Two Main Methods for Yield Line Analysis of Slabs

Valentn Quintas1

Abstract: There is a controversy about whether the classical yield lines analysis methods are in fact different methods or simply
different ways to develop basically the same method. In this paper two methods are proposed that, without invalidating previous ones,
really correspond to the two different ways of performing yield line analysis and therefore facilitate a better comprehension of the general
problem of the failure of slabs. These methods are the nearly abandoned normal moment method and a new skew moment method.
In normal moment method only bending moments are supposed to act at yield lines. In skew moment method, twisting moments in
addition to bending moments act along yield lines. The normal moment method is general only if yield patterns are correct, that is,
they are composed by possible yield lines. If yield lines are incorrect, or not possible, yield line analysis can only be performed, in
general, by means of skew moment method. As shown in this paper, many of the classical solutions of yield line analysis correspond
to incorrect yield patterns. This work demonstrates that Johansens nodal force theoryor equilibrium methodand work
method are only partial applications of skew moment method. This generalization of yield line analysis allows defining new equilib-
rium conditions not included in classical yield lines theory and permits obtaining more accurate solutions.
CE Database keywords: Slabs; Analytical techniques.

Introduction
Ingerslev 1923 performed for the first time a yield analysis for a
simply supported rectangular slab by means of which in what
follows will be referred to as the normal moment method; in
essence, by simply assuming the equilibrium between loads and
only bending moments acting alone at yield lines. This method is
the natural approach to yield line analysis because, as Johansen
himself recognized Johansen 1962, p.17, at real yield lines only
the greatest principal moment acts. However, when Johansen ap-
plied the principle of virtual work to the yield mechanism of
certain yield patternsthe so-called work methodhe found
that results of that method did not agree with that of the normal
moment method. He correctly deduced that in those particular
cases shears and twisting moments act at yield lines, in addition
to bending moments, and therefore, they do not correspond to real
yield lines. This type of yield line will be described in what fol-
lows as an incorrect yield line. On the contrary, if they corre-
spond to possible real yield lines, they should be described as
correct yield lines Quintas 1994.
By means of his third theorem, Johansen 1962 restricted the
application of normal moment method to the particular case in
which only yield lines of the same sign meet at a point. Using the
terms of this work, he should have stated that correct yield
lines are those that accomplish his third theorem. Some para-
doxes found for certain yield patterns Jones and Wood 1967
show that fulfilling the third theorem is only one of the conditions
that a yield line needs to be correct.
1
Dept. de Estructuras de Edificacion, E.T.S.A.M. Univ. Politecnica de
Madrid, Avda. Juan de Herrera, 4, 28040-Madrid, Spain.
Note. Associate Editor: Victor N. Kaliakin. Discussion open until July
1, 2003. Separate discussions must be submitted for individual papers. To
extend the closing date by one month, a written request must be filed with
the ASCE Managing Editor. The manuscript for this paper was submitted
for review and possible publication on February 28, 2002; approved on
July 11, 2002. This paper is part of the Journal of Engineering Mechan-
ics, Vol. 129, No. 2, February 1, 2003. ASCE, ISSN 0733-9399/2003/2-
223231/$18.00.
For the rest of the yield patterns Jonansen developed nodal
force theory or equilibrium method. In this method resultants
of shears and twisting moments are reduced to forces acting at
nodes of the yield pattern. As it has been demonstrated Kemp
1965; Morley 1988, at least for isotropic slabs, nodal forces are
only pairs of forces equivalent to the resultants of twisting mo-
ments acting at each yield line. Since in this equality nodal forces
and twisting moments are multiplied by the same length of the
yield line, nodal forces are equivalent to twisting moments, but
never to shear forces. If nodal forces are substituted by twisting
moments acting at yield lines, a more general method of analysis
can be performed. This method will be named in this work skew
moment method, and it envisages, in addition to nodal force
theory and work method, new equilibrium conditions.
It will be concluded that yield line analysis can be approached
more successfully using two basic ways: normal moment
method and the skew moment method. The scope of these
two methods is outlined by the use of two basic principles that
define whether a yield line is correct or incorrect.
Principle of the Yield Mechanism. Curved Yield
Lines and Simulated Annealing Method
The first basic principle of yield line analysisor principle of
the yield mechanismis that: yield lines must divide the slab in
such a way that it is transformed into a mechanism. In order to
simplify yield analysis Johansen, by means of his first two Theo-
rems, restricted this basic principle to straight yield lines that,
consequently, divide the slab into plane regions. However, as it
can be seen in real load tests, real yield lines, and consequently
regions bounded by them, are very frequently curved. This cur-
vature can be produced by elastic deformations or by partial
cracks, very visible in real tests.
The existence of curved yield lines for certain boundaries is
very important for this work because, as we shall see later, in
those cases correct and real yield lines must be necessarily
curved. All this was confirmed using simulated annealing method
Vazquez 1994. The simulated annealing method is an optimiza-

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 Fig. 1. Annealing method results

tion technique based on the selection of random sequences of

design emulating the reduction of temperature in a bar that goes
from a high to a low temperature Kirkpatrick et al. 1983 Al-
though this technique has been applied to the optimal design of
structures Tzan and Pantalides 1996, the application to the fail-
ure of concrete slabs has been done for the first time by Vazquez
1994. In this application the random designs selected are the
yield patterns of a slab. The results obtained by Vazquez agreed
very closely with real tests and confirmed the curvature of yield
lines for certain edges. They also showed that this curvature was
produced mainly by partial cracks that bound partial plane regions
Fig. 1. Consequently it was found that many classical solutions
of yield line analysisas that of Fig. 2a obtained by Johansen
1962, pp. 77 and 78are only approximations, while the best
yield pattern obtained is very frequently curved, rather different
and corresponds to a yield bending moment 26% greater Fig.
2c Vazquez 1994.

Notation, Representation, and Assumptions Used

As we must use extensively Mohrs circle, the calculation of
bending and twisting moments acting at any direction become
much easier if bending moments are represented as vectors nor-
mal to those lines and twisting moments as vectors with the same
direction of lines along which they act Fig. 3. In other words,
we will represent bending moments and twists as vectors with the
same direction of the stresses produced by these moments. The
two bending moments acting at a point of a slab will be desig-
nated as M a and M b . Twisting moments will be designated as
M ab and M ba , or simply as M ab , since M ab M ba . The two
principal bending moments will be designated as M and M .
Fig. 3, and the shear force acting at a yield line as T a . Finally,
a yield positive line should be represented as one crooked line, a
yield negative line as two crooked lines, a free edge as a line, a
simply supported edge as two lines, a clamped edge as a family of
parallel lines, and a column as a circle. Fig. 2. Johansens solution compared with annealing method
In what follows it will be assumed that the slab yields at any solutions
point and in any direction with a positive yield bending moment,
designated M p , and a negative yield bending moment, desig-
nated M p . This corresponds to a uniformly reinforced concrete
only submitted to a bending moment normal to its direction, and
slab with different reinforcements for positive and negative bend-
shear forces in some cases. This statement can be easily shown
ing moments, that is, to an isotropic slab. The use of isotropic
simply by looking at Lames ellipse of moments Fig. 4. The
slabs clarifies the following exposition and, in any case, it can be
maximum of all the internal moments that act at a point has to be
easily generalized to orthotropic reinforcement.
the greatest principal bending moment M and, therefore, yield
lines must appear in the direction normal to that bending moment
Principle of Normality of Yield Moments. Correct when M reaches the value of Mp . This has also been stated by
and Incorrect Yield Lines
Sobotka 1989 and Johansen 1962. This general property im-
A correct yield line occurs in the direction perpendicular to the plies that along real or correct yield lines twisting moments have
largest principal bending moment. Consequently the yield line is to be always zero.

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 Fig. 3. Representation of bending moments
If M p is a mathematical local maximum, shear forces have to
be zero along the yield line, as T a M a /a M ab /b , M ab
0 and M a /a 0. Fig. 3. It must be noted that M a can reach
the value of M p simply by being the largest value of all bending
moments in that region without being a local maximum. In this
case T a has a definite value along yield lines, though M ab con-
tinues to be zero. T a must be used to establish the equilibrium at
the yielded plate, but in no case T a should be the cause of yield-
ing.
On the contrary, a yield line that needs the aid of twisting
moments to equilibrate loads, or fulfill the boundary conditions,
will be a virtual or incorrect yield line, since there always
exists at any point of that line a direction in which there is a
bending moment greater than the assumed yield bending moment
M p ; that is, the principal bending moment M .
Using the above general property, several laws can be applied
simply by using Mohrs circle in order to distinguish between
correct and incorrect yield lines and to find the static laws that
must relate forces acting at incorrect yield lines.
1. Intersections of Yield Lines
At the inner part of the slab it can be established that:
1a. The intersection of yield lines having the same sign is
always possible, and therefore correct. These intersections rep-
resent the case where M a M M b M M p and M 0;
that is, when Mohrs circle degenerates into a point, all the direc-
tions are principal directions and the value of the twisting mo-
ment is zero Fig. 5a. This apparently agrees with Johansens
third theorem. Nevertheless, it can be only stated that these inter-
sections are correct in some cases where the yield pattern has
axial or double symmetry, as those shown in Fig. 5b. In other
cases, as that of Fig. 5c, only for a specific slope the yield lines
Fig. 4. Lames ellipse of bending moments
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Fig. 5. Correct intersections of yield lines having the same sign
are free of twisting moments, for simple reasons of equilibrium.
Finally, as shown below, cases can be found in which twists are
necessary to fulfill boundary conditions.
1b. Intersection of yield lines having different signs is only
possible when they are only two and they cross at a right angle.
This corresponds to the case in which M a M M p , M b M
M p , and M ab 0 see Mohrs circle in Fig. 6 with the angle
a90. Following this, the corner lever pattern of Fig. 7a is
incorrect, while the correct solutions are the fans shown in Fig.
7b, in which positive yield lines intersect at right angles the
negative curved yield lines. Two possible equilibrium states for
those incorrect yield lines can be postulated Fig. 8.
In the first state Fig. 8a it is assumed that one of the yield
lines is the correct oneand therefore subjected to the yield
bending moment M p whereas the other yield lines are incorrect
ones at which, in addition to bending moments M a , twists M ab
act. The relationship of M a and M ab to M
p and M p is that of
moments in any direction with principal bending moments, and
can also be deduced from Mohrs circle in Fig. 8a
M a M
p tan aM ab
M
p M p
M ab sin 2a (1)
2
M a M 2
p cos aM p sin a
2
Fig. 6. Correct intersections of yield lines having different signs
JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS / FEBRUARY 2003 / 225
 Fig. 7. Yield lines at corners of simply supported slabs

a angle at which the incorrect yield line intersects one of

the principal directions or the correct yield line.
In the second state Fig. 8b it is assumed that all the yield
lines are incorrect and therefore, all are submitted to twisting
moments M ab1 ,M ab2 , . . . in addition to bending moments
M a1 , M a2 , . . . with a smaller value than that of the principal
bending moment M p .
The relationship of those moments to M p continues to be Eq.
1, making M a1 M a , M ab1 M ab , and M a2 M a , M ab2
M ab .
A relationship between the internal forces at the two incorrect
yield lines can also be obtained by means of Mohrs circle of Fig.
8b, or eliminating M
p and M p from the relations between M a1 , Fig. 9. Yield lines at free edges
M a2 , M ab1 , M ab2 and M p , M

p

M ab1 M ab2 M a2 M a1 cot b

where bangle of intersection between yield line 1 and yield line
2. This equation is identical to the one obtained by Johansen
1962 for nodal forces in isotropic slabs, if M ab1 M ab2 is re-
placed by the sum of nodal forces Q A , and the difference be-
tween M ab1 and M ab2 by that of yield bending moments that are
supposed to act at the incorrect yield lines. It can be shown that:
a nodal forces correspond only to the twisting moments of that
particular state of equilibrium, and b that the first state is not
included in nodal force theory.
Fig. 8. Equilirium at incorrect intersections of yield lines
2. Edges
The following conditions at the different boundaries of a plate can
be established.
2a. Yield lines have to be normal to free edges. As known, if
the boundary condition is M a 0, M ab 0, principal directions
must be parallel and perpendicular to edges, and the principal
bending moment normal to the edge must be zero. In these con-
ditions Mohrs circle is that of Fig. 9a with an angle a90.
This law implies in many cases that correct lines must be curved
ones Figs. 9b, c, and d.
Therefore a yield line that reaches a free edge at an angle a
different from 90 is incorrect. It can be deduced from Mohrs
circle of Fig. 9a that these lines must be submitted to bending
and twisting moments M a and M ab related to the principal bend-
ing moment M by
M a M p cos2 a, M ab M p sin acos a (2)
and related between them by
M ab M a tan a (3)
This is exactly the expression of nodal forces obtained by
Johansen, provided we make Q 1 M ab , 90a, M p 0, and
M p M a . As always happens on incorrect yield lines, a principal
moment M , larger than M a , exists acting at another direction.
In this particular case M has a defined value that can be deduced
from Eq. 2: M M a /cos2 a M a(1tan2 a).

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 Fig. 10. Yield lines at simply supported slabs
Therefore the value M p of the real yield bending moment can
be bounded if we consider M a an upper-bound solution and M a
lower-bound solution
M a 1tan2 a M p M a
2b. Yield line can reach a simply supported edge at any angle.
Since, assuming Kirchhoffs hypothesis, the boundary condition
for a simply supported edge is M a 0, M ab 0, an infinite num-
ber of Mohrs circles can be found fulfilling this condition at
point A of Fig. 10a, and therefore also infinite angles a, with the
only condition that the two principal bending moments have to be
of opposite signs. However, the twisting moment M ab acting at
the edge must be taken into account. From Mohrs circle of Fig.
10a the relation between this moment and the principal bending
moments M M
p and M M p can readily be obtained: M ab
M p cot aM p tan a, and the condition
M
p 1
tan2 a
M
p
j
where jratio of M
p to M p .
This condition was also obtained by Johansen 1962, p. 22 for
real yield lines, and studied by Nielsen 1984, but it was not
included in equilibrium method.
The above law means that a yield line is never incorrect if it
arrives alone at a simply supported edge. However, if two yield
lines intersect at a simply supported edge the only correct way of
doing it is being of opposite signs and acting at normal directions.
The patterns of Fig 10c are therefore incorrect and the value of
twists M ab acting at those lines must be obtained as in the case of
yield lines of different signs Eqs. 1 of law 1b.
2c. Yield lines can reach a clamped edge at any angle. This is
obvious, as the boundary condition is M a 0, M ab 0.
Nevertheless, if a straight clamped edge were to be a yield
line, and therefore subject to the principal bending moment M p patterns, the two methods will be separately considered depend-
M , following law 1b, positive yield lines would be normal to
the edges Fig. 11a. It is impossible to fulfill this condition at
corners and, therefore, fans must always develop at clamped cor-
ners Figs. 11a and b. The results of the simulated annealing
method Vazquez, 1994 confirm this conclusion. Incorrect yield
lines are subject then to the efforts of intersections between yield
lines of different signs described in law 1b by Eq. 1.
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Fig. 11. Yield lines at corners of clamped edges
Equilibrium Conditions. Normal Moment Method
and Skew Moment Method
(4)
In the usual process of designing a slab the value of the yield load
p of the slab is known, and therefore the aim of yield analysis is
to obtain the values of yield bending moments M
p and M p that
appear at the failure state of the slab. This can be done by fol-
lowing two equilibrium conditions:
1. At each region of the yield mechanism of a slab, internal
forces acting at yield lines must balance loads and reactions.
2. Internal forces must be in equilibrium at each side of a yield
line.
These two conditions can be performed using directly equilibrium
equations or, alternatively, applying the principle of virtual work
to the whole mechanism of the slab supposing that internal forces
that act at each side of each yield line are equal and, therefore,
(5) fulfilling simultaneously the equilibrium conditions 1 and 2. The
results must be identical as principle of virtual work is only a way
of using equilibrium equations.
In this way we can always obtain a relation between internal
forces and the geometrical parameters of the yield pattern of the
slab. The following step is to find the values of those parameters
that approach best the real yield pattern. This can be done by two
basic methods: the normal moment method and the skew mo-
ment method.
In the normal moment method, it is assumed from the be-
ginning that only a constant bending moment M a acts at yield
lines, plus shear forces if M a is not a local maximum. In skew
moment method a constant moment, M a , and a constant twist-
ing moment, M ab , whose resultant is a skew moment are as-
sumed to act at yield lines, plus shear forces if applicable. As their
application is very different for correct and incorrect yield
ing on the nature of the yield pattern concerned.
Correct Yield Patterns
If the yield pattern is correct, in normal moment method we
first obtain the relationship between the bending moment M a act-
ing alone at yield lines of each regionand a shear T a if
JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS / FEBRUARY 2003 / 227
 Fig. 13. Virtual displacements used to find separated bending mo-
ments at each region

1 lx lx
For region B: M Ba l y 2p tan a
l x /2 2 2 2 3

lx
p l y l x tan a
2 2
And we obtain the same expressions of M Aa and M Ba .
The correct yield pattern is the one for which M p M a
A

Fig. 12. Regions of a simply supported rectangular slab M a . This equality results in the equation: tan a 2/tan a
B 2 2

30, that gives the value of the angle a of the correct yield
pattern: tan a(1/) 2 3 1/.
In this way Ingerslev 1923 solved this problem for the first
time. It must be noted that law 2b and condition 5 give the value
applicableand the loads. Since the unknown M ab has been of the yield negative bending moment that must support the slab:
eliminated, the geometry of the correct yield pattern can be ob- M
p M p /tan a .
2

tained directly by equating moments at each side of each yield If we use the skew moment method, we must assume that
line. The bending moment corresponding to that correct yield both constant bending moments M a and constant twisting mo-
pattern is then supposed to be the yield bending moment M p . ments M ab act at yield lines, with the exception of the central
In skew moment method, we must fulfill the two equilib- yield line, at which, for obvious reasons of symmetry, M ab 0,
rium conditions 1 and 2 at the yield mechanism, in order to obtain and the edges, at which M a 0. If we use equilibrium equations,
a relation between the internal forces and the geometrical param- and we take moments about edges 1-1 and 2-2, then equilibrium
eters of the yield pattern. The geometrical parameters that define in each region gives
the correct yield pattern are obtained making zero all twisting pl 2x
moments at every internal yield line. Alternatively, this can be For region A: M Aa M Aab tan a tan2 a
24
performed using maximum principle, as we shall see later. A
simple example may clarify all this. M Bab pl 2x pl 2x tan a
For region B: M Ba
8 12
Example 1
Consider the very well known yield pattern of a simply supported where l y /l x . Equilibrium at yield lines implies that: M a
slab of Fig. 5c. This yield pattern can be correct and M a corre- M Aa M Ba and M ab M Aab M Bab , and the two equations be-
sponds to a local maximum; therefore both methods can be ap- come a system of two equations with two unknowns whose solu-
tion is
plied assuming T a 0.
If we use the normal moment method and equilibrium equa- pl 2x tan a/3
tions we can obtain separated moments M Aa and M Ba in regions A M a (7)
8 1/tan a
and B, taking moments about the edges Fig. 12
pl 2x tan2 a 2/ tan a3
pl 2x pl 2x
pl 2x tan a ly M ab (8)
M Aa tan2 a, M Ba with 24 1/ tan a
24 8 12 lx
(6) The same expressions of M a and M ab can be obtained using
work equations and virtual displacements that make zero the vir-
We can perform the same calculations using work equations, tual work of the other unknown:
assuming regions A and B are isolated, and the virtual displace- In order to obtain M a , the well-known virtual displacement of
ment of Fig. 13 Fig. 14a can be assumed. Making, as in equilibrium equations,
M a M Aa M Ba we obtain the same expression of M a Eq. 7. To
1 lx obtain M ab , we can assume the virtual displacement of Fig. 14b,
For region A: M Aa l x p l x tan a ,
l x /2 tan a 2 2 3 in which regions B moves upwards a vertical value , and region

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Fig. 14. Virtual displacements used to find yield bending moments
and twists
A moves downward (l y /l x tg a) , in order to maintain compat-
ibility of horizontal displacements at the corners. The work equa-
tion is then
ly
4M Aab tan a4M Bab
lx
1 lx ly 1 l x l x tan a
2 pl x tan a tan a4p
2 2 3 lx 2 2 2 3
lx
2p l y l x tan a
2 2
Making M Aab M Bab M ab we obtain the same expression 8
of M ab .
We must now find the geometrical values of the correct yield
pattern, provided that for this pattern M ab must be zero. Making
zero the expression 8 of M ab , we obtain: tan2 a (2/)tan2 a
30, which is exactly the same equation obtained by the nor-
mal moment method. The value of tan a introduced in the ex-
pression 7 of M a gives the same value of M p M a obtained by
the normal moment method, though the expression of M a is
very different.
It can be observed that calculations performed by normal
moment method are, by far, the simplest. In fact normal mo-
ment method is the adequate method if correct yield patterns are
analyzed. This situation can be very different for incorrect yield
patterns as will be shown in what follows.
Incorrect Yield Patterns
In many cases, laws defining correct yield patterns of The Prin-
ciple of Normality of Yield Moments can only be accomplished
by means of curved yield lines. Although it is possible to apply
normal moment method to that type of yield pattern, calcula-
tions are usually simpler if yield lines are supposed to be straight,
even if the yield pattern becomes incorrect.
If a yield pattern is incorrect, equilibrium is impossible with-
out the aid of twists acting at yield lines. The yield pattern that
best approaches the real yield pattern is then the one accomplish-
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Fig. 15. Yield pattern for a square simply supported slab
ing the laws of Principle of Normality of Yield Moments. Cor-
rect and Incorrect Yield Lines for incorrect yield lines; that is,
the one which is at least in equilibrium: the balanced yield pat-
tern. Therefore, for incorrect yield lines, the laws of The Prin-
ciple of Normality of Yield Moments substitute the condition of
zero twisting moments. As shown later the balanced yield pat-
tern can be also obtained using maximum principle.
Anyway, in some cases normal moment method can be
used: If the yield lines selected to enter into equilibrium equations
are supposed to be correct, twists could not appear in those equa-
tions. The balanced yield pattern can thus be obtained as in the
correct yield patterns, simply equating bending moments. The fol-
lowing example may clarify this.
Example 2
Consider the yield pattern of Fig. 15, of a square slab subject to a
uniform load p. It is incorrect, as yield lines 1 and 2 cross at an
angle a different from 90. We can suppose that yield lines 2 are
correct, and therefore subject only to the yield bending moment
Mp , and yield line 1 is the incorrect one, and therefore subject to
a bending moment M a , which is not the yield negative bending
moment M p , a shear force T a , and a twisting moment M ab .
Since T a and M ab do not enter into the equilibrium equations,
we can use the normal moment method, applying equilibrium
equations separately to each region. Taking moments about the
edges in region B, and about the negative yield line in region A,
we obtain
pl 2 12d 3 1tan a 2
For region B: M B
p (9)
24 12d
pl 2 2 2
For region A: M A A
p M a d tan a (10)
12
JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS / FEBRUARY 2003 / 229
where d x/l .
We must suppose that in region A a principal negative bending
moment exists: The yield negative bending moment M p A .
Using 1 and introducing M A
p with its sign,

M A A A
a M p cos aM p
2
sin2 a

If we call jM A A
p /M p , we can write M A a
M p (1 jtan a)/(1jtan a and the value of M A
A 2 2
p is, after Fig. 16. Yield pattern for a square slab with two free adjacent edges
introducing that of M A
a in Eq. 10
moments have to be taken always into account. If we use the
pl 2
d tan a 1tan a
2 2 2 skew moment method, we obtain, taking moments about the
M A
p (11) edges, the equilibrium equations
24 1 1 j /2 tan2 a
pl 2 2
M A B M Aa M Aab tan a
p M p , and therefore equating Eq. 9 to Eq.
Making For region A: tan a
6
11, an equation with d as the unknown is obtained after simpli-
fications pl 2 pl 2
For region B: M Ba tan aM Bab tan a

2 3
1tan a 2 1 j 2
2 1 1 tan a tan2 a d 3 tan2 ad 2 since T a 0, if M a corresponds to a local maximum.
1tan a 2 2
At each side of the yield line, it must be accomplished: M Aa
M Ba M a and M Aab M Bab M ab . Introducing these conditions
1 1 j /2 tan2 a into the above equations, they become a system of two equations
0
1tan2 a with two unknowns, M a and M ab , whose solution is

It might look as if two unknowns continue to exist: d and pl 2 3 tan atan2 a

tan a, but tan a is defined by the boundary conditions of the slab. M a
6 1tan2 a
In this case, by law 2b for simply supported edges. Therefore Eq. (12)
5 must be accomplished pl 2 tan3 a2 tan a3
M ab
6 1tan2 a
M
p 1
M ab M
p cot M p tan , tan2
M
p
j The same can be obtained using work equations. The condition
of equilibrium for this incorrect yield line is that of law 2a and
In our example Fig. 15: 135a and therefore tan2(135 Eq. 3:
a) 1/j that can be transformed into: tan a (1 j)/(1
M ab M a tan a
j).
Depending on the values of j, those of M p for this slab can be
Introducing in this equation the values of M a and M ab ob-
obtained. The maximum is for j0.40, that gives a yield bending tained above, the free boundary condition becomes the equation
moment: M p pl 2 /20.64 , larger than the one obtained by Jones tan2 a(2/3)tan a10, whose solution is tan a (101)/3 .
and Wood 1967 by means of vertical equilibrium of nodal Introducing this value of tan a into Eq. 12, we obtain
forces. For j1 we obtain M p pl 2 /24 and the yield pattern of pl 2 pl 2
Fig. 5b. For j 1/(1 2) 2 , M A
a 0 and the contour formed M a and M ab
5.55 7.68
by yield negative line and edges can be regarded as a simply
supported corner whose edges cross at an angle of 135. The The principal bending moment is given by Eq. 4:
positive line bisects that corner, and we also obtain M p pl 2
pl 2 /24 . M M a 1tan2 a
In many other cases it becomes impossible to find yield lines 3.65
that can be assumed as correct, or incorrect yield lines entering and therefore the real yield bending moment M p is bounded be-
into equilibrium equations. The only possible method available is tween
then skew moment method. This case can be best studied by
means of the following example. pl 2 pl 2
M p
3.65 5.55
Example 3 This great difference between the two limits should lead us to
Consider a square slab, simply supported at two adjacent edges, suppose that this solution is a rough approximation to the real
with the other two edges free, and submitted to a uniform load. yield bending moment ( pl 2 /5.1, as obtained by the annealing
The correct yield pattern is the correct solution of Fig. 9d, which method.
implies curved yield lines. The solution obtained assuming a yield The negative yield bending moment that appears at each re-
line that connects the corner at the intersection of the two sup- gion is given by Eq. 5. In any case it has no influence on the
ported edges to the diagonally opposite corner is at the same time yielding of this pattern, as it appears only at the simply supported
incorrect and unbalanced, as M ab must be zero for reasons of corner.
symmetry. The only possible yield pattern involving one straight
yield line is that of Fig. 16, proposed by Johansen 1972 and Maximum Principle and Work Method
studied by Nielsen 1984, that is only incorrect. It cannot be The maximum principle corresponds to Johansens fifth theorem
analyzed by means of the normal moment method, as twisting Johansen 1962, and can be stated as Johansen did: The real

230 / JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS / FEBRUARY 2003

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yield pattern corresponds to the maximum absolute value of the
ultimate bending moment M p . It is well known that this prin-
ciple is only a corollary of the upper-bound theorem of limit
analysis when applied to the yield mechanism of an isolated slab.
It has two applications: as a criterion to be able to tell which is the
real yield patternor the yield pattern that approximates best the
real yield patternamong a family of yield patterns for the same
slab, and as a method of analysis of yield bending moments, the
so-called work method.
Since the balanced yield pattern is always in equilibrium, if
we use the skew moment method and obtain the expression of
normal bending moment M a , the yield pattern that approximates
best the real yield pattern is the one corresponding to the maxi-
mum of M a and, at the same time, the one which is in equilibrium
Nielsen 1984, p. 290. This allows obtaining the value of M a
without making M ab 0 in correct yield patterns, or without de-
fining the value of twisting moments and shear forces at the yield
lines of incorrect yield patterns. As we have seen above, M a can
be obtained by equilibrium or work equations alternatively, so it
makes no real sense to call this method the work method and it
should be best described as the maximum principle applied to
the skew moment method. The application of this method to
the examples that we have studied previously may clarify its use.
In the rectangular slab of Example 1 we have obtained by the
skew moment method using work or equilibrium equations the
expression of M a
pl 2x tan a/3
M a
8 1/tan a
The value of tan a that makes M a a maximum can be obtained by
making: M a / tan a 0, and this leads to the equation: tan2 a
(2/)tan a30, which is the same one obtained by the skew
moment method, making M ab 0.
In Example 2, the maximum principle has no application, as
we have used the normal moment method.
In Example 3, we have obtained by means of the skew mo-
ment method the value of M a
2 2
pl 3 tan atan a
M a
6 1tan2 a
The value of tan a that makes M a a maximum corresponds to:
M a / tan a 0 and we deduce the equation: tan2 a(2/3)tan a
10, which is the same one obtained introducing boundary
conditions.
Conclusions
1. Yield line patterns can be classified into two types: correct
yield patterns that correspond to possible yield lines and incor-
rect yield patterns that correspond to not possible or virtual yield
lines.
2. There are only two main methods in the yield analysis of
slabs: the normal moment method, in which only bending
momentsand shear forces if applicableare assumed to act at
yield lines; and the skew moment method, in which bending
moments together with twisting momentsand shear forces in
some casesare supposed to act at yield lines. The problem can
be solved with work or equilibrium equations alternatively in all
cases.
Downloaded 25 May 2009 to 131.204.15.232. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright; see http://pubs.asce.org/copyright
3. The normal moment method is the adequate method for
correct yield patterns composed by curved or straight yield lines
4. The skew moment method can be applied to correct yield
patterns using the condition of zero twisting moments.
5. The skew moment method can be applied to incorrect
yield patterns if internal forces are added on incorrect yield lines
in order to accomplish equilibrium conditions in the slab. Johan-
sens nodal forces are a particular case of these internal forces.
6. The work method is only the application of the maximum
principle to skew moment method.
Notation
The following symbols are used in this paper:
a angle between a yield line and a principal direc-
tion;
j ratio of negative to positive yield moments;
k nodal force;
l length of slab;
M a , M b bending moments at any point of the slab;
M ab twisting moment at any point of the slab;
M , M principal bending moments;
Mp yield positive bending moment;
Mp yield negative bending moment;
p uniform load acting at a surface;
Q sum of nodal forces at a point;
T a shear force at any point of the slab;
angle between a yield line and any other direc-
tion;
angle that forms a corner of a slab; and
virtual displacement.
References
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