesepolities
graduallydevelopedintoanumberofwarringstates,allassociatedinone
wayoranotherwiththeCatholicChurch.[78]Theremainingpartofthe
RomanEmpire,intheeasternMediterranean,wouldhenceforthbethe
ByzantineEmpire.[79]Centurieslater,alimitedunitywouldberestoredto
Pantheon,Rome,nowaCatholic westernEuropethroughtheestablishmentin962ofarevived"Roman
church
Empire",[80]latercalledtheHolyRomanEmpire,[81]>comprisinga
numberofstatesinwhatisnowGermany,Austria,Switzerland,Czech
Republic,Belgium,Italy,andpartsofFrance.[82][83]

InChina,dynastieswouldriseandfall,but,bysharpcontrasttotheMediterraneanEuropeanworld,dynasticunity
wouldberestored.AfterthefalloftheEasternHanDynasty[84]andthedemiseoftheThreeKingdoms,nomadic
tribesfromthenorthbegantoinvadeinthe4thcentury,eventuallyconqueringareasofnorthernChinaandsetting
upmanysmallkingdoms.TheSuiDynastysuccessfullyreunifiedthewholeofChina[85]in581,[86]andlaidthe
foundationsforaChinesegoldenageundertheTangdynasty(618907).

Postclassicalhistory
ThePostclassicalEra,thoughderivingitsnamefromtheEurocentriceraof"Classicalantiquity",referstoa
broadergeographicsweep.Theeraiscommonlydatedfromthe5thcenturyfalloftheWesternRomanEmpire,
whichfragmentedintomanyseparatekingdoms,someofwhichwouldlaterbeconfederatedundertheHoly
RomanEmpire.TheEasternRoman,orByzantine,EmpiresurviveduntillateinthePostclassical,orMedieval,
period.ThePostclassicalperiodalsoencompassestheEarlyMuslimconquests,thesubsequentIslamicGolden
Age,andthecommencementandexpansionoftheArabslavetrade,followedbytheMongolinvasionsinthe
MiddleEastandCentralAsia,andthefoundingaround1280oftheOttomanEmpire.[87]SouthAsiasawaseriesof
middlekingdomsofIndia,followedbytheestablishmentofIslamicempiresinIndia.

InwesternAfrica,theMaliEmpireandtheSonghaiEmpiredeveloped.OnthesoutheastcoastofAfrica,Arabic
portswereestablishedwheregold,spices,andothercommoditiesweretraded.ThisallowedAfricatojointhe
SoutheastAsiatradingsystem,bringingitcontactwithAsiathis,alongwithMuslimculture,resultedinthe
Swahiliculture.TheChineseEmpireexperiencedthesuccessiveSui,Tang,Song,Yuan,earlyMingDynasties.
MiddleEasterntraderoutesalongtheIndianOcean,andtheSilkRoadthroughtheGobiDesert,providedlimited

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economicandculturalcontactbetweenAsianandEuropeancivilizations.
Duringthesameperiod,civilizationsintheAmericas,suchastheInca,
Maya,andAztec,reachedtheirheightallwouldbeseriouslycompromised
bycontactwithEuropeancolonistsatthebeginningoftheModernperiod.

MiddleEast,CentralAsiaandNorthAfrica

PriortotheadventofIslaminthe7thcentury,theMiddleEastwas
dominatedbytheByzantineEmpireandthePersianSasanianEmpire,
whichconstantlyfoughteachotherforcontrolofdisputedregionssuchas
Armenia.Thiswasalsoaculturalbattle,withtheByzantineHellenisticand
ChristianculturecompetingagainstthePersianIraniantraditionsand
Zoroastrianreligion.TheformationoftheIslamicreligioncreatedanew
contenderthatquicklysurpassedbothoftheseempires.Islamgreatly
affectedthepolitical,economic,andmilitaryhistoryoftheOldWorld,
especiallytheMiddleEast.
UniversityofTimbuktu,Mali
FromtheircentreontheArabian
Peninsula,Muslimsbegantheir
expansionduringtheearlyPostclassicalEra.By750CE,theycameto
conquermostoftheNearEast,NorthAfrica,andpartsofEurope,ushering
inaneraoflearning,science,andinventionknownastheIslamicGolden
Age.TheknowledgeandskillsoftheancientNearEast,Greece,andPersia
werepreservedinthePostclassicalErabyMuslims,whoalsoaddednew
andimportantinnovationsfromoutside,suchasthemanufactureofpaper
fromChinaanddecimalpositionalnumberingfromIndia.

GreatMosqueofKairouan,Tunisia, Muchofthislearninganddevelopmentcanbelinkedtogeography.Even
founded670CE priortoIslam'spresence,thecityofMeccahadservedasacentreoftrade
inArabia,andtheIslamicprophetMuhammadhimselfwasamerchant.
WiththenewIslamictraditionoftheHajj,thepilgrimagetoMecca,the
citybecameevenmoreacentreforexchanginggoodsandideas.TheinfluenceheldbyMuslimmerchantsover
AfricanArabianandArabianAsiantraderouteswastremendous.Asaresult,Islamiccivilizationgrewand
expandedonthebasisofitsmerchanteconomy,incontrasttotheEuropeans,Indians,andChinese,whobased
theirsocietiesonanagriculturallandholdingnobility.MerchantsbroughtgoodsandtheirIslamicfaithtoChina,
India,southeastAsia,andthekingdomsofwesternAfrica,andreturnedwithnewdiscoveriesandinventions.

Motivatedbyreligionanddreamsofconquest,Europeankingslauncheda
numberofCrusadestotrytorollbackMuslimpowerandretaketheHoly
Land.TheCrusadeswereultimatelyunsuccessfulandservedmoreto
weakentheByzantineEmpireespeciallywiththe1204sackof
Constantinople,whichbegantoloseincreasingamountsofterritorytothe
OttomanTurks.Arabdominationoftheregionendedinthemid11th
CrusaderKrakdesChevaliers,Syria
centurywiththearrivaloftheSeljuqTurks,migratingsouthfromthe
TurkichomelandsinCentralAsia.Intheearly13thcentury,anewwaveof
invaders,theMongolEmpire'sarmies,sweptthroughtheregionbutwereeventuallyeclipsedbytheTurksandthe
foundingoftheOttomanEmpirearound1280.[87]

StartingwiththeSuiDynasty(581618),theChinesebeganexpandingintoeasternCentralAsia,andhadtodeal
withTurkicnomads,whowerebecomingthemostdominantethnicgroupinCentralAsia.[88][89]Originallythe
relationshipwaslargelycooperative,butin630theTangdynastybegananoffensiveagainsttheTurks,[90]
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capturingareasoftheMongolianOrdosDesert.TheTangEmpirecompetedwiththeTibetanEmpireforcontrolof
areasinInnerandCentralAsia.[91]Inthe8thcentury,Islambegantopenetratetheregionandsoonbecamethe
solefaithofmostofthepopulation,thoughBuddhismremainedstrongintheeast.ThedesertnomadsofArabia
couldmilitarilymatchthenomadsofthesteppe,andtheearlyArabEmpiregainedcontroloverpartsofCentral
Asia.

TheHephthaliteswerethemostpowerfulofthenomadgroupsinthe6thand7thcenturies,andcontrolledmuchof
theregion.Inthe9ththrough13thcenturiestheregionwasdividedbetweenseveralpowerfulstatesincludingthe
Samaniddynasty,theSeljuqdynasty,[92]andtheKhwarezmidEmpire.Themostspectacularpowertoriseoutof
CentralAsiadevelopedwhenGenghisKhanunitedthetribesofMongolia.TheMongolEmpirespreadtocomprise
allofCentralAsiaandChinaaswellaslargepartsofRussia,andtheMiddleEast.AfterGenghisKhandiedin
1227,[93]mostofCentralAsiacontinuedtobedominatedbythesuccessorChagataiKhanate.In1369,Timur,a
TurkicleaderintheMongolmilitarytradition,conqueredmostoftheregion.Timur'slargeempirecollapsedsoon
afterhisdeath,however.TheregionthenbecamedividedamongaseriesofsmallerKhanates,includingthe
KhanateofKhiva,theKhanateofBukhara,theKhanateofKokand,andtheKhanateofKashgar.

Europe

EuropeduringtheEarlyMiddleAgeswascharacterizedbydepopulation,deurbanization,andbarbarianinvasion,
allofwhichhadbeguninLateAntiquity.Thebarbarianinvadersformedtheirownnewkingdomsintheremains
oftheWesternRomanEmpire.Inthe7thcentury,NorthAfricaandtheMiddleEast,oncepartoftheEastern
RomanEmpire,becamepartoftheCaliphateafterconquestbyMuhammad'ssuccessors.Althoughtherewere
substantialchangesinsocietyandpoliticalstructures,thebreakwasnotasextremeasonceputforthbyhistorians,
withmostofthenewkingdomsincorporatingasmanyoftheexistingRomaninstitutionsastheycould.
ChristianityexpandedinwesternEurope,andmonasterieswerefounded.Inthe7thand8thcenturiestheFranks,
undertheCarolingiandynasty,establishedanempirecoveringmuchofwesternEuropeitlasteduntilthe9th
century,whenitsuccumbedtopressurefromnewinvaderstheVikings,[94]Magyars,andSaracens.

DuringtheHighMiddleAges,
whichbeganafter1000,the
populationofEuropeincreased
greatlyastechnologicaland
agriculturalinnovationsallowed
tradetoflourishandcropyieldsto
increase.Manorialismthe
organizationofpeasantsinto
villagesthatowedrentsandlabour
CollegiumMaius,Krakw servicetonoblesandfeudalism
University,Poland:Copernicus'alma apoliticalstructurewhereby
mater knightsandlowerstatusnobles
owedmilitaryservicetotheir
overlordsinreturnfortherighttorentsfromlandsandmanorsweretwo
ofthewaysoforganizingmedievalsocietythatdevelopedduringtheHigh
MiddleAges.Kingdomsbecamemorecentralizedafterthedecentralizing
effectsofthebreakupoftheCarolingianEmpire.TheCrusades,first
preachedin1095,wereanattemptbywesternChristianstoregaincontrol
NotreDameCathedral,Paris,France
oftheHolyLandfromtheMuslimsandsucceededlongenoughtoestablish
someChristianstatesintheNearEast.Intellectuallifewasmarkedby
scholasticismandthefoundingofuniversities,whilethebuildingofGothiccathedralswasoneoftheoutstanding
artisticachievementsoftheage.

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TheLateMiddleAgesweremarkedbydifficultiesandcalamities.Famine,plagueandwardevastatedthe
populationofwesternEurope.TheBlackDeathalonekilledapproximately75to200millionpeoplebetween1347
and1350.[95][96]Itwasoneofthedeadliestpandemicsinhumanhistory.StartinginAsia,thediseasereached
MediterraneanandwesternEuropeduringthelate1340s,[97]andkilledtensofmillionsofEuropeansinsixyears
betweenathirdandahalfofthepopulationperished.

TheMiddleAgeswitnessedthefirstsustainedurbanizationofnorthernandwesternEurope.Manymodern
EuropeanstatesowetheiroriginstoeventsunfoldingintheMiddleAgespresentEuropeanpoliticalboundaries
are,inmanyregards,theresultofmilitaryanddynasticeventsduringthistumultuousperiod.TheMiddleAges
lasteduntilthebeginningoftheEarlymodernperiodinthe16thcentury,[17]markedbytheriseofnationstates,[98]
thedivisionofWesternChristianityintheReformation,[99]theriseofhumanismintheItalianRenaissance,[100]
andthebeginningsofEuropeanoverseasexpansionwhichallowedfortheColumbianExchange.

SubSaharanAfrica

MedievalSubSaharanAfricawashometomanydifferentcivilizations.TheKingdomof
Aksumdeclinedinthe7thcenturyasIslamcutitofffromitsChristianalliesanditspeople
movedfurtherintotheEthiopianHighlandsforprotection.Theyeventuallygavewaytothe
ZagwedynastywhoarefamedfortheirrockcutarchitectureatLalibela.TheZagwewould
thenfalltotheSolomonicdynastywhoclaimeddescentfromtheAksumiteemperorsand
wouldrulethecountrywellintothe20thcentury.IntheWestAfricanSahelregion,many
Islamicempiresrose,suchastheGhanaEmpire,theMaliEmpire,theSonghaiEmpire,and
theKanemEmpire.TheycontrolledthetransSaharantradeingold,ivory,saltandslaves. Brass"Benin
bronze",Nigeria
SouthoftheSahelcivilizationsroseinthecoastalforestswherehorsesandcamelscouldnot
survive.TheseincludetheYorubacityofIfe,notedforitsart,[101]andtheOyoEmpire,the
BeninEmpireoftheEdopeoplecentredinBeninCity,theIgboKingdomofNriwhichproducedadvancedbronze
artatIgboUkwu,andtheAkanwhoarenotedfortheirintricatearchitecture.

InwhatisnowmodernZimbabwevariouskingdomsevolvedfromtheKingdomofMapungubweinmodernSouth
Africa.TheyflourishedthroughtradewiththeSwahilipeopleontheEastAfricancoast.Theybuiltlargedefensive
stonestructureswithoutmortarsuchasGreatZimbabwe,capitaloftheKingdomofZimbabwe,Khami,capitalof
KingdomofButua,andDanangombe(DhloDhlo),capitaloftheRozwiEmpire.TheSwahilipeoplethemselves
weretheinhabitantsoftheEastAfricancoastfromKenyatoMozambiquewhotradedextensivelywithAsiansand
Arabs,whointroducedthemtoIslam.TheybuiltmanyportcitiessuchasMombasa,Zanzibar,andKilwa,which
wereknowntoChinesesailorsunderZhengHeandIslamicgeographers.

SouthAsia

InnorthernIndia,afterthefall(550CE)oftheGuptaEmpire,theregiondividedintoacomplexandfluidnetwork
ofsmallerkinglystates.EarlyMuslimincursionsbeganinthewestin712CE,whentheArabUmayyadCaliphate
annexedmuchofpresentdayPakistan.Arabmilitaryadvancewaslargelyhaltedatthatpoint,butIslamstill
spreadinIndia,largelyduetotheinfluenceofArabmerchantsalongthewesterncoast.Someoftheimportant
statesthatemergedinIndiaatthistimeincludedtheBahmaniSultanateandtheVijayanagaraEmpire.Post
classicaldynastiesinSouthIndiaincludedthoseoftheChalukyas,theRashtrakutas,theHoysalas,theCholas,the
IslamicMughals,theMarathasandtheMysores.Science,engineering,art,literature,astronomy,andphilosophy
flourishedunderthepatronageofthesekings.

EastAsia

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Afteraperiodofrelativedisunity,theSuidynastyreunifiedChinain581,andunderthesucceedingTangdynasty
(618907)ChinaenteredaGoldenAge.[102]TheTangdynastyeventuallysplintered,however,andafterhalfa
centuryofturmoiltheSongDynastyreunifiedChina,whenitwas,accordingtoWilliamMcNeill,the"richest,
mostskilled,andmostpopulouscountryonearth".[103]Pressurefromnomadicempirestothenorthbecame
increasinglyurgent.By1142,NorthChinahadbeenlosttotheJurchensintheJinSongWars,andtheMongol
Empire[104]conqueredallofChinain1279,alongwithalmosthalfofEurasia'slandmass.Afteraboutacenturyof
MongolYuandynastyrule,theethnicChinesereassertedcontrolwiththefoundingoftheMingdynasty(1368).

InJapan,theimperiallineagehadbeenestablishedbythis
time,andduringtheAsukaperiod(538to710)theYamato
Provincedevelopedintoaclearlycentralizedstate.[105]
Buddhismwasintroduced,andtherewasanemphasisonthe
adoptionofelementsofChinesecultureandConfucianism.
TheNaraperiodofthe8thcentury[106]markedtheemergence
ofastrongJapanesestateandisoftenportrayedasagolden Battleduring1281MongolinvasionofJapan
age.Duringthisperiod,theimperialgovernmentundertook
greatpublicworks,includinggovernmentoffices,temples,roads,andirrigationsystems.TheHeianperiod(794to
1185)sawthepeakofimperialpower,followedbytheriseofmilitarizedclans,andthebeginningofJapanese
feudalism.ThefeudalperiodofJapanesehistory,dominatedbypowerfulregionalfamilies(daimy)andthe
militaryruleofwarlords(shogun),stretchedfrom1185to1868.Theemperorremained,butmostlyasa
figurehead,andthepowerofmerchantswasweak.

PostclassicalKoreasawtheendoftheThreeKingdomsera,thethreekingdomsbeingGoguryeo,BaekjeandSilla.
SillaconqueredBaekjein660,andGoguryeoin668,[107]markingthebeginningoftheNorthSouthStatesPeriod
(),withUnifiedSillainthesouthandBalhae,asuccessorstatetoGoguryeo,inthenorth.[108]In892
CE,thisarrangementrevertedtotheLaterThreeKingdoms,withGoguryeo(thencalledTaebongandeventually
namedGoryeo)emergingasdominant,unifyingtheentirepeninsulaby936.[109]ThefoundingGoryeodynasty
ruleduntil1392,succeededbytheJoseonDynasty,whichruledforapproximately500years.

SoutheastAsia

ThebeginningoftheMiddleAgesinSoutheastAsiasawthefall(550CE)
oftheKingdomofFunantotheChenlaEmpire,whichwasthenreplaced
bytheKhmerEmpire(802CE).TheKhmer'scapitalcityAngkorwasthe
largestcityintheworldpriortotheindustrialageandcontainedovera
thousandtemples,themostfamousbeingAngkorWat.TheSukhothai
(1238CE)andAyutthaya(1351CE)kingdomsweremajorpowersofthe
Thaipeople,whowereinfluencedbytheKhmer.Startinginthe9th
century,thePaganKingdomrosetoprominenceinmodernMyanmar.
OthernotablekingdomsoftheperiodincludetheSrivijayanEmpireand
theLavoKingdom(bothcomingintoprominenceinthe7thcentury),the
ChampaandtheHariphunchai(bothabout750),theDaiViet(968),LanNa AngkorWattemple,Cambodia,early
(13thcentury),Majapahit(1293),LanXang(1354),andtheKingdomof 12thcentury
Ava(1364).ItwasalsoduringthisperiodthatIslamspreadtopresentday
Indonesia(beginninginthe13thcentury),andtheMalaystatesbegantoemerge.

Oceania

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TheTuiTongaEmpirewasfoundedinthe10thcenturyCEandexpanded
between1200and1500.Tonganculture,language,andhegemonyspread
widelythroughoutEasternMelanesia,MicronesiaandCentralPolynesia
duringthisperiod,[110]influencingEast'Uvea,Rotuma,Futuna,Samoaand
Niue,aswellasspecificislands/partsofMicronesia(Kiribati,Pohnpei,
miscellaneousoutliers),Vanuatu,andNewCaledonia(specifically,the
LoyaltyIslands,withthemainislandbeingpredominantlypopulatedbythe
MelanesianKanakpeopleandtheircultures).[111]Ataroundthesametime,
apowerfulthalassocracyappearedinEasternPolynesiacentredaroundthe Moai,RapaNui(EasterIsland)
SocietyIslands,specificallyonthesacredTaputapuateamarae,whichdrew
inEasternPolynesiancolonistsfromplacesasfarawayasHawai'i,New
Zealand(Aotearoa),andtheTuamotuIslandsforpolitical,spiritualandeconomicreasons,untiltheunexplained
collapseofregularlongdistancevoyagingintheEasternPacificafewcenturiesbeforeEuropeansbeganexploring
thearea.Indigenouswrittenrecordsfromthisperiodarevirtuallynonexistent,asitseemsthatallPacific
Islanders,withthepossibleexceptionoftheenigmaticRapaNuiandtheircurrentlyundecipherableRongorongo
script,hadnowritingsystemsofanykinduntilaftertheirintroductionbyEuropeancolonistshowever,some
indigenousprehistoriescanbeestimatedandacademicallyreconstructedthroughcareful,judiciousanalysisof
nativeoraltraditions,colonialethnography,archaeology,physicalanthropologyandlinguisticsresearch.

TheAmericas

InNorthAmerica,thisperiodsawtheriseoftheMississippianculturein
themodernUnitedStatesc.800CE,markedbytheextensive12thcentury
urbancomplexatCahokia.TheAncestralPuebloansandtheirpredecessors
(9th13thcenturies)builtextensivepermanentsettlements,including
stonestructuresthatwouldremainthelargestbuildingsinNorthAmerica
untilthe19thcentury.[112]InMesoamerica,theTeotihuacancivilizationfell
andtheClassicMayacollapseoccurred.TheAzteccametodominatemuch
ofMesoamericainthe14thand15thcenturies.InSouthAmerica,the14th
and15thcenturiessawtheriseoftheInca.TheIncaEmpireof
Tawantinsuyu,withitscapitalatCusco,spannedtheentireAndes MachuPicchu,IncaEmpire,Peru
MountainRange,makingitthemostextensivePreColumbiancivilization.
TheIncawereprosperousandadvanced,knownforanexcellentroad
systemandunrivaledmasonry.

Modernhistory
Modernhistory(the"modernperiod,"the"modernera,""moderntimes")ishistoryoftheperiodfollowingthe
MiddleAges."Contemporaryhistory"ishistorythatonlycoverseventsfromaround1900tothepresentday.

Earlymodernperiod

"Earlymodernperiod"[b]isatermusedbyhistorianstorefertotheperiodbetweentheMiddleAges(Postclassical
history)andtheIndustrialRevolutionroughly1500to1800.[17]TheEarlyModernperiodischaracterizedbythe
riseofscience,andbyincreasinglyrapidtechnologicalprogress,secularizedcivicpolitics,andthenationstate.
Capitalisteconomiesbegantheirrise,initiallyinnorthernItalianrepublicssuchasGenoa.TheEarlyModern
periodalsosawtheriseanddominanceofthemercantilisteconomictheory.Assuch,theEarlyModernperiod
representsthedeclineandeventualdisappearance,inmuchoftheEuropeansphere,offeudalism,serfdomandthe

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poweroftheCatholicChurch.TheperiodincludestheProtestantReformation,thedisastrousThirtyYears'War,
theAgeofDiscovery,Europeancolonialexpansion,thepeakofEuropeanwitchhunting,theScientificrevolution,
andtheAgeofEnlightenment.[c]

Renaissance

Europe'sRenaissance,beginninginthe14thcenturyandextendingintothe
16th,consistedoftherediscoveryoftheclassicalworld'sscientific
contributions,andoftheeconomicandsocialriseofEurope.The
Renaissancealsoengenderedacultureofinquisitivenesswhichultimately
ledtoHumanism[113]andtheScientificRevolution.[114]Althoughitsaw
socialandpoliticalupheavalandrevolutionsinmanyintellectualpursuits,
theRenaissanceisperhapsknownbestforitsartisticdevelopmentsandthe
contributionsofsuchpolymathsasLeonardodaVinciandMichelangelo,
whoinspiredtheterm"Renaissanceman."

Europeanexpansion

Duringthisperiod,European
powerscametodominatemostof
theworld.Althoughthemost
developedregionsofEuropean
classicalcivilizationweremore daVinci'sVitruvianMan,
urbanizedthananyotherregionof RenaissanceItaly
theworld,Europeancivilization
hadundergonealengthyperiodof
gradualdeclineandcollapse.DuringtheEarlyModernPeriod,Europewas
1570worldmap,withEuropeans' abletoregainitsdominancehistoriansstilldebatethecauses.
discoveries
Europe'ssuccessinthisperiodstandsincontrasttootherregions.For
example,oneofthemostadvancedcivilizationsoftheMiddleAgeswas
China.Ithaddevelopedanadvancedmonetaryeconomyby1,000CE.Chinahadafreepeasantrywhowereno
longersubsistencefarmers,andcouldselltheirproduceandactivelyparticipateinthemarket.AccordingtoAdam
Smith,writinginthe18thcentury,Chinahadlongbeenoneoftherichest,mostfertile,bestcultivated,most
industrious,mosturbanized,andmostprosperouscountriesintheworld.Itenjoyedatechnologicaladvantageand
hadamonopolyincastironproduction,pistonbellows,suspensionbridgeconstruction,printing,andthecompass.
However,itseemedtohavelongsincestoppedprogressing.MarcoPolo,whovisitedChinainthe13thcentury,
describesitscultivation,industry,andpopulousnessalmostinthesametermsastravelerswouldinthe18th
century.

OnetheoryofEurope'sriseholdsthatEurope'sgeographyplayedanimportantroleinitssuccess.TheMiddle
East,IndiaandChinaareallringedbymountainsandoceansbut,oncepasttheseouterbarriers,arenearlyflat.By
contrast,thePyrenees,Alps,Apennines,CarpathiansandothermountainrangesrunthroughEurope,andthe
continentisalsodividedbyseveralseas.ThisgaveEuropesomedegreeofprotectionfromtheperilofCentral
Asianinvaders.Beforetheeraoffirearms,thesenomadsweremilitarilysuperiortotheagriculturalstatesonthe
peripheryoftheEurasiancontinentand,astheybrokeoutintotheplainsofnorthernIndiaorthevalleysofChina,
wereallbutunstoppable.Theseinvasionswereoftendevastating.TheGoldenAgeofIslamwasendedbythe
MongolsackofBaghdadin1258.IndiaandChinaweresubjecttoperiodicinvasions,andRussiaspentacoupleof
centuriesundertheMongolTataryoke.CentralandwesternEurope,logisticallymoredistantfromtheCentral
Asianheartland,provedlessvulnerabletothesethreats.

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Geographycontributedtoimportantgeopoliticaldifferences.Formostof
theirhistories,China,India,andtheMiddleEastwereeachunifiedundera
singledominantpowerthatexpandeduntilitreachedthesurrounding
mountainsanddeserts.In1600theOttomanEmpirecontrolledalmostall
theMiddleEast,[115]theMingdynastyruledChina,[116][117]andtheMughal
EmpireheldswayoverIndia.Bycontrast,Europewasalmostalways
dividedintoanumberofwarringstates.PanEuropeanempires,withthe
notableexceptionoftheRomanEmpire,tendedtocollapsesoonafterthey
arose.AnotherdoubtlessimportantgeographicfactorintheriseofEurope
wastheMediterraneanSea,which,formillennia,hadfunctionedasa
maritimesuperhighwayfosteringtheexchangeofgoods,people,ideasand
inventions.

Nearlyalltheagriculturalcivilizationshavebeenheavilyconstrainedby
theirenvironments.Productivityremainedlow,andclimaticchangeseasily
instigatedboomandbustcyclesthatbroughtaboutcivilizations'riseand GutenbergBible,producedusing
fall.Byabout1500,however,therewasaqualitativechangeinworld movabletypec.1450
history.Technologicaladvanceandthewealthgeneratedbytradegradually
broughtaboutawideningofpossibilities.[118]

ManyhavealsoarguedthatEurope'sinstitutionsallowedittoexpand,thatpropertyrightsandfreemarket
economicswerestrongerthanelsewhereduetoanidealoffreedompeculiartoEurope.Inrecentyears,however,
scholarssuchasKennethPomeranzhavechallengedthisview.Europe'smaritimeexpansionunsurprisingly
giventhecontinent'sgeographywaslargelytheworkofitsAtlanticstates:Portugal,Spain,England,France,
andtheNetherlands.InitiallythePortugueseandSpanishEmpireswerethepredominantconquerorsandsources
ofinfluence,andtheirunionresultedintheIberianUnion,thefirstglobalempireonwhichthe"sunneverset".
SoonthemorenorthernEnglish,FrenchandDutchbegantodominatetheAtlantic.Inaseriesofwarsfoughtinthe
17thand18thcenturies,culminatingwiththeNapoleonicWars,Britainemergedasthenewworldpower.

Regionaldevelopments

PersiacameundertheruleoftheSafavidEmpirein1501,succeededbythe
AfsharidEmpirein1736,andtheQajarEmpirein1796.Areastothenorth
andeastwereheldbyUzbeksandPashtuns.TheOttomanEmpire,after
takingConstantinoplein1453,quicklygainedcontroloftheMiddleEast,
theBalkans,andmostofNorthAfrica.

InAfrica,thisperiodsawadeclineinmanycivilizationsandan
advancementinothers.TheSwahiliCoastdeclinedaftercomingunder
Portuguese(andlaterOmani)control.InwestAfrica,theSonghaiEmpire
felltotheMoroccansin1591whentheyinvadedwithguns.TheSouth HagiaSophia,Istanbul(formerly
AfricanKingdomofZimbabwegavewaytosmallerkingdomssuchas Constantinople),Turkey
Mutapa,Butua,andRozwi.Ethiopiasufferedfromthe1531invasionfrom
neighbouringMuslimAdalSultanate,andin1769enteredtheZemeneMesafint(AgeofPrinces)duringwhichthe
Emperorbecameafigureheadandthecountrywasruledbywarlords,thoughtheroyallinelaterwouldrecover
underEmperorTewodrosII.TheAjuranEmpire,intheHornofAfrica,begantodeclineinthe17thcentury,
succeededbytheGelediSultanate.OthercivilizationsinAfricaadvancedduringthisperiod.TheOyoEmpire
experienceditsgoldenage,asdidtheBeninEmpire.TheAshantiEmpirerosetopowerinwhatismodernday
Ghanain1670.TheKingdomofKongoalsothrivedduringthisperiod.EuropeanexplorationofAfricareachedits
zenithatthistime.

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IntheFarEast,theChineseMingDynastygaveway(1644)totheQing,
thelastChineseimperialdynasty,whichwouldruleuntil1912.Japan
experienceditsAzuchiMomoyamaperiod(15681603),followedbythe
Edoperiod(16031868).TheKoreanJoseonDynasty(13921910)ruled
throughoutthisperiod,successfullyrepelling16thand17thcentury
invasionsfromJapanandChina.JapanandChinaweresignificantly
affectedduringthisperiodbyexpandedmaritimetradewithEurope,
particularlythePortugueseinJapan.DuringtheEdoperiod,Japanwould
pursueisolationistpolicies,toeliminateforeigninfluences.

TajMahal,MughalEmpire,India
OntheIndiansubcontinent,the MingDynastysection,GreatWallof
DelhiSultanateandtheDeccan China
sultanateswouldgiveway,
beginninginthe16thcentury,totheMughalEmpire.Startinginthe
northwest,theMughalEmpirewouldbythelate17thcenturycometorule
theentiresubcontinent,[119]exceptforthesouthernmostIndianprovinces,
whichwouldremainindependent.AgainsttheMuslimMughalEmpire,the
HinduMarathaEmpirewasfoundedonthewestcoastin1674,gradually
gainingterritoryamajorityofpresentdayIndiafromtheMughalsover
severaldecades,particularlyintheMughalMarathaWars(16811701).
TheMarathaEmpirewouldin1818fallunderthecontroloftheBritish
EastIndiaCompany,withallformerMarathaandMughalauthority
devolvingin1858totheBritishRaj.

In1511thePortugueseoverthrewtheMalaccaSultanateinpresentdayMalaysiaandIndonesianSumatra.The
Portugueseheldthisimportanttradingterritory(andthevaluableassociatednavigationalstrait)untiloverthrown
bytheDutchin1641.TheJohorSultanate,centredonthesoutherntipoftheMalayPeninsula,becamethe
dominanttradingpowerintheregion.EuropeancolonizationwouldaffectthewholeofSoutheastAsiathe
BritishinMyanmarandMalaysia,theFrenchinIndochina,theDutchintheNetherlandsEastIndies,andthe
SpanishinthePhilippines.OnlyThailandwouldsuccessfullyresistcolonization.

ThePacificislandsofOceaniawouldalsobeaffectedbyEuropeancontact,startingwiththecircumnavigational
voyageofFerdinandMagellan,wholandedontheMarianasandotherislandsin1521.Alsonotablewerethe
voyages(164244)ofAbelTasmantopresentdayAustralia,NewZealandandnearbyislands,andthevoyages
(17681779)ofCaptainJamesCook,whomadethefirstrecordedEuropeancontactwithHawaii.Britainwould
founditsfirstcolonyonAustraliain1788.

IntheAmericas,thewesternEuropeanpowersvigorouslycolonizedthe
newlydiscoveredcontinents,largelydisplacingtheindigenouspopulations,
anddestroyingtheadvancedcivilizationsoftheAztecsandtheInca.Spain,
Portugal,Britain,andFranceallmadeextensiveterritorialclaims,and
undertooklargescalesettlement,includingtheimportationoflarge
numbersofAfricanslaves.PortugalclaimedBrazil.Spainclaimedtherest
ofSouthAmerica,Mesoamerica,andsouthernNorthAmerica.Britain
colonizedtheeastcoastofNorthAmerica,andFrancecolonizedthecentral
regionofNorthAmerica.Russiamadeincursionsontothenorthwestcoast
Russianchapel,FortRoss,California, ofNorthAmerica,withafirstcolonyinpresentdayAlaskain1784,and
U.S.A. theoutpostofFortRossinpresentdayCaliforniain1812.In1762,inthe
midstoftheSevenYears'War,FrancesecretlycededmostofitsNorth
AmericanclaimstoSpainintheTreatyofFontainebleau.ThirteenoftheBritishcoloniesdeclaredindependenceas

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theUnitedStatesofAmericain1776,ratifiedbytheTreatyofParisin1783,endingtheAmericanRevolutionary
War.NapoleonBonapartewonFrancesclaimsbackfromSpainintheNapoleonicWarsin1800,butsoldthemto
theUnitedStatesin1803astheLouisianaPurchase.

InRussia,IvantheTerriblewascrowned(1547)thefirstTsarofRussia,andbyannexingtheTurkicKhanatesin
theeast,transformedRussiaintoaregionalpower.ThecountriesofwesternEurope,whileexpandingprodigiously
throughtechnologicaladvancementandcolonialconquest,competedwitheachothereconomicallyandmilitarily
inastateofalmostconstantwar.Oftenthewarshadareligiousdimension,eitherCatholicversusProtestant,or
(primarilyineasternEurope)ChristianversusMuslim.WarsofparticularnoteincludetheThirtyYears'War,the
WaroftheSpanishSuccession,theSevenYears'War,andtheFrenchRevolutionaryWars.Napoleoncameto
powerinFrancein1799,aneventforeshadowingtheNapoleonicWarsoftheearly19thcentury.

LateModernperiod

17501914

TheScientificRevolutionchangedhumanity'sunderstandingoftheworld
andledtotheIndustrialRevolution,amajortransformationoftheworld's
economies.TheScientificRevolutioninthe17thcenturyhadhadlittle
immediateeffectonindustrialtechnologyonlyinthesecondhalfofthe
18thcenturydidscientificadvancesbegintobeappliedsubstantiallyto
practicalinvention.TheIndustrialRevolutionbeganinGreatBritainand
usednewmodesofproductionthefactory,massproduction,and
mechanizationtomanufactureawidearrayofgoodsfasterandusing
lesslabourthanpreviouslyrequired.TheAgeofEnlightenmentalsoledto
thebeginningsofmoderndemocracyinthelate18thcenturyAmericanand
Watt'ssteamenginepoweredthe
FrenchRevolutions.Democracyandrepublicanismwouldgrowtohavea
IndustrialRevolution.
profoundeffectonworldeventsandonqualityoflife.

AfterEuropeanshadachievedinfluenceandcontrolovertheAmericas,
imperialactivitiesturnedtothelandsofAsiaandOceania.Inthe19th
centurytheEuropeanstateshadsocialandtechnologicaladvantageover
Easternlands.BritaingainedcontroloftheIndiansubcontinent,Egyptand
theMalayPeninsulatheFrenchtookIndochinawhiletheDutchcemented
theircontrolovertheDutchEastIndies.TheBritishalsocolonized
Australia,NewZealandandSouthAfricawithlargenumbersofBritish
colonistsemigratingtothesecolonies.Russiacolonizedlargepre
agriculturalareasofSiberia.Inthelate19thcentury,theEuropeanpowers Empires,1900
dividedtheremainingareasofAfrica.WithinEurope,economicand
militarychallengescreatedasystemofnationstates,andethnolinguisticgroupingsbegantoidentifythemselves
asdistinctivenationswithaspirationsforculturalandpoliticalautonomy.Thisnationalismwouldbecome
importanttopeoplesacrosstheworldinthe20thcentury.

DuringtheSecondIndustrialRevolution,theworldeconomybecamereliantoncoalasafuel,asnewmethodsof
transport,suchasrailwaysandsteamships,effectivelyshranktheworld.Meanwhile,industrialpollutionand
environmentaldamage,presentsincethediscoveryoffireandthebeginningofcivilization,accelerateddrastically.

TheadvantagesthatEuropehaddevelopedbythemid18thcenturyweretwo:anentrepreneurialculture,[120]and
thewealthgeneratedbytheAtlantictrade(includingtheAfricanslavetrade).Bythelate16thcentury,silverfrom
theAmericasaccountedfortheSpanishempire'swealth.TheprofitsoftheslavetradeandofWestIndian
plantationsamountedto5%oftheBritisheconomyatthetimeoftheIndustrialRevolution.[121]Whilesome
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historiansconcludethat,in1750,labourproductivityinthemostdevelopedregionsofChinawasstillonapar
withthatofEurope'sAtlanticeconomy,[122]otherhistorianslikeAngusMaddisonholdthatthepercapita
productivityofwesternEuropehadbythelateMiddleAgessurpassedthatofallotherregions.[123]

19141945

The20thcenturyopenedwith
Europeatanapexofwealthand
power,andwithmuchoftheworld
underitsdirectcolonialcontrolor
itsindirectdomination.Muchofthe
restoftheworldwasinfluencedby
heavilyEuropeanizednations:the
UnitedStatesandJapan.Asthe
centuryunfolded,however,the
WorldWarItrenchwarfare globalsystemdominatedbyrival
powerswassubjectedtosevere
strains,andultimatelyseemedto
yieldtoamorefluidstructureofindependentnationsorganizedonWestern
models.

Thistransformationwascatalysedbywarsofunparalleledscopeand Atomicbombings:Hiroshima,
devastation.WorldWarIdestroyedmanyofEurope'sempiresand Nagasaki,1945
monarchies,andweakenedBritainandFrance.Initsaftermath,powerful
ideologiesarose.TheRussianRevolutionof1917createdthefirst
communiststate,whilethe1920sand1930ssawmilitaristicfascistdictatorshipsgaincontrolinItaly,Germany,
Spainandelsewhere.

Ongoingnationalrivalries,exacerbatedbytheeconomicturmoiloftheGreatDepression,helpedprecipitateWorld
WarII.ThemilitaristicdictatorshipsofEuropeandJapanpursuedanultimatelydoomedcourseofimperialist
expansionism.TheirdefeatopenedthewayfortheadvanceofcommunismintoCentralEurope,Yugoslavia,
Bulgaria,Romania,Albania,China,NorthVietnam,andNorthKorea.

19452000

WhenWorldWarIIendedin1945,theUnitedNationswasfoundedinthehopeofpreventingfuturewars.[124]The
SovietUnion,theUnitedStates,theUnitedKingdom,andChinatheWorldWarIIAllied"BigFour"and
FrancebecamethepermanentmembersoftheUnitedNationsSecurityCouncil.

Thewarhad,however,lefttwocountries,theUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnion,withprincipalpowerto
influenceinternationalaffairs.[125]Eachwassuspiciousoftheotherandfearedaglobalspreadoftheother's,
respectivelycapitalistandcommunist,politicaleconomicmodel.ThisledtotheColdWar,afortyfiveyearstand
offandarmsracebetweentheUnitedStatesanditsallies,ononehand,andtheSovietUnionanditsalliesonthe
other.WiththedevelopmentofnuclearweaponsduringWorldWarII,andwiththeirsubsequentproliferation,all
ofhumanitywereputatriskofnuclearwarbetweenthetwosuperpowers,asdemonstratedbymanyincidents,
mostprominentlytheOctober1962CubanMissileCrisis.Suchwarbeingviewedasimpractical,proxywarswere
insteadwaged,attheexpenseofnonnucleararmedThirdWorldcountries.

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TheColdWarendedin1991,whentheSovietUniondisintegrated,inpart
duetoinabilitytocompeteeconomicallywiththeUnitedStatesand
westernEurope.However,theUnitedStateslikewisebegantoshowsigns
ofslippageinhergeopoliticalinfluence[126]evenasherprivatesector,
nowlessinhibitedbytheclaimsofthepublicsector,increasinglysought
privateadvantagetotheprejudiceofthepublicweal.

Intheearlypostwardecades,theAfricanandAsiancoloniesofthe
Belgian,British,Dutch,French,andotherwestEuropeanempireswon
theirformalindependence.[127]Thenewlyindependentcountriesfaced
challengesintheformofneocolonialism,sociopoliticaldisarray,poverty,
illiteracy,andendemictropicaldiseases.[128]

MostWesternandCentralEuropeancountriesgraduallyformedapolitical
andeconomiccommunity,theEuropeanUnion,whichexpandedeastward
toincludeformerSovietsatellites.[129][130][131]AsianandAfricancountries
followedsuitandbegantakingtentativestepstowardformingtheirown
Civilians(here,MyLai,VietNam,
respectivecontinentalassociations.
1968)sufferedgreatlyin20th
ColdWarpreparationstodeterortofightathirdworldwaraccelerated centurywars.
advancesintechnologiesthat,thoughconceptualizedbeforeWorldWarII,
hadbeenimplementedforthatwar'sexigencies,suchasjetaircraft,
rocketry,andelectroniccomputers.InthedecadesafterWorldWarII,these
advancesledtojettravel,artificialsatelliteswithinnumerableapplications
includingglobalpositioningsystems(GPS),andtheinternetinventions
thathaverevolutionizedthemovementofpeople,ideas,andinformation.

However,notallscientificandtechnologicaladvancesinthesecondhalfof
the20thcenturyrequiredaninitialmilitaryimpetus.Thatperiodalsosaw
groundbreakingdevelopmentssuchasthediscoveryofthestructureof
DNA,[132]theconsequentsequencingofthehumangenome,theworldwide
eradicationofsmallpox,thediscoveryofplatetectonics,mannedand
unmannedexplorationofspaceandofpreviouslyinaccessiblepartsof
mankind'shomeplanet,andfoundationaldiscoveriesinphysicsphenomena
rangingfromthesmallestentities(particlephysics)tothegreatestentity LastMoonlanding:Apollo17(1972)
(physicalcosmology).

Thecenturysawseveralglobalthreatsemergeorbecomemoreseriousormorewidelyrecognized,including
nuclearproliferation,globalclimatechange,[133][134][135]deforestation,oceanacidification,overpopulation,deadly
epidemicsofmicrobialdiseases,nearEarthasteroidsandcomets,[136]supervolcanoeruptions,andthedwindling
ofglobalnaturalresources(particularlyfossilfuels).[137]

Contemporaryhistory

21stcentury

Amanmadehazardtoworldsurvivalthatdominatedconcernsinthesecondhalfofthe20thcentury,continues
intothe21st.Countriesambitioustodevelopanddeploynuclearweaponsarediscouragedfromdoingsoby
countriesthatalreadypossessthem.Atthesametime,nucleararmedcountrieshaveshownlittleurgencyabout

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honoringtheir20thcenturypledgetoeventuallyeliminateallnuclear
weapons.Suchweaponscontinuetobeequallyhazardoustotheirowners
astotheirpotentialtargets.[138]

The21stcenturyhasbeenmarkedbygrowingeconomicglobalizationand
integration,withconsequentincreasedrisktointerlinkedeconomies,and
bytheexpansionofcommunicationswithmobilephonesandtheInternet.
TheriseofthepersonalcomputerandtheWorldwideWebhascaused
fundamentalchangesinmultipleaspectsofhumansociety,inbothbusiness
andpersonalspheres.

Theearly21stcenturysawescalatingintraandinternationalstrifeinthe
NearEastandAfghanistan,stimulatedbyvasteconomicdisparities,by
dissatisfactionwithgovernmentsdominatedbyWesterninterests,byinter
ethnicandintersectarianfeuds,andbythelongestwarinthehistoryofthe
UnitedStates,theproximatecauseforwhichwasOsamabinLaden's
provocative2001destructionofNewYorkCity'sWorldTradeCenter.
History'slargestballisticmissile
U.S.militaryinvolvementsintheNearEastandAfghanistandrainedU.S.
economicresourcesatatimewhentheU.S.andotherWesterncountries
wereexperiencingmountingsocioeconomicdislocationsaggravatedbythe
robotizationofworkandtheexportationofindustriestocheaperworkforce
countries.

Meanwhile,ancientandpopulousAsiancivilizations,Indiaandespecially
China,havebeenemergingfromcenturiesofrelativescientific,
technological,andeconomiclanguishmenttobecomepotentialrivalsfor
Western,chieflyEuropeanandUnitedStates,economicandpolitical
ascendanceintheworld.[139]

Worldwidedemandandcompetitionforresourceshasrisenduetogrowing
populationsandindustrialization,especiallyinIndia,ChinaandBrazil(see PartialmapofInternet,2005
Listofcountriesbycarbondioxideemissionspercapita).Thisincreased
demandiscausingincreasedlevelsofenvironmentaldegradationanda
growingthreatofglobalwarming.That,andaneedforreliableenergy
suppliesindependentofpoliticallyvolatileregions,hasspurredthe
developmentofalternate,renewablesourcesofenergy(notablysolar
energyandwindenergy),proposalsforcleanerfossilfueltechnologies[140]
andforexpandeduseofnuclearenergy(somewhatdampenedbynuclear
plantaccidents),[141][142]and,conversely,callstoeschewtheindiscriminate
largescaleemploymentofthe"fissilefossilcomplex"offissile(nuclear)
andfossilfuel(coal,petroleum,naturalgas)energygeneration.[143]
Windpowerfarm,China
Inrecognitionthatglobalwarmingcausedbygrowingconcentrationsof
manmadegreenhousegaseswasanexistentialthreattoeveryoneon
Earth,[d]inDecember2015195countriessignedtheParisClimateAgreement,scheduledtogointoeffectin2020.
Thuswiththeexceptionoftwononsignatorycountries(andinJune2017,afterthefact,withtheexceptionofthe
UnitedStatesgovernment)alltheworld'scountriesexplicitlyrecognizedthatthiscommonexistentialthreat
requiredacommoncooperativeresponse.Thetransitiontoenvironmentallysustainableenergyisbeingaidedby
thegrowingeconomiccompetitivenessofsolarandwindenergyvisvisthefissilefossilcomplexofnuclearand
fossilfuelenergy.
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Inthe21stcentury,history'sspotlighthasbeentracingafullcirclebacktotheNearEast,withitscurrent
embroilments.About10,000BCEtheNearEastinitiatedtheNeolithicageandAgriculturalRevolution,andthus
civilizationandthegradualprocessleadingtotheIndustrialRevolutionthatbeganabout1760inGreatBritain.
TheIndustrialRevolutioninturnledtoexponentiallygrowingrelianceonthefissilefossilcomplexforrequisite
power,andtoresultantenvironmentaldegradationthatnowimminentlythreatenshumanextinction.

Humans,asempiricallymindedbeings,tendtorecognizeathreatexplicitlyonlyonceithasactuallymaterialized.
InWorldWarIitwasonlyafterfrontalattackshadmetwithcarnagefrommachineguns,thatalternativemilitary
tacticsweredevised.Whatdistinguisheshistory'scontemporaryperiodisthatwiththeexponentialgrowthof
population,science,technology,economicactivity,weaponsdestructiveness,andenvironmentaldegradation
globalthreats,militaryandenvironmental,havebeengettingevermorecomprehensive:willynilly,everyoneon
earthispotentiallyaffected.Ifsolutionstoexistentialglobalthreatscanfindconsensus,however,their
enforcementmayfindprecedentsinverificationproceduresthathavebeenusedinconnectionwith20thand21st
centurythreatenedspeciesprotectionagreements,searchesforweaponsofmassdestruction,andstrategicarms
reductions.

Seealso
Economichistoryoftheworld Historyofscience Listofmillennia
Historicrecurrence Historyoftechnology Listoftimeperiods
Historiography Listofarchaeologicalperiods
Historyofscience Listofmillennia
Notes
a.Theveryword"civilization"comesfromtheLatincivilis,meaning"civil,"relatedtocivis,meaning"citizen,"andcivitas,
meaning"city"or"citystate."[47]
b."EarlyModern,"historicallyspeaking,referstoWesternEuropeanhistoryfrom1501(afterthewidelyacceptedendof
theLateMiddleAgesthetransitionperiodwasthe15thcentury)toeither1750orc.17901800,bywhicheverepochis
favoredbyaschoolofscholarsdefiningtheperiodwhich,inmanycasesofperiodization,differsaswellwithina
disciplinesuchasart,philosophyorhistory.
c.TheAgeofEnlightenmenthasalsobeenreferredtoastheAgeofReason.Historiansalsoincludethelate17thcentury,
whichistypicallyknownastheAgeofReasonorAgeofRationalism,aspartoftheEnlightenmenthowever,
contemporaryhistorianshaveconsideredtheAgeofReasondistincttotheideasdevelopedintheEnlightenment.Theuse
ofthetermhereincludesbothAgesunderasingleallinclusivetimeframe.
d.The"greenhouseeffect",substantiallyresponsibleforEarth'sglobalwarming,wasfirstdescribedin1824bytheFrench
mathematicianJosephFourier.Thegreenhouseeffectisanaturalmechanismthatbecomesdangerousiftheatmosphere's
greenhousegasconcentrationsexceedenvironmentallysafelevels,astheyhavegraduallybeendoingsincethestartofthe
IndustrialRevolution.Aspredicted,thisisalreadyincreasingthefrequencyandseverityoffloodsanddroughtsdueto
acceleratedmeltingoficecaps,glaciers,andsnowpacksfloodingoflowlyingcoastsstormsagriculturaldisruptionand
faminesecologicaldisplacementsoceanacidificationwithhavoctomarineliferelease,fromthawingArcticpermafrost,
ofmethane,agreenhousegasmorepowerfulthancarbondioxideandintraandintersocietalconflicts,withincreased
crimeandwarfare.Themultifarious,irreversibledamagefromglobalwarmingwillaccelerateasenvironmentaltipping
pointsarereached.TheU.S.militaryarealreadyforcedtofactorglobalwarmingeffectsintotheirplanningformilitary
infrastructure,war,anddisasterrelief.

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Furtherreading
Baten,Joerg,ed.(2016).AHistoryoftheGlobalEconomy:1500topresent.ISBN9781107507180.
Diamond,Jared(1997),Guns,Germs,andSteel,W.W.Nortonupdatededs.,2003,2007.
Fournet,LouisHenri(1986).DiagrammaticChartofWorldHistory.EditionsSides.ISBN9782868
610966.
Frankopan,Peter(2015).TheSilkRoads:ANewHistoryoftheWorld.Knopf.ISBN9781101946329.
Landes,David(1999).TheWealthandPovertyofNations.NewYork:W.W.Norton&Company.
ISBN9780393318883.
Landes,David(Spring2006)."WhyEuropeandtheWest?WhyNotChina?"(http://pubs.aeaweb.org/doi/pd
fplus/10.1257/jep.20.2.3).JournalofEconomicPerspectives.20(2):322.doi:10.1257/jep.20.2.3(https://do
i.org/10.1257%2Fjep.20.2.3).
McNeill,WilliamH.(1963).TheRiseoftheWest:AHistoryoftheHumanCommunity.Chicago,IL:
UniversityofChicagoPress.
Pomeranz,Kenneth(2000).TheGreatDivergence:China,EuropeandtheMakingoftheModernWorld
Economy.Princeton.

Externallinks
CrashCourseWorldHistory(https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLBDA2E52FB1EF80C9)
BritishMuseumAHistoryoftheWorld(https://web.archive.org/web/20150224042828/https://www.britis
hmuseum.org/channel/object_stories/a_history_of_the_world.aspx)(archived).
Pella,John&ErikRingmar,HistoryofInternationalRelationsOpenTextbookProject(https://web.archive.o
rg/web/20141226114621/http://69.164.215.25/irhistory/),Cambridge:OpenBook.(archived).

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