Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Respected Sir
Thank you,
Regards,
Mohammad Asif (4431)
Muhammad Zeeshan (4430)
Mohsin Ahmed Saddiqui (4449)
Irfan Ashraf (2348)
Encl: As above.
[1]
Introduction:
Literature Review
[2]
(1970), and Vroom (1964) that have shown that there is at least some
relationship between those variables. Iaffaldano and Muchinsky (1985) did an
extensive analysis on the relationship between job performance and job
satisfaction. Across their many studies, they found a mean correlation of 17
(Iaffaldano & Muchinsky, 1985). There are also stronger relationships
depending on specific circumstances such as mood and employee level within
the company (Morrison, 1997). Organ (1988) also found that the job
performance and job satisfaction relationship follows the social exchange
theory; employees‟ performance is giving back to the organization from which
they get their satisfaction.
Judge et al. (2001) argued that there are seven different models that can be
used to describe the job satisfaction and job performance relationship. Some
of these models view the relationship between job satisfaction and job
performance to be unidirectional, that either job satisfaction causes job
performance or vice versa. Another model states that the relationship is a
reciprocal one; this has been supported by the research of Wanous (1974).
The underlying theory of this reciprocal model is that if the satisfaction is
extrinsic, then satisfaction leads to performance, but if the satisfaction is
intrinsic, then the performance leads to satisfaction. Other models suggest
there is either an outside factor that causes a seemingly relationship between
the factors or that there is no relationship at all, however, neither of these
models have much research.
(Rashmi Shahu, 2008).
1.1.2 Productivity
Stress at job is effect the productivity of the employees according to as cited
in Clement (1993), Brayfield and Crockett (1955) examined the relationship
between employee satisfaction and performance. Their findings concluded
that productivity is not an important goal that employees bring with them to
their jobs; this research was further supported in the 1964 work of Vroom
(Rashmi Shahu, 2008).
[4]
interaction of individual personality differences and environmental dynamics.
(Kacmar, Collins, Harris, & Judge, 2009)
Job satisfaction is quite highly correlated with overall happiness, and can be
looked at as one of its main components. The Human Relations movement, of
Elton Mayo and others, believed that job satisfaction had beneficial effects,
including increased work performance (Argyle, 1988). Let us consider whether
this is in fact the case.
following statements which best tells how well you like your job: I hate it, I
dislike it, I do not like it, I am indifferent to it, I like it, I am enthusiastic about it,
I love it' (Hoppock, 1935). Later measures have used a series of scales to
measure different components of job satisfaction. Many scales have been
devised for this purpose: one book reviews no fewer than 249 scales of
various kinds (Cook et al., 1981). However, one of the most widely used is the
Job Description Index, which contains five scales, seventy-two items in all,
which are answered `yes', `no' or `uncertain' (Smith, Kendall and Hulin, 1969).
The five scales are designed to measure satisfaction in the following areas:
(1) work on present job, e.g. fascinating; (2) present pay, e.g. income
inadequate for normal expenses (-); (3) opportunities for promotion, e.g. fairly
good chance for promotion; (4) supervision on present job, e.g. lazy (-); (5)
people on present job, e.g. talk too much (-). The minus signs show reversed
items, i.e. those that show dissatisfaction.
Eight of these studies produced correlations of +.44 or above; these were all
supervisory or professional workers, using self, peer or supervisory ratings of
performance. Petty et al. (1984) found an overall correlation of +.23; this was
+.31 for supervisors and above, +.15 for those at lower levels. Some recent
studies have found correlations which are higher than this under certain
conditions. An overall correlation of +.35 was found in one, but it was as high
as +.60 when there was little pressure for performance, i.e. when hard work
was more voluntary (Bhagat, 1982).
[6]
It is interesting that the correlation is greater for those in supervisory or
professional jobs. In these jobs performance depends less on external
pressures, like wage incentives or assembly-line speeds, and more on
motivation, creativity and helpfulness. Laboratory experiments on mood
induction have shown that putting subjects in a good mood leads to (1) better
and more original problem-solving, (2) greater helpfulness and generosity,
and (3) more positive attitudes to other people (Argyle, 1987).
The relation between job satisfaction and absenteeism has also been studied.
It would be expected that happy workers would turn up more often to receive
the benefits which they enjoy at work. In fact, the average correlation is quite
low: -.09 in one meta-analysis (Hackett and Guion, 1985), and -.22 in another
(McShane, 1983). However, there is a very skewed distribution of
absenteeism - most people are not absent at all, which reduces the possible
size of correlations (Hackett and Guion, op.cit.). The relationship is greatest
with satisfaction for pay and promotion (Rosse and Miller, 1984), and for the
work itself (Hackett and Guion, op.cit.).
It has been suggested that low job satisfaction is the cause of withdrawal,
which may take the form of absence, lateness, labour turnover, and even
sickness and accidents. One version is that there are alternative kinds of
withdrawal, and that these (labour turnover, absenteeism and lateness) are
among four general responses to job dissatisfaction: exit: i.e. leave, look for
another job; voice, i.e. talk to supervisor, write letters: loyalty, i.e. stick it out,
wait patiently; neglect, i.e. absenteeism and lateness (Farrell, 1983). Spencer
[7]
(1986) found that turnover had a correlation of -.24 with perceived availability
of `voice', e.g. formal grievance procedures, suggestion schemes, employee-
management meetings. However, when there is high absenteeism, labour
turnover is also high - both forms of exit seem to go together. Low productivity
could be seen as another form of withdrawal. A different version of the
withdrawal theory is that the alternatives are hierarchically ordered, the minor
forms of withdrawal being used first and leaving the organization last. Clegg
(1983) found that lateness was a predictor of later absenteeism, providing
evidence of this hierarchy operating. (Argyle, 1989)
There have been useful causal analyses of the effects of job satisfaction on
mental health. Low job satisfaction is correlated with high rates of anxiety,
depression, psychosomatic symptoms, and coronary heart disease; (poor)
mental health is more closely associated with (low) job satisfaction than it is
with features of the job, suggesting that job satisfaction is an intervening state
in the causal chain (Wall, Clegg and Jackson, 1978). (Argyle, 1989)
For example, people with a higher percentage of occupational stress may not
be satisfied with their job and therefore they will not feel happy working in the
organization. They may feel frustrated or “burned out” when they are having
problems with peers or customers. This may leave a negative impact to the
organization itself. Therefore, it is very important for employer and employees
to realize the stress and the stressor that cause all the negative effects.
Numerous studies found that fob stress influences the employees‟ job
satisfaction and their overall performance in their work. Because most of the
organizations now are more demanding for the better job outcomes. In fact,
modern times have been called as the “age of anxiety and stress” (Coleman,
1976).The stress itself will be affected by number of stressors. Nevertheless,
Beehr and Newman (1978) had defined stress as a situation which will force a
person to deviate from normal functioning due to the change (i.e. disrupt or
enhance) in his/her psychological and/or physiological condition, such that the
person is forced to deviate from normal functioning. From the definition that
[9]
has been identified by researchers, we can conclude that it is truly important
for an individual to recognize the stresses that are facing by them in their
career. Some demographic factor may influence the way a university
academic staff act in their workplace.
Family and work are inter-related and interdependent to the extent that
experiences in one area affect the quality of life in the other (Sarantakos,
1996). Home-wor interface can be known as the overlap between work and
home; the two way relationship involves the source of stress at work affecting
home life and vice versa affects of seafaring on home life, demands from work
at home, no support from home, absent of stability in home life. It asks about
whether home problems are brought to work and work has a negative impact
on home life (Alexandros-Stamatios G.A et al., 2003). For example, it
questions whether the workers have to take work home, or inability to forget
about work when the individual is at home. Home-work interface is important
for the workers to reduce the level of work-related stress. According to Lasky
(1995) demands associated with family and finances can be a major source of
„extra-organisational‟ stress that can complicate, or even precipitate, work-
place stress. Russo & Vitaliano (1995) argued that the occurrence of
stressors in the workplace either immediately following a period of chronic
stress at home, or in conjunction with other major life stressors, is likely to
have a marked impact on outcome.
[10]
Several studies have highlighted the deleterious consequences of high
workloads or work overload. According to Wilkes et al. (1998) work overloads
and time constraints were significant contributors to work stress among
community nurses.
Over the years, a lot of research has been carried out in the realm of work
place stress and it has been emphatically proven that intense or prolonged
stress leads to a negative impact on one's mental and physical well being.
(Health & Safety Executive, 2001; Cooper et al, 2001).
According to Cooper & Marshall, stress could be due to factors intrinsic to the
job, such as poor physical working conditions, work overload or time
pressures. Often, one's role in the organization and the ambiguity associated
with the job resulting from inadequate information concerning expectations,
authority and responsibilities to perform one's role as well as the conflict that
arises from the demands placed on the individual by superiors, peers and
subordinates could also result in stress. A third factor is the impact of status
incongruence, lack of job security and thwarted ambition on one's career
progression. Rayner and Hoel (1997)
[12]
Personality: Besides external factors, there are internal factors too that can
cause stress, like the age of the individual, sex, education and a personality
that is deemed Type A or inherently stressful.
[13]
Its not stress that kills us, it is our reaction to it.
Dr. Hans Selye, leading stress expert
Most of the studies pay a lot of importance to the negative side of stress, i.e.
distress which is just one aspect of stress. However, some studies have
shown that if one can manage stress effectively, it can lead to a positive
outcome and response. Jennifer (1996) and Selve (1976) proposed the
positive affective response to the stress process and coined the term
'eustress'. Other influential writers have also suggested that stress is not
inherently maladaptive (Hart, 2003; Hart & Cotton, 2002; Karasek, 1979;
Lazarus, 1999; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984; Tedeschi & Calhoun, 2004). In the
context of the work place, stressful events can lead to perceptions of positive
benefit (Campbell-Quick, Cooper, Nelson, Quick, & Gavin, 2003; Nelson &
Simmons, 2003). Although many researchers have investigated distress,
eustress had been neglected until recently.
[14]
health, it becomes important to define 'health' itself. The World Health
Organisation (WHO) terms health1 as a 'state of complete physical, mental
and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity'. In
more recent years, this statement has been modified to include the ability to
lead a 'socially and economically productive life'.
The issue of whether happy employees lead to better firm performance has
been studied for decades. Although it seems logical that employees who are
satisfied with their jobs are more productive and engage more in behaviors
beneficial to the firm, early empirical studies indicate relatively low correlations
between satisfaction and performance (Iaffaldano and Muchinsky, 1985).
Different rationales (e.g., measurement problems, research design
characteristics, levels of analysis) attempt to explain this low correlation. Of
the various explanations offered, the level of analysis for employee attitudes
and performance has the greatest impact. The failure to find a strong
relationship at the individual level has stimulated searches for a job
satisfaction-performance relationship at the organizational level (Ostroff,
1992).
Moreover, limited empirical work investigating the relationship between
aggregated attitudes and Performance provides evidence that job satisfaction
relates to organizational performance (Harter, Schmidt, and Hayes, 2002;
Ostroff, 1992; Schneider et al., 2003). In line with this research stream, we
expect that aggregated employee satisfaction positively affects firm
performance.(KEVIN, JULIE, NAN, & CHENTING, 2008)
More important, we argue that MO behavior contributes to firm performance
through employee job satisfaction and product quality. MO behavior promotes
the collective efforts of individual employees in various departments in
response to market intelligence, with the basic idea that every person in the
company can contribute something of value to end customers (Jaworski and
Kohli, 1993).
[15]
1.2.0. Theoretical Frame Work
In this section a theoretical framework for the job stress behaviour is
developed based on the objectives and previous literature survey in this area.
The model can be developed consistent with previous theory that estimates
the effects of several dimensions thought represent academic and
occupational stress. The reason to conduct this study is to classify some
significant person and environmental variables which contribute to academic
and occupational stress and to estimate their direct and indirect effects on
various relevant outcomes (such as job satisfaction). This research will
provide further insight as to what extend can the four variables influence in the
job satisfaction
Job Satisfaction
Job Stress
Productivity
The
Effects of Job
Redesign
Psychological
Contract
[16]
Stress is a mental and physical condition, which affects an individual‟s
productivity, effectiveness, personal health and quality of work. Job stress
victims experience lowered quality of work life and job satisfaction. The
harmful and costly consequences of stress demonstrate the need for
strategies to limit stressors within the organization. Organizations that do not
adopt strategies to alleviate stress may find their employees looking
elsewhere for better opportunities. The impact of stress from overwork, long
hours at work and work intensification has had a major and often devastating
effect on organizations of developed nations. A recent American Management
Association survey of 292 member firms revealed that per capita disability
claims tend to increase when positions are eliminated. The survey, which
dealt with layoffs between 1990 and 1995, found that the illnesses disabled
workers sought treatment for – gastrointestinal problems, mental disorders
and substance abuse, hypertension and the like – were stress related (Reese,
1997).
The process of restructuring, downsizing and reengineering have helped
companies to become lean, but not without great costs. Employees are
experiencing more stress and uncertainty because companies got leaner
without building their “muscle”. Just like going on a diet without exercising.
The organization weighs less but the percentage of fat” – which manifests as
high stress, low morale and less than optimal productivity has actually
increased. Some organizations have even become anorexic.
They are too lean, but because the think they are fat, they continue to “diet”.
Shahu, Gole Further, research by Froiland (1993) has shown that there is
practically no correlation between either job burnout or performance problems
or any of he physical issues that are commonly addressed by employee
assistance programmers.
A study by North Western National Life Insurance Co. concluded that job
stress is generally a consequence of two ingredients: a high level of job
demands and little control over one‟s work. Many of today‟s workers are
finding their jobs more stressful than they were simply because they are
working too many hours. The study concluded that “where employees are
empowered where they have more control over how they perform their work
reduces the risk of stress and burnout considerably” (Froiland, 1993). This
[17]
supported work by Umiker (1992) which showed that “… individuals who feel
that they are in control of their jobs and their futures are better able to handle
stress. Also that these empowered workers become more productive out of
being in control” (Umiker, 1992).A study conducted by Bushe et al. (1996),
reported increased productivity and efficiencies from being empowered
measured by reported increased customer satisfaction and innovation.
Further, stress was reduced when a person did no longer have to report to
someone daily. By empowering employees they took upon themselves control
over their work giving them a higher sense of accomplishment, and that this
was found regardless of occupational grouping.
The purpose of empowered work teams in Bushe et al. (1996) research was
to; reduce costs through fewer overheads and to speed up problem
resolution. The organizational outcomes were found to be increased
productivity and efficiencies.
This was due mainly to quicker response rates through empowerment and, in
part, to the removal of organizational barriers often brought about by
increased motivation from a greater sense of ownership and responsibility.
Also, automation has left workers virtually on call 24 hours a day, as well as
shortened the turnaround time from project conception to completion. The ten
hour business day has become routine for many workers. Corporate
restructuring has left employees anxious about the security of their job.
Symptoms of these stressed workers include drops in productivity, changes in
work attitude, low morale and increased absenteeism.
1.2.2. PRODUCTIVITY
Brayfield and Crockett (1955) astounded the world of occupational psychology
by finding an average correlation of only + .15 from the 26 studies published
up until then. The latest meta-analysis of 217 separate correlations (in 74
studies) also found an overall correlation of + .15 (Iaffaldano & Muchinsky,
1985).
Eight of these studies produced correlations of +.44 or above; these were all
supervisory or professional workers, using self, peer or supervisory ratings of
performance. Petty et al. (1984) found an overall correlation of +.23; this was
+.31 for supervisors and above, +.15 for those at lower levels. Some recent
[18]
studies have found correlations which are higher than this under certain
conditions. An overall correlation of +.35 was found in one, but it was as high
as +.60 when there was little pressure for performance, i.e. when hard work
was more voluntary (Bhagat, 1982).
It is interesting that the correlation is greater for those in supervisory or
professional jobs. In these jobs performance depends less on external
pressures, like wage incentives or assembly-line speeds, and more on
motivation, creativity and helpfulness. Laboratory experiments on mood
induction have shown that putting subjects in a good mood leads to (1) better
and more original problem-solving, (2) greater helpfulness and generosity,
and (3) more positive attitudes to other people (Argyle, 1987).
Job satisfaction is also correlated with other kinds of desirable behaviour at
work - there is less sabotage, stealing, doing work badly on purpose, and
spreading rumors or gossip to cause trouble (Mangoine and Quinn, 1975).
This effect was stronger for those over thirty-five years of age, probably
because they would only engage in such behaviour if they had a very strong
sense of grievance. Bateman and Organ (1983) found that non-academic
university staff who were satisfied engaged more in a wide variety of `good
citizenship' behaviour at work - they were more punctual, dependable, helpful,
cooperative and tidy, and they created less waste, made fewer complaints
and were angry less frequently.
The relation between job satisfaction and absenteeism has also been studied.
It would be expected that happy workers would turn up more often to receive
the benefits which they enjoy at work. In fact, the average correlation is quite
low: -.09 in one meta-analysis (Hackett and Guion, 1985), and -.22 in another
(McShane, 1983). However, there is a very skewed distribution of
absenteeism - most people are not absent at all, which reduces the possible
size of correlations (Hackett and Guion, op.cit.). The relationship is greatest
with satisfaction for pay and promotion (Rosse and Miller, 1984), and for the
work itself (Hackett and Guion, op.cit.).
There is a clearer correlation with voluntary or unexcused absence which is
not due to sickness. The relationship is stronger for women, manual workers,
workers in larger firms and younger workers (Metzner and Mann, 1953).
[19]
These are the people who are absent more, so that there is a less skewed
distribution.
Similar analyses have been made of job satisfaction and labour turnover, and
the correlation is typically -.20 to -.30 and rarely greater than -.40 (Mobley,
1982). Carsten and Spector (1987), in a meta-analysis of forty-seven studies,
found an overall correlation of -.23 (but of -.51 under high unemployment, see
below). Labour turnover correlates with different components of job
satisfaction, but especially satisfaction with job content (Mobley et al., 1979).
(Argyle, DO HAPPY WORKERS WORK HARDER?, 1989)
1.2.3. The Effects of Job Redesign.
Hackman and Oldham (1980) proposed that five features of jobs both
motivate performance and provide job satisfaction. Many studies have found
correlations between these features and job satisfaction, and a meta-analysis
by Loher et al (1985) found the following averages: (a) task identity
(completing a clear and identifiable piece of work) +.32; (b) task significance
(the degree to which the job has an impact on the lives of others) +.38; (c)
skill variety +.41; (d) autonomy (the degree to which the job provides
freedom, independence and discretion) +.46; (e) feedback (the extent to
which information about effectiveness is available) +.41.
What happens when jobs are redesigned to enhance these features? Two
kinds of improvement have been distinguished, which enhance these
features in different ways.
(1) Job enlargement. Kelly (1982) analysed a number of cases of job
enlargement, and found increases in productivity per man hour of the order of
20 per cent. However, this was not necessarily caused by increased job
satisfaction and motivation, but by removing delays due to workers waiting for
each other to pass on materials, and by improving methods of working, e.g.
using both hands, and better-designed work stations. If there was an increase
in pay, then additional increases in productivity of the order of a further 35 per
cent or so were found. In most cases job satisfaction increased but in some
cases productivity improved while job satisfaction did not, and vice versa.
(2) Job enrichment. Does job enrichment e.g. inspecting own work, fare any
better? According to Kelly's analysis, it does not for manual workers: any
increases in productivity were due to bargains of more pay for doing more
[20]
things, with a resultant reduction in labour costs. However, for white-collar
workers the findings are more positive. For example, Janson (1971) studied
the effect of the enrichment of the work of typists who were asked to change
their own computer tapes and to correct their own mistakes. (Argyle, DO
HAPPY WORKERS WORK HARDER?, 1989).
1.2.4. Psychological Contract
Psychological contract is defined as the set of reciprocal expectations held by
the individual employee that specifies what the individual and the organization
expect to give and receive in the working relationship (Rousseu, 1990). The
psychological contract is unwritten agreement between employer and
employee that each party will treat the other party and it is based on
presumably shared beliefs. Because of it is unwritten and unofficial and
therefore not legally binding, the motivation for compliance is not, as it is with
explicit written contract but rather the desire to maintain mutual trust. It thus,
constitutes an emotion bond.
Previous researchers have highlighted the implicit relationship between
employer and employees or the role of psychological on work attitude such as
organizational commitment. (Eienberger, 1990) reported that there was a
strong relationship between psychological contract and organizational
commitment. The similar result was recorded in the relationship between job
satisfaction and organizational commitment (Ashford et al., 1990). Recent
studies have found that both psychological contract and job satisfaction were
able to influence organizational commitment. (Simon, 1993) found that the
relationship between job satisfaction and organizational commitment was
affected after controlling psychological contract. However, Simon‟s findings
revealed of weak and no significant relationship between some job
satisfaction facets and organizational commitment after controlling
psychological contract. (Sarminah, Samad; Za‟faran, Hassan, 2007).
[21]
2.0.0. Methodology
2.0.1 Hypothesis Development
H1: There is a relationship between Productivity and job
satisfaction
H2: There is a relationship between effect of job rotation and job
satisfaction
H3: There is a relationship between psychological contract and job
satisfaction
H4: There is a negative relationship between job stress and job
satisfaction
[22]
2.0.2. Instrument Development
This instrument used in this study is composed of 3 parts. The first part deals
with job stress. Job stress is measured by “Job Stress Questionnaire, JSQ”
proposed by Caplan et al. (1975) and Sahu and Gole (2008). This scale
included four dimensions from Caplan et al (1975), namely (1) workload, (2)
role conflict, (3) role ambiguity and (4) performance pressure which comprised
thirteen items. Each of job stressors was measured on a six-point Likert Scale
in which 1 indicated “strongly disagree”, 2 indicated “disagree”, 3 indicated
“somewhat disagree”, 4 indicated “somewhat agree”, 5 indicated “agree” and
6 indicated “strongly agree”. The main reason for this choice of all six job
stressor was widely used in previous studies. Part 2 includes job satisfaction
which is measured using Job Descriptive Index (JDI) (Smith et al., 1969), a
reliable facet measure over time (Kinicki et al., 2002), applicable across a
variety of demographic groups (Golembiewski and Yeager, 1978; Jung et al.,
1986) and measured on a six point scale wit least satisfied (1) to very satisfied
(6). The structure this section differed from previous studies insofar as it
considered satisfaction as a positive phenomenon. Consequently, there was
no facility for dissatisfaction. Part 3 includes a number of demographic
questions such as gender, age, marital status, race, and education level.
Table -1
Variable Tolerance VIF
Job stress .509 1.964
Productivity .410 2.442
Effect job Redesigning .561 1.783
Psychological Contract .379 1.472
[25]
Table -2
Variable Beta t-value p- value
Constant 1.781 .076
Job stress .283 4.013 .000
Productivity .218 2.768 .006
Effect job Redesigning .180 2.674 .008
Psychological Contract .209 3.429 .001
[26]
(ρ=0.239). The unimportance of relationship factor may be due to fact that all
the faculty members are very much friendly and cooperative. However, we
can expect to get stronger association if the conflict arises from their
colleagues.
3.1.5. The Results of Hypothesis 3
Most research suggests that Effect of job Redesigning is indeed negatively
correlated with job satisfaction, job involvement, performance, tension,
propensity to leave the job and job performance variables (Rizzo, House, &
Lirtzman 1970; Van Sell, Brief, & Schuler 1981; Fisher & Gitelson 1983;
Jackson & Schule 1985; Singh 1998). The result of this study shows that the
association between role ambiguity and job stress is significant with β=0.180
(ρ=0.01). The support for hypothesis 5 reflects that more complex and rapid
changes of organisation exist in the faculty; the possibility of job satisfaction
will be higher.
[27]
Table 4: Relationship between Job Stress and Job Satisfaction
Variables Standard error of Coefficient t-value Standard Reg. Co.
Beta (p-value)
Job Stress 0.035 -4.909 0.327 (0.00)
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