QUESTION 1: CONFLICTS THEORIES

Interpersonal conflict is a conflict between a person with another person because of the

difference of interests or desires. This often happens between two people of different status,

job title, work areas and others. The interpersonal conflict is a dynamic that is very important

in organizational behavior. Because this kind of conflict will involve some of the roles of

several members of the organization cannot affected the process of achieving these goals.

Conflicts between individuals and groups It is often related to how individuals deal with the

pressures to achieve conformity, which emphasized to them by their workgroup. For

example, it can be said that an individual may be punished by his group because he cannot

reach the norms of productivity of the group where he is. Conflicts between groups within the

same organization of this conflict is the type of conflicts that occur in organizations are.

Conflict between line and staff, workers and labor management are two kinds of areas of

conflict between groups.

The theory of conflict is social change does not occur through the process of adjusting

the values that bring about change, but are the result of a conflict that resulted in a

compromise that is different from its original state. This theory is based on the ownership of

the means of production as the principal element of class segregation in society.

Erikson (Sri Lestari, 2012) explains that the conflict occurred in three levels:

1. conflict occurs when a child's personality or individuals dealing with the

demands of parents or society;
2. the conflict within the individual, such as between believers and
unbelievers;
3. the conflict in deciding how to adapt.

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Interpersonal conflict occurs because of an incompatibility behaviour with the intention of

incompatibility revealed when someone openly oppose the actions or another statement.

Thomas (1992) defines conflict as a process that began when one party considers the other

party seeks to thwart or frustrate interests. McCollum (2009) defines conflict as a person's

behavior in order to the thoughts, feelings and actions of others. Thus the outline conflict can

be defined as a social event that includes opposition or disagreement (Shantz, 1987).

Conflict in the family may occur because of the behavior of the opposition or

disagreement among family members. The prevalence of conflict in the family succession is

conflict sibling, parent-child conflict and conflict couples (Sillars et al, 2004). However, the

type of conflict that another party may also arise, for example, between the son and in-laws,

brother-in-law, uncle, aunt or even with fellow-law or fellow law. The differentiating factor of

conflict in the family with other social groups are characteristic of relationships within the

family regarding three aspects, namely: intensity, complexity and duration (Vuchinich, 2003).

Family situation that the crisis can be interpreted as the family situation is chaotic,

disorganized, lack of authority of parents in parenting, communication is less effective in the

family so often misunderstanding ensuing argument between the mother and father or

between parents and child. Such conditions if it is not resolved soon it will result in divorce

There are several factors that can cause a family crisis as it is said Sofyan Wilis (2009),

among others: breakdown of communication between the family, especially the father and

mother, the attitude of egocentricity, economic problems, problems bustle, problems

infidelity, and away from religion.

On the other hand, the conflict in the workplace is very detrimental. Because of this

conflict affects a lot about ourselves, our colleagues, and to the organization. Our relationship

with co-workers become tenuous, easily suspicious, and caused distrust. If this happens then

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the communication with co-workers will be difficult and unpredictable obstacles and work to

be not optimal. Conflicts also create imbalances of our lives, namely individual and social

imbalances as well as the mind and heart. People who are involved in the conflict will be a

personal selfish, selfish, cannot cooperate with others, stressful, and not feel like working.

This multiplier effect is clearly very detrimental to the organization in which we work,

because the performance of the organization as a whole will decline. Many of the factors that

cause conflict in the workplace, among others: differences in character, job competition,

differences of interest groups, leadership in organizations and so on. Identifying the root

causes of conflict will help us manage the conflict in the workplace, while helping us become

a more mature person, mature and professional in the workplace. However, all conflicts are

always associated with ego. Either personal ego or ego group. Conflicts arise in the

workplace when there is a clash of egos. Differences characters into the wide road to the

escalation of a conflict, because of constraints in the process of communicating. Coming to

terms with the ego self is the first step to managing conflict. The main theories about the

causes of the conflict are:

1. Theory of Public Relations

This conflict caused by the ongoing polarization, mistrust and hostility between

different groups in a society. The goal is to improve communication and understanding

between groups in conflict, as well as cultivate tolerance and so that more people can be

mutually accept the diversity that exists in it.

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 2. Theory of Human Needs

These conflicts were rooted due to the basic human needs (physical, mental and

social) are not met or obstructed. It is often at the core of the talks was the security, identity,

recognition, participation, and autonomy. The goal is to identify and pursue shared their

needs are not met, as well as generating options to meet those needs.

3. Principles of Negotiation Theory

Conflicts caused by positions that are not aligned and differing views on the conflict

by the parties in conflict. The goal is to help the conflicting parties to separate personal

feelings with various problems and issues and enable them to negotiate their own interests

rather than specific positions that have been fixed. Then launch a process of agreement that

benefits both sides or all sides.

4. Identity Theory

Assume that the conflict caused by the threatened identity, which is often rooted in the

loss of something or suffering in the past have not been resolved. Target through a workshop

facilities and dialogue between the parties in conflict, so as to identify the threat and fear

among the parties and establish empathy and reconciliation between them.

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 5. Theory of Intercultural Misunderstanding

Assume that the conflict caused by discrepancies in the ways of communication

between different cultures. The goal is to increase the knowledge of the parties in conflict

about the culture of others, reducing the negative streotip they have on the other hand,

increase the effectiveness of communication between cultures.

6. Theory Conflict Transformation

Assume that the conflict caused by the problems of inequality and injustice that

appears as a social, cultural and economic. The goal is to change the structure and framework

that led to inequalities and injustices including economic inequality, improve the fabric of

relationships and attitudes in the long term between the conflicting parties, to develop

processes and systems.

According to the theory of Karl Marx's approach to the conflict consist of two classes:

Community based on ownership of the means of production (the property). According to his

theory, Marx differentiates into 2 groups:

1. The bourgeois class: the group that owns the means of production as capital of the

company in business.

2. Proletarian class: the group that does not have the atmosphere and the means of

production then only sell energy to meet the needs

He also stated that, in society there is a conflict involving certain parties. Countries are active

in the dominant power. Governed by the law of the ruling class or classes dominant form of

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coercion being used as a tool to maintain and increase personal power and as a means of

oppression. Each class has its own interests contradictory and lead to conflicts occur.

Ownership and control instrumentalities within the same individuals or dominant.

Meanwhile, Jonathan Turner theorized that the conflict in three views:

a. There is no clear definition of the theory of conflict that cannot be distinguished

because of the use of the term,

b. Conflict theory floating because his analysis is not explained

c.Teori difficult conflict regardless of the functional theory as a reaction to the theory

of functional structures.

Jonathan Turner describes the process of the conflict consisted of nine stages:

1. The social system is composed of a number of units that are dependent on each

other.

2. There is an unequal distribution of resources between the measures of those units.

3. The units that receive the distribution of resources disproportionately began

questioning the legitimacy of the existing social system.

4. People are starting to realize that there is interest for them to change the location of

system resources are available.

5. They are starting to become emotional.

6. Periodically appear explosion of frustration, often disorganized.

7. The intensity of their involvement in the growing conflict and the increasingly

emotional involvement.
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 8. Various attempts were made to organize a group of dispossessed involvement in the

conflict.

9. Finally, open conflict in the level of violence among those who have-nots and the

haves them.

QUESTION 2: FACTORS OF CONFLICTS OCCUR

Conflict according to Robbins (2005), is a process that begins when one party feel

that the other party has affected negatively or soon will negatively influence the other party.

According Alabaness (2000), conflict is a condition perceived exists between the parties or

more feel the discrepancy between goals and opportunities to meddle in the business

achievement of the goals of others.

Based on the two terms of the conflict which experts presented above, it can be

deduced that the conflict is a dynamic process and its existence much more concerning the

perception of the person or party who experience it and feel it. Thus, if a state is not

perceived as a conflict, then basically such conflicts do not exist and vice versa. Factors

causing the conflict is diverse. Some of the factors causing the conflict, as stated:

1. One of the causes of conflict are mutually dependent. Dependent on the job occur

when two or more groups of organizations need each other in order to complete

the task.

2. One of the causes of conflict is the goal difference. Differences between the

objectives contained one piece with others who disagree may be a factor of conflict.

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 3. One of the causes of conflict are differences in perception or opinion. In the case of

the face of a problem, a difference of perception posed is what causes the conflict.

Other factors causing the conflict according to Smith, Mazzarella and Pieleinclude

(2007):

1. The communication problem is one of the causes of conflict, which can occur in

each or a combination of the elements of communication, which is a source of

communication, message, message recipients and channels.

2. The organizational structure is one of the causes of conflict, which could potentially

create conflicts. In every department or function within the organization have

interests, goals and programs on their own are often different from the others.

3. The human factor is one of the causes of conflict, human nature different from one

another and also unique. This potential conflict.

In general, the basis factors that could bring to conflicts is an individual differences

that include establishment and feeling the difference. Every human being is a unique

individual. That is, everyone has the establishment and feeling different from one another.

Differences establishment and feeling of something or a real environment can be a factor

causing social conflict, because in living social relations, one is not always in line with the

group. For example, when the musical performances take place in the neighborhood, of

course the feeling of every citizen will be different. Some are annoyed that noisy, but some

are amused.

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 Secondly, due to the differences in cultural background thus forming different

personalities. Someone less will be affected by the patterns of thought and the establishment

of the group. Thought and different establishments that will ultimately result in individual

differences that can lead to conflict. The difference between the interests of individuals or

groups. Humans have feelings, establishments and different cultural backgrounds. Therefore,

at the same time, each person or group has different interests. Sometimes people can do the

same, but for different purposes.

Conflict also occur because of rivalry or competition. In the rivalry of individual or

group seeking advantage through the areas of life that at one time the center of public

attention. How that is done to achieve that goal is to attract attention or sharpen existing

prejudices without using threats or violence. There are two kinds of rivalry or competition, ie

competition that is personal and not personal or group. Private competition is the competition

done by individuals or individual to gain position in the organization. Competition group, for

example between two companies with similar products to compete in the regional market.

Private and group competition produces some form of competition, including competition in

the field of economy, culture, status and role, and competition races.

A. Competition in the Field of Culture

Competition in the field of culture is a competition between the two cultures to

compete for influence in the region. Eg cultural competition between immigrant

culture with the culture of the indigenous population. The settlers will try to use their

culture in the region where it comes. Vice versa, a native of the settlers will try to use

its cultural life.

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 B. Competitive Position and Role

When in a person or group has the desire to be recognized as a person or

group that has respected the position and role of competition there. Position and role

are pursued depends on what is most valued by society at a particular time.

C. Competition Race

Competition is also a real race competition in the field of culture. Racial

differences in skin color, body shape, hair color and is only a symbol of awareness

and attitude or differences in cultures. Competition within the boundaries of a

particular function. Here is some function of competition

1. A device for holding the selection on the basis of gender and social;

2. the desire of individuals or groups that are competitive;

3. The way to channel the desires, interests, and values at a particular time to be

the center of attention

4. The tools to filter the residents of functional groups so as to produce an effective

division of labor.

Competition in all its forms will produce things that are positive or negative. The positive

things that are produced in the presence of competition, such as the strengthening of group

solidarity, progress achieved, and the formation of one's personality.

Lastly, the factor of conflict occur is suddenly and rapidly value in society. Changes is

a common and natural to happen, but if the change is rapid or even sudden, these changes can

lead to social conflict. For example, in rural communities who experience sudden
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industrialization process would bring social conflicts because the old values on traditional

societies are usually patterned farming was fast becoming an industrial society values. Values

that change was such great value changed to the value of mutual cooperation contract with

wages adjusted according to the type of work. Kinship shifted to structural relationships

which are arranged in a formal organization of the company. Shared values turn out to be

individualistic and values regarding the use of time tend to be tight turn into a firm timeline

as a schedule of work and rest in the industrial world. These changes, if it happens quickly or

suddenly, will make the Jolt social processes in society, it will even happen the rejection of all

forms of change because they disrupt order existing life community.

QUESTION 3: METHODS AND STRATEGIES IN HANDLING CONFLICTS

Conflict resolution approach by leaders categorized in two dimensions is cooperation/

non-cooperation and firm/is not decisive. The use of both these dimensions there are several

approaches to conflict resolution.

1. Lose-Lose Strategy (Lose-Lose Strategy)

This strategy oriented on two individuals or groups who are equally lost. Typically

individuals or groups of warring take the middle path (compromise) or pay a group of people

involved in the conflict or use the services of a third person or group as a mediator. In a lose-

lose strategy, conflict can be resolved by involving a third party if the talks reached a

stalemate. Then the third party is invited to intervene by the parties to the dispute or may act

on its own accord. There are two major types of third-party intervention, namely:

a. Arbitration (Arbitration)

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 Arbitration is a procedure in which a third party to listen to both parties to the

dispute, a third party acting as judge and arbiter in determining the settlement of the

conflict through a binding agreement.

b. Mediation (Mediation)

Mediation is used by the Mediator to resolve the conflict as resolved by

abriator, as a mediator does not have the authority to direct the warring parties and the

recommendations given are not binding.

2. Win-Lose Strategy (Win-Lose Strategy)

In strategy I win you lose (win lose strategy), emphasizing the one of the parties in

conflict suffered another defeat but victory. Some of the means used to resolve conflicts with

a win-lose strategy can be through:

a. The withdrawal, which is a process of conflict resolution between two or

more parties are not satisfied as a result of the dependence of the task (task

independence).

b. Tactics smoothing and peace, by taking action for peace with the opposition

to avoid confrontation of differences and vagueness in the limits of the field work

c. Persuasion, namely to persuade the other to change its position to consider

factual information relevant to the conflict, due to barriers of communication

(communication barriers).

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 d. Coercion and suppression tactics, using the formal power to show the

strength (power) through the authoritarian attitude as it is influenced by the properties

of the individual (individual traits).

e. Tactics oriented bargaining and exchange agreements in order to reach a

compromise that is acceptable to both sides, to resolve conflicts related to competition

of the sources (competition for resources) is optimal for the parties concerned.

3. Win-Win Strategy (Win-Win Strategy)

The solution is considered humane, because it uses all the knowledge, attitudes and

skills to create a relationship of communication and interaction that can make the parties

involved mutually feel safe from threats, feel valued, creating a conducive atmosphere and

the opportunity to develop their potential in solving conflict. So this strategy will help to

solve the problem of the parties involved in the conflict, not just a cornered man.

Win-win strategy rarely used in the organization and the industry, but there are two

ways in which this strategy could be used as alternative solutions to interpersonal conflict,

namely:

a. Integrated troubleshooting (Integrative Problem Solving) Efforts to settle by

consensus or combine the needs of both parties.

b. Consultation process between the parties (Inter-Party Process Consultation) In a

solution through consultation process, the process is usually handled by the consultants,

where they do not have the authority to resolve conflicts with authority or judge one or both

parties to the conflict

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 4. Bureaucratic Approaches

Conflicts arise because of the bureaucratic relationship that occurs vertically and to face

the vertical conflict this model, managers tend to use a hierarchical structure (hierarchical

structure) in its relationship. Conflicts occur due to the leadership of trying to control all the

activities and actions carried out by his subordinates. Strategies for solving conflicts like this

are usually used as a replacement of bureaucratic regulations to control the private

subordinates. Bureaucratic approach within the organization aims to anticipate vertical

conflict approximated by using a hierarchy structural.

5. Approach Authoritative Intervention in Conflict Lateral

In the event of a conflict lateral, usually be resolved by the parties involved in the

conflict. Then, if it turns out conflict cannot be resolved constructively, usually the

manager directly intervene both sides.

6. System Approach

Model bargaining approach emphasizes the issues of competition and bureaucratic

approach model emphasizes the difficulties in control, then the system approach is to

coordinate the conflict problems that arise. This approach emphasizes the relationship

between the horizontal lateral and marketing functions with the production in an organization.

7. Structural Reorganization
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 Approach can be through changing the system to look at the possibility of a structural

reorganization to align the different interests and goals to be achieved both parties, such as

forming a new container in non-formal to resolve conflicts protracted as a result of mutual

dependence of the task in achieving the different interests and goals so that the function of the

organization becomes blurred.

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REFERENCE

Brewer, M. (1991). The Role of Ethnocentrism in Intergroup Conflict, in S. Worchel and

W. G. Austin, eds., Psychology of Intergroup Relations (Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1986);

Brewer, M., & Horowitz, D.L. (1997). Violent Conflict In The 21st Century: Causes,
Instruments & Mitigation. American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Midwest Center
Chicago, IL

Brown, M. E. (1997).Causes and Implications of Ethnic Conflict. The Ethnicity Reader.

Nationalism, Multiculturalism, and Migration, Guibernau dan John Rex (eds), Great
Britain, Polity Press, 1997, pg.80-100.

Deutsch, M. (1969), 'Conflicts: Productive and Destructive', Journal of Social Issues, vol. 25,
pg. 7 - 42.
Stackman, W.B. (2001). A Study of Conflict and Methods of Handling Conflict at Small
Liberal Arts Colleges. Boston, University.

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