1

With his psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud opened the door for dreams to become a
subject of scientifical research. He became interested in dreams when dealing with
his patients because they were telling dreams spontaneously. He soon
systematically included interpretation of dreams in psychoanalysis right beside
hypnosis and free association. In the end of 19th century he eventually researched
the mechanism of dreaming. The analysis of dreams is indispensable tool in
therapy for each psychoanalyst since then, and for Freud, dreams are even the key
to theoretical understanding of subconscious. He explained also dreams of people, " Dreams are the Royal Road
who did not suffer from mental illness, in psychoanalytic way and so he was to the Unconscious"
changing his psychotherapy in theory in the very beginning. Sigmund Freud
When we become tired of receiving of and responding to stimuli from
environment we try to fall asleep. The main characteristic of psychical state of a sleeper is therefore a withdrawal
from reality and cessation of taking all interests in it. We try to fall asleep by disconnecting from all sources of
external stimuli. We lay down in a silent, dark room and cover our body to keep it comfortably warm and so
minimize input from environment. Of course, an absolute withdrawal in which we would stop to perceive
environment is not possible. In other words, the sleeper does not have a 'switch' to switch off at the time of sleeping
and switch on back, when the time for awakening comes. After all, if such absolute withdrawal was possible to
achieve, the sleeper would risk not to wake up again, since more and more strong stimuli in the morning are exactly
what wakes up the sleeper. These stimuli disturb us also during the sleep, and our mentality is forced to respond to
them - with dreams.
Dream Symbolism
Freud derived dream symbols from the resistance of dream interpretation. He noticed that resistance regularly
occurred with certain elements of dreams even in dreams of mentally healthy people. He claimed that formation of
visual answer on stimulus (dream) is not coincidental. He figured out that some parts of manifest content typically
correspond with certain latent content. Freud called these manifest elements symbols - to which he ascribed constant
meaning. The dream symbols are in his opinion more or less sexual.
Number three has in dreams symbolic meaning of man's sexual organ. All dream ideas which consist of three parts
can mean the man's sexual organ. Phallus is symbolically substituted with all things that are similar to it by their
form, namely long things that jut out: mountains, rocks, sticks, umbrellas, poles, trees... Then objects for which the
penetration in the body and harming is characteristic - weapons: knifes, daggers, lances, sabres, swords... and fire
arms: guns, rifles, revolvers, cannons... Obviously, the phallus is also substituted with objects from which water
runs: pipes, watering-pots, fountains... and with objects that can be lengthened: hanging lights, extensible pens,
aerials... Balloons, airplanes, helicopters, rockets, etc. are symbols of erection. Less evident male sexual symbols are
reptiles and fish, especially a symbol of snake. A hat and a coat as well as various machines and appliances have the
same meaning.
Female genitalia are symbolically represented with hollow objects that can contain things: shafts, pits and caves,
vessels and bottles, boxes, suitcases, tins, pockets, closets, stoves, ships... The same holds for house with entrances,
passages and doors, churches, chapels, castles, mansions, fortresses and even landscape itself. The material such as
wood and paper as well as objects made of them: a table, a book... symbolize the same. Typical female symbols
among animals are snails and mussels and their shells. Apples, peaches and fruits in general symbolize breasts.
All kind of playing (playing instruments also), sliding, slipping and breaking branches are symbols of masturbation.
The teeth falling out and extraction of them are symbols of castration as a punishment for masturbating (castration's
complex).
Various rhythmical activities such as dance, riding, raising and threatening with weapon symbolize sexual
intercourse itself. Typical activities that symbolize sexual intercourse are also climbing and going down the ladder
or stairs and running inside a house. The queen and king or empress and emperor and similar relations symbolize
parents. The fall into water or raising out of it symbolizes birth.
Many dreams which seemed puzzling before, become more clear when considering Freud's symbols and the
censorship of dream. Although dream symbols allow for direct interpretation of dreams, we must never do that
without previous knowledge of patient's psychological background. The dream can be understood, Freud held, only
in light of the dreamer's associations to it. After telling the dream, the therapist has to ask the patient to engage in
 2

free associations stimulated by certain element of the dream. When following the spontaneous flow of thoughts and
feelings, the patient is asked to describe it as fully as possible. The patient, however, has to consider an agreement
that s/he will tell every idea without trying to censor or control it in any way. We tell the patient "a rule that must not
be broken: when telling [dreams] s/he must not leave out any idea even if s/he gets one of four objections: that idea
is irrelevant, too senseless, that is not connected with the issue or is too embarrassing." (Freud 1977) Only such a
rule will ensure efficient relationship between the dream teller and dream interpreter.
1.Seven Ways to Look At a Dream by Margot Born
2. The Interpretation of Dreams by Sigmund Freud
3. Dreams as Viewed by Freud and Jung by Brlizg

TITLE: Dreams as Viewed by Freud and Jung

CONTENTS:
1 INTRODUCTION
2 THEORETICAL INTRODUCTION
2.1 FREUD'S PSYCHOANALYTIC INTERPRETATION OF DREAMS
2.1.1 A desire to sleep
2.1.2 Manifest and latent content
2.1.3 The censorship of dream
2.1.4 Dream symbolism
2.2 JUNG'S ANALYTICAL INTERPRETATION OF DREAMS
2.2.1 Initial dream
2.2.2 Dramatic structure of dreams
2.2.3 Archetypes
2.2.4 Objective and subjective level of interpretation
3 FREUD VS. JUNG
3.1 SIMILARITIES OF DREAM INTERPRETATIONS
3.1.1. The value of dreams in therapy
3.1.2. The pacient-therapist relationship
3.2 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DREAM INTERPRETATIONS
3.2.1. Finality vs. causality
3.2.2. Dream symbols
3.2.3. Wish-fulfilment denies Jung's interpretation
4 CONCLUSION

1 INTRODUCTION
Although Jung was a pupil of Freud, and one would think they shared the
same idea about the interpretation of dreams, that is not exactly true.
Freud proposed the notorious idea that dreams are a reflextion of
subconsciousness, but Jung expanded on Freud and added another
dimension to this relation. In Jung's view, dreams not only lead to
personal subconsciousness, but also to collective unconsciousness.
This paper attempts to present the two theories of dreams and stress the
unique qualities in each of them. I believe the reader will excuse a
'clinical' tone of paper, knowing that originally this text was written as
school assignment. In 1995, I wrote this paper under the guidance of
Branka Bajgoric, who was my psychology teacher in the high school I
attended. I omitted the technical part of the paper: identifying problem
 3

and developing the thesis. I also did not include a part in which I
discussed the implications of becoming lucid in dream on the
interpretation. Not that it would be inappropriate, but I think that subject
is so broad that it demands a separate paper in order to sufficiently cover
it.
I think that nowadays, where there are so much alternative (occult)
explanations of dreams available, we often forget about the old thinkers.
What is even worse, we tend to think they are out of date or irrelevant in
this rush of global spiritual evolution. However, I find the following two
scientists, and Jung particularly, extremely contemporary. I hope the
following paper will attract some of reader's interest to further study the
rich work of both, should I say "big men"?
Ljubljana, July 1998
2 THEORETICAL INTRODUCTION
2.1 FREUD'S PSYCHOANALYTIC INTERPRETATION OF DREAMS
With his psycho-analysis, Sigmund Freud opened the door for dreams to
become a subject of scientifical research. He became interested in
dreams when dealing with his patients because they were telling dreams
spontaneously. He soon systematically included interpretation of dreams
in psycho-analysis right beside hypnosis and free association. In the
end of 19th century he eventually researched the mechanism of
dreaming. The analysis of dreams is indispensable tool in therapy for
each psychoanalyst since then, and for Freud, dreams are even the key to
theoretical understanding of subconscious. He explained also dreams of
people, who did not suffer from mental illness, in psychoanalitic way and
so he was changing his psychotherapy in theory in the very beginning.
2.1.1 A desire to sleep
When we become tired of receiving of and responding to stimuli from
environment we try to fall asleep. The main characteristic of psychical
state of a sleeper is therefore a withdrawal from reality and cessation of
taking all interests in it. We try to fall asleep by disconnecting from all
sources of external stimuli. We lay down in a silent, dark room and cover
our body to keep it comfortably warm and so minimize input from
environment. Of course, an absolute withdrawal in which we would stop
to perceive environment is not possible. In other words, the sleeper does
not have a 'switch' to switch off at the time of sleeping and switch on
back, when the time for awakening comes. After all, if such absolute
withdrawal was possible to achieve, the sleeper would risk not to wake up
again, since more and more strong stimuli in the morning are exactly
what wakes up the sleeper. These stimuli disturb us also during the sleep,
and our mentality is forced to respond to them - with dreams.
Disturbing stimuli can be either external or internal. External stimuli
come from environment and from inside of our physical body. Their task
 4

is to warn of imbalance in the body (e.g. full bladder, thirst) or else they
contain information about disturbances in environment (e.g. low room
temperature, noise). There are lot of evidences how dreams maintain
sleep in such cases. For Freud though, the external stimuli are important
only to the extent that suggest analogous existance of more important,
psychical pressure on sleeper: an internal stimulus.
This internal stimulation emerges either because of the continuation of
our diurnal mental activity or pressure of our unsatisfied instinctive
aspirations. The latter are in psychotherapy very important, because they
can express those conflicts, which are the cause for mental disease. The
possibility that such disturbance occures during the sleep lies in relation
between conscious ego and unconscious id1. Suppressed aspirations of id
do not conform to ego's desire to sleep and thus gain certain
independancy. These unsatisfied aspirations fight their way through
conscious ego in a dream, which is unlikely to happen during the day. The
dreams are therefore above all psychological and not somatic
phenomenon.
If it was that simple, we would be able to reveal the meaning of dreams
with ease. In truth, this process is much more complicated. Conscious ego
never gives up completely. Under the influence of superego, it transforms
and hides id's aspirations, because the task of dream is to maintain sleep
and protect the sleeper from being disturbed. The effort to hide
inadmissible instinctive aspirations forms manifest and latent content of
dream.
2.1.2 Manifest and latent content
The manifest content of dream is the content which the dreamer
remembers and relates. Behind this content there is usually hidden the
latent content of dream as "the dream we remember [sic] is not exactly
the right thing, but rather a deformed substitute for dream." (Freud 1977:
116) I say usually, because we also know dreams in which latent content
matches with manifest content. Such kind of dreams are often
experienced by little children as a result of not yet developed ego and
superego, which would transform unsatisfied instinctive aspirations.
However, this type of dreams occur to grown-ups in certain
circumstances as well and Freud called them infantile dreams.
In the process of interpretation of dreams, the therapist translates
manifest content in latent content using special technique. It is exactly
the opposite process of that when dream arises: we need to discover
initial internal stimulus. The therapist directs patient at particular
elements of dream, which are unknown to him, to discover residua of the
day.2 In connection with residua of the day and other patient's
associations regarding manifest content (which are determined), the
therapist gradually completes his/her suggestions and discovers the
latent content of dream. There are some problems with this though. The
 5

manifest content is more or less confined to visual answer on internal

stimulus and can thus be quite distant and difficult to connect with latent
motive. It is also common that parts of dream are missing and patient
cannot or does not want to remember them. This is the work of so called
resistance, which serves the same purpose as ego in the rise of dream;
it just does not allow morally inadmissible instinctive aspirations to
become conscious. The more patient's associations needed to discover
latent content of dream, the greater resistance. The blanks in recall of
dream are as a rule latent content itself or without exception they prove
to be crucial for discovering it. With the analysis of dreams it is usually
possible to overcome the resistance, which also means we are well on the
way towards healing or removal of conflict (e.g. hysteria, nevrosis).
The same resistance can occur when the therapist explains the latent
content to the patient. The presentation of latent motives "seems
alarming rather than pleasant, and the acknowledgement of them, even
as mere dream-wishes, is not entirely easy." (Watkins 1997) In this case,
the patient will not accept the interpretation, deny it as nonsense or will
even become aggressive toward the therapist. In Freud's opinion, this
reaction can be regarded as a direct hit: "the resistance is a certain sign
for conflict; something resists what wants to be expressed." (Bras 1977:
196).
In what follows we will try to understand the nature and role of this
process. Special psychical instance, which causes the difference between
manifest and latent content Freud called the censorship of dreams.
2.1.3 The censorship of dream
It is obvious from relation between latent motive and manifest realization
of dream that initial internal stimulus undergoes a lot of changes until it
realizes as dream. Some parts of latent content appear differently, or not
at all, in the manifest content. This transformation is a result of the
censorship, which deforms dreams because of scandalous wishes3 that
arise when we sleep. The censorship is therefore "a quite systematic
process of disguise and distortion of things, which are painful or
otherwise unacceptable to the dreamer." (Watkins 1997)
Throughout the life and especially with upbringing, we inherit social
norms, beliefs, habits and patterns of behaviour typical for our culture,
which are not in conformity with primary instinctive needs. If we do not
succeed in satisfying these needs in one way or the other, we suppress
them deep in subconsciousness; a process that is called repression. In
dreams, when relation between ego, superego and id becomes loose,
these repressed wishes arise as internal stimuli. Dreams are not only an
answer to them, but also a way of satisfaction of these wishes. Infantile
dreams are especially suitable for observing this as manifest and latent
content are identical. Those wishes, which have not been satisfied during
the day are fulfiled in dreams. This seem logical if we concider the fact
 6

that dreams care for peacful sleep. The internal stimulus is in this case
unsatisfied wish on which our mentality answers with hallucinatory
fulfilment if the wish is admissible. Hence the dream can be called a wish-
fulfilment.
When these wishes are not in conformity with superego, the task of
censorship is to preserve ethically and esthetically clean ego. In some
cases the wishes are too intense and the censorship cannot just
transform them. Then we experience a feeling of anguish, which is a sign
that suppressed wish proved to be stronger than the censorship. In
consequence, this uneasyness wakes up the dreamer before suppressed
wish is fulfilled - something which is in contrast with the censorship. In
this case the dream did not manage to complete its task but its purpose
did not change thereby either. "Even a watchman needs to wake up the
sleeping, that is when he feels too weak to remove disturbance or danger
alone." (Freud 1977: 212).
The censorship, however, is not a precisly fixed centre in brains, it is
rather a "term for some dynamic realtionship" (Freud 1977: 141) between
answering on internal stimulus and admissibility of this stimulus for
superego. When such suppressed wish is strong enough, the censorship
takes care of leaving out, modification, and shift of material and so forms
manifest content of dream. The resistance of dream interpretation is also
a result of censorship, which task is to preserve deformed dreams even
when the dreamer already wakes up.
The understanding of how the censorship works is essential for dream
interpretation. We can only discover latent content of dream when
concidering the work of censorship. The censorship is that code without
which translation of manifest content would not be possible. It is not the
only one though. Freud's dream symbols are a great help.
2.1.4 Dream symbolism
Freud derived dream symbols from the resistance of dream
interpretation. He noticed that resistance regularly occurred with certain
elements of dreams even in dreams of mentally healthy people. He
claimed that formation of visual answer on stimulus (dream) is not
coincidental. He figured out that some parts of manifest content typically
correspond with certain latent content. Freud called these manifest
elements symbols - to which he ascribed constant meaning. The dream
symbols are in his opinion more or less sexual.
Number three has in dreams symbolic meaning of man's sexual organ. All
dream ideas which consist of three parts can mean the man's sexual
organ. Phallus is symbolically substituted with all things that are similar to
it by their form, namely long things that jut out: mountains, rocks, sticks,
umbrellas, poles, trees… Then objects for which the penetration in the
body and harming is characteristic - weapons: knifes, daggers, lances,
sabres, swords... and fire arms: guns, rifles, revolvers, cannons…
 7

Obviously, the phallus is also substituted with objects from which water
runs: pipes, watering-pots, fountains… and with objects that can be
lenghtened: hanging lights, extensible pens, aerials… Baloons, airplanes,
helicopters, rockets, etc. are symbols of erection. Less evident male
sexual symbols are reptiles and fish, especially a symbol of snake. A hat
and a coat as well as various machines and appliances have the same
meaning.
Female genitalia are symbolically represented with hollow objects that
can contain things: shafts, pits and caves, vessels and bottles, boxes,
suitcases, tins, pockets, closets, stoves, ships… The same holds for house
with entrances, passages and doors, churches, chapels, castles,
mansions, fortresses and even landscape itself. The material such as
wood and paper as well as objects made of them: a table, a book…
symbolize the same. Typical female symbols among animals are snails
and mussels and their shells. Apples, peaches and fruits in general
symbolize breasts.
All kind of playing (playing instruments also), sliding, slipping and
breaking branches are symbols of masturbation. The teeth falling out and
extraction of them are symbols of castration as a punishment for
masturbating (castration's complex).
Various rhytmical activities such as dance, riding, raising and threatening
with weapon symbolize sexual intercourse itself. Typical activities that
symbolize sexual intercourse are also climbing and going down the ladder
or stairs and running inside a house. The queen and king or empress and
emperor and similar relations symbolize parents. The fall into water or
raising out of it symbolizes birth.
Many dreams which seemed puzzling before, become more clear when
concidering Freud's symbols and the censorship of dream. Although
dream symbols allow for direct interpretation of dreams, we must never
do that without previous knowledge of patient's psychological
background. The dream can be understood, Freud held, only in light of
the dreamer's associations to it.4 After telling the dream, the therapist
has to ask the patient to engage in free associations stimulated by certain
element of the dream. When following the spontaneous flow of thoughts
and feelings, the patient is asked to describe it as fully as possible. The
patient, however, has to consider an agreement that s/he will tell every
idea without trying to censor or control it in any way. We tell the patient
"a rule that must not be broken: when telling [dreams] s/he must not
leave out any idea even if s/he gets one of four objections: that idea is
irrelevant, too senseless, that is not connected with the issue or is too
embarrassing." (Freud 1977: 117) Only such a rule will ensure efficient
relationship between the dream teller and dream interpreter.
2.2 JUNG'S ANALYTICAL INTERPRETATION OF DREAMS
 8

Carl Gustav Jung is a scientist, who assigned more importance to dreams

and dream work as perhaps no other of his colleagues. His father studied
theology due to financial problems,5 which is why he later began to have
doubts as to whether the knowledge he was passing on to others was true
or not. Therefore the father influenced on his young son Carl so that he
soon started to deal with metaphysical questions. In his writing Jung
showed the close parallels between ancient myths and dreams. Jung
explained the relationship between the unconscious and conscious in his
original way and proposed the now well-known idea of collective
unconscious. "Ultimately Jung believed that by understanding how one's
personal unconscious integrates with the collective unconscious, a person
can achieve a state of individuation, or wholeness of self." (Vered 1997)
Much like Freud, Jung also emphasised the importance of interpretation of
dreams in therapy. The most significant dream is that from the night
before a patient visit the therapist. This dream is so called initial dream.
2.2.1 Initial dream
The interpretation of initial dream is so important because there is a
good chance that the main problem of patient will be discovered right at
the beginning of therapy. Jung, too, claimed that dreams are psychic
phenomenon and that they can mirror central conflict of dreamer. All
dreams at certain point in our life, Jung held, "reflect our life situation
until we seriously start to concern ourselves with it, that is, so long as we
do not draw back completely or remove it." (Bras 1977: 206)
We all know how concerns, problems or excitement can occupy our mind
just before we fall asleep. For instance, as we may put it, a boy who is
going on a trip tomorrow, will hardly think of anything else because of his
excitement. It is also very likely that once he manages to fall asleep, his
dreams will contain elements of the trip he is about to have when he will
wake up.
It is not easy to decide to visit the therapist. The state of alert mind,
which is caused by the importance of the event, can produce a strong
impulse for the manifestation of patient's conflict in dreams. Furthermore,
such dreams usually contain a prognosis: ways of resolving the conflict,
possible troubles and even final result.
Jung claimed, that all dreams in certain time frame express most
important internal process of person, namely some conflict or complex,
even when there is no obvious interconnection between respective
dreams. All dreams will be pointing at conflict that the dreamer should
become conscious of, and remove it. This of course does not mean that
each and every dream reflects conflicting psychic state, nor that people
who do not remember dreams do not have any conflicts. Special
importance must be put on repeating dreams, which as a rule deal with
the same conflict but from different points of view. A series of dreams
actually indicates more complex conflict; "dreams show that we rightly
 9

hesitate in some situation, or we cannot avoid it, and they always point in
same direction – at same solution." (Bras 1977: 206).
Jung is of the opinion that precise dream record is a basis and a minimum
for every dream interpretation. The patient must not leave out, beautify
or in any other way deform dream material. Only such material is the real
text of subconsciousness. S/he must also tell as many details according to
certain dream element as possible (what, who, where, when, why,
how…). The therapist's task then, is to carefully write down all these
details as they suggest the direction of main dream flow. In case that
patient does not remember some part of dream, s/he will be asked to use
imagination. The ideas that patient tells are psychotic fantasies, which
are coming directly from the subconsciousness and move around the
central problem.
Even when the therapist gathered and processed dream material, s/he
cannot know the meaning of dream. It is impossible to adequately explain
a dream without patient's cooperation and being acquainted with
patient's life situation (e.g. social status, buisness worries, economic and
marital status, social aspirations, inteligence…). The therapist begins
interpretation with easier and more evident parts of dream. With patient's
help, s/he then moves further on more difficult and complicated parts. It
is important to notice the sequence of dream events, since they are
interconnected, and hence the relation between them reveals the
meaning of dream. Jung discovered that a course of events in dreams is
similar to that in a stage play.
2.2.2 Dramatic structure of dreams
The majority of dreams are composed of four parts or phases, pretty
much like in drama. Firstly, we need to figure out the scene and time of
dream as well as dramatis personae. In first phase, which can be
regarded as the exposition, the initial situation (setting) is represented –
already pointing at central conflict expressed in dream. The second phase
is the plot and contains something new (essential change), which leads
the dream in the third phase: the culmination. In this phase the most
critical things happen, which bring the dream to a closure: the fourth
phase or denouement. Jung attributed extraordinary significance to the
end of dream. The end of dream is so important, Jung held, because we
cannot consciously influence on the outcome (i.e. change the end), and
dreams so reflect the real situation. "Nature is often obscure or
impenetrable, but she is not, like man, deceitful. We must therefore take
it that the dream is just what it pretends to be, neither more nor less. If it
shows something in a negative light, there is no reason for assuming that
it is meant positively."6
According to the end of dream, he discriminated between favourable and
unfavourable dreams. If we were to reverse the well-known proverb, then
for dreams we may say that a good end makes a good beginning.
 10

Favourable dreams have quieting effect and direct us to the most

constructive ways of solving problems. On the contrary, unfavourable
dreams contain a warning of, perhaps life important, negative changes.
Hence dreams can be said to have a prospective function; they warn us
about bright or dark future. Favourable or unfavourable end of dream,
however, must not be taken as a final and absolute meaning of dream.
This can be done only after several interconnected dreams.
2.2.3 Archetypes
Dreams are also an expression of collective generic experiences, which
refer to basic life problems and manifest in terms of symbols and myths –
thoughts and memories shared by all humanity. The interpreter of
dreams must therefore be familiar with various myths, religions, cults,
rituals and fairy tales in order to fully understand the meaning of dreams.
These mythological motifs, which can be found in dreams, Jung called
archetypes. Archetypes or primordal images are "specific forms and
pictorial relationships, which did not only consistently appear in all ages
and in all latitudes, but also appear in individual dreams, fantasies,
visions and ideas." (Jung 1978: 396) This observation led Jung to think
that there exists collective unconsciousness – the sum of all experiences
that human race acquired in its phylogenetic development. The access to
collective unconsciousness is particularly easy, when a person has to take
an important decision or is in life situation, crucial for his/her personal
growth. S/he gets a suggestion from the collective unconsciousness in
form of archetypal situation. If that happens in dream, then such dream is
called the big dream, which "is expressed in language of universal
human experiences, condensed in rich, vivid symbols, in eternal ancient
images that [sic] overwhelm us completely." (Bras 1977: 178) Wide
knowledge is required when interpreting the big dreams. This knowledge,
however, cannot be simply memorized; it can only be an insight into
experiences of the person who uses it.
The gender of dream actors plays an important role in interpretation of
dreams. The actor of the same gender is the dreamer's shadow (usually
regarded as the dark aspects of the personality) to which Jung ascribed
basic instincts, responsible for unpleasant and morally inadmissible
thoughts in dreams. The level of consciousness, which is in accordance
with the dreamer's social role, is called the persona. "The persona
consists of what a person appears to be to others, in contrast to what
s/he actually is. That is to say the persona is the role the individual
chooses to play in life, the impression and the way s/he wishes to appear
to, and makes on, the outside world." (Vered 1997)
Dream actors of the opposite gender have an interesting role too. Such
figures, which had formed throughout millenniums of men and women
living together, come from collective unconsciousness as a balancing
experience to help the dreamer understand the nature of opposite
 11

gender. Female figure that appears in dreams of men is called the anima,
while same male figure is called the animus.
"Every man carries within him the eternal image of woman, not the
image of this or that particular woman, but a definite feminine
image. This image is fundamentally unconscious, an hereditary
factor of primordial origin engraved in the living organic system of
the man, an imprint or "archetype" of all the ancestral experiences
of the female, a deposit, as it were, of all the impressions ever
made by woman - in short, an inherited system of psychic
adaptation. Even if no women existed, it would still be possible, at
any given time, to deduce from this unconscious image exactly
how a woman would have to be constituted psychically. The same
is true of the woman: she too has her inborn image of man."7
The features of anima are expressed in archetype of extremely attractive
girl, strict, cold seductress and a beauty… And the features of animus in
archetype of a sailor, wise old man, an officer, a doctor… Or to illustrate
the two archetypes with Jung's words: "When animus and anima meet,
the animus draws his sword of power and the anima ejects her poison of
illusion and seduction. The outcome need not always be negative, since
the two are equally likely to fall in love (a special instance of love at first
sight)."8
A king, the pope, a commander-in-chief and a dictator symbolize the "big
man". A queen or female judge and similar figures symbolize the creators
of our faith.
"Archetypes are complexes of experience that come upon us like
fate, and their effects are felt in our most personal life. The anima
no longer crosses our path as a goddess, but, it may be, as an
intimately personal misadventure, or perhaps as our best venture.
When, for instance, a highly esteemed professor in his seventies
abandons his family and runs off with a young red-headed actress,
we know that the gods have claimed another victim."9
2.2.4 Objective and subjective level of interpretation
It is often observed that in dreams, people who we otherwise know good,
behave differently than it is typical for them. Objective levelof
interpretation enables us to discover the dreamer's true relation to these
persons. In other words, in dreams the dreamer expresses his/her
relationship to the person s/he knows. When we connect dream content
with everyday life situation, we discover that dream relationship is not
necessarily the same. For instance, our relationship to person, who we
overvalue in wakening state, may be undervalued in dreams. This is to
understand as suggestion that less respectful relationship could bring a
better social intercourse.
When however, the relationship is not apparent to us, namely does not
 12

connect with the dream story, then we interpret dreams from subjective
level. In this case, we search for dreamer's qualities projected into other
dream persons. The dreamer is shown his/her own tendencies of
characther, to which s/he did not devote enough attention. Hence, the
subjective level of interpretation helps to recognize the dreamer's own
points of view.
3 FREUD VS. JUNG
3.1 SIMILARITIES OF DREAM INTERPRETATIONS
3.1.1 The value of dreams in therapy
As we have seen, both interpretations of dreams placed great importance
on role of dreams in therapy. Dreams are exclusively a psychic
phenomenon, therefore the interpretation of dreams is as valid source of
information as is for example hypnosis, free association, interview,
projective images and so forth. For Jung, dreams even promise something
more; not only they point at central problem of dreamer, they also
suggest possible solutions for removal of conflict and process of healing.
Dreams are therefore an expression of conflict, should that be in
subconsciousness supressed unsatisfied wishes, which in dreams demand
hallucinatory fulfillment (Freud), or simply internal conflicting psychical
process (Jung).
The starting-point for both interpretations is a dream-report, behind which
the meaning of dream is hidden. This manifest content, as Freud called it,
is an answer on internal stimuli. Jung offered similar explanation: dreams
warn about internal process, for which we may say is neglected during
the day, because of our constant occupation with perception of physical.
Dreams will so point at potential conflict so long as we do not make it
conscious and solve it. The task of the therapist is to find this internal
stimuli or latent content of dream and help the patient to become aware
of it and include this recognition in his/her life. The way how to discover
the conflict of dreamer is similar to the extent that both, Jung and Freud
used the patient's associations as pivotal technique.
3.1.2 The pacient-therapist relationship
Jung and Freud agreed that none interpretation of dreams can be done
without co-operation of dreamer. Both scientists condemned any
interpretation where the patient did not actively participated. When
interpreting a dream, the therapist should show as little interest in
manifest content of dream as possible. S/he has to be exceedingly careful
not to press on patient, emotionally react on parts of dream that are
interesting, show curiosity or impatience, or mention his/her expectations
in advance. All this can influence on patient to severely change the real
content of dream, such content however, is useless for interpretation. It is
important to make an agreement with the patient so that s/he will not
hide back things when telling the dream, and will consistently stick to the
 13

real content of dream.

Sometimes the patient cannot remember certain parts of dream. Freud
explained this with the resistance, the work of censorship. When this
happens, the therapist will try to get to these parts of dream (essential for
discovery of latent content) with the help of patient's associations. Like
Freud, Jung would discover unknown parts of dream by triggering the
patient's fantasies that come from subconsciousness. This is not used
only to uncover the blanks in patient memory, but also with any other
part of manifest content, which is important for understanding the dream.
An important influence on Freud was the association experiment, in
which Jung proved that associations – the responses to stimulus word, are
"determined with the complexes of the subject." (Freud 1977: 111) That
means that all ideas, which patient gets when asked to respond on
certain dream element, are determined. This was an important discovery
that drew interest of science to the interpretation of dreams.
When the therapist gets an idea of the meaning of dream, s/he has to
connect the statements with patient's social situation. Jung claimed that
we have to know patient's current life situation (Freud's term:
psychological background).
3.2 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DREAM INTERPRETATIONS
3.2.1 Finality vs. causality
Freud interpreted dreams from the causal point of view. He searched for a
cause of dreams and figured out that dreams are merely the answers on
internal stimuli. When interpreting dreams, he found out that internal
stimuli are unsatisfied wishes, which are in most cases conflicting in
nature. The interpretation of dream was finished for Freud as soon as he
found such wish and hence the conflict. From then on he used common
methods of healing.
On the other hand, Jung did not only search for the cause of dream, he
interpreted dreams from the standpoint of finality. He claimed that
dream, as any other psychological phenomenon, has its purpose, namely
"conformity to the end in view." (Jung 1978: 341) This orientation to the
end can be regarded as fundamental meaning. Such psychological
meaning is characteristic also for our everyday reactions. "Fundamental
meaning of anger, which occures if someone offended us, is revange, and
if we show our sadness to everyone, the fundamental meaning of such
behaviour is to cause others to feel pity for us." (Jung 1987:341) Jung
claimed that every dream contains such fundamental meaning.
The most important question Freud would ask himself when interpreting
the dream is: What is the cause of this dream? On the other hand, Jung
prefered questions such as: What is the purpose of this dream? What
effect is it meant to have? The answers on these questions are important
as they help to reveal the essence of dream, which usually contains a
 14

warning that there exists some trouble. When searching for the purpose
of dream, we can even find the solution to the problem. Jung says that
"just like it is inevitable for us to think when we are consciously dealing
with some problem to find the solution, this process automatically
continues also in more or less unconscious part of sleeping." Dreams are
not mere wish-fulfilment, Jung held, but above all rational dealing with
ourselves.
3.2.2 Dream symbols In order to point out the differences between both
interpretations of dreams regarding the meaning and role of dream
symbols, I shall quote the following dream-report.10 One young patient
tells the dream: "I am in the tree in unknown garden and I am picking
apples. I look around carefully to see if I am being watched." We have
learnt that patient's associations are a must when interpreting dreams.
So let us tell the associations that the patient told to the therapist. The
content of dream reminds the patient on his childhood, when he picked
some of pears in the foreign garden without permission. The feeling of
bad conscience, intensified in dream, reminds him on an event from the
previous day. On the street he met and talked for a while with his
acquaintance, a woman who was otherwise indifferent to him. In that
moment, a gentleman, who he knew too, passed by and he got the same
feeling as when he stole the pears. Picking apples reminds him also on
the scene from the paradise. He could never really understand how
picking prohibited apples had such a crucial consequence for the first
human. Sometime ago he was constantly mad at God's punishment for
man's sins, which is why he believed God created people in the way they
are: curious and greedy. He also remembered on his father who punished
him few times for no obvious reason. The worse was when he got caught
while secretly watching the girls that were swimming. In connection to
this, he confessed that he had recently started an affair with some house-
maid, but he could not induce her to engage in sexual intercourse. He had
a date with her in the evening before this dream occurred.
Now, Freud would interpret this dream above all as fulfilment of wish that
remained unsatisfied during the day. Picking apples in connection with
the patient's associations is an expression of erotic scene. The censorship
transformed the latent motive into symbolic image, where apples
symbolize breasts. As regards the associations of father's punishment and
the paradise, we could say that the events in the past significantly
transformed patient's superego (the influence of social norms, patterns of
behaviour) and are therefore responsible for the repression of sexual
desire. Also the uneasy feeling he had when talking to his acquaintance
was a consequence of inherited social norms.
The dream with apples is undoubtedly an erotic scene for Jung too.
However, more important is the myth of Adam and Eve. It is a myth of sin
that was punished with Adam's fall from grace in the Garden of Eden.
 15

Considering patient's associations, we can say that erotic dream scene

was presented as sin. The dream points at improper relationship to the
opposite gender. The patient's central conflict is expressed in desire to
have a sexual intercourse on one hand, and commit a sin on the other. He
also has a fear of being observed, which is present in the myth of Adam
and Eve too. Eve persuaded Adam to take the apple off the tree, but he
could not hide from God seeing it.
Freud's symbols are not perfect it seems, since the patient could as well
dream that "he opens the door with a key, travels in the plane, makes
love with his mother, etc." (Jung 1978: 346) and all would have the same
meaning.
3.2.3 Wish-fulfilment denies Jung's interpretation
According to Freud, dreams are a form of fulfilling suppressed, in most
cases sexual wishes. These wishes are internal stimuli, which in dream
transform into hallucinatory fulfilment. All visual dream scenes are
therefore wish-fulfilment. The manifest content of dream serves the
purpose of latent content, and even when taking the censorship into
account, we cannot accept certain aspects of Jung's interpretation, such
as objective and subjective level of interpretation or favourable and
unfavourable dreams. All the qualities of Jung's interpretation thus cannot
have a firm basis, for they are derived from the manifest content. Freud's
wish-fulfilment denies any dreaming of "relation to the object" (Bras
1977: 214), projection of the dreamer's qualities…
Let us illustrate this by another example.11 A child tells his dream: "I see
my brother in the chest." Freud claimed that this dream is an ideal
example of wish-fulfilment; the child "would like to see his brother to
confine." (Freud 1977:130) Jung's interpretation, however, would rather
focus on relationship between the child and his brother. Such dreams can
be a suggestion that the kid overvalues his brother, and that perhaps his
brother takes advantage of him in this relationship. The objective level of
interpretation would be very important in this case, as Jung would further
explore the relationship between the kid and his brother. Freud on the
other hand, would probably understand this dream merely as fulfilment of
an infantile wish.
Also, Freud's concept that dreams preserve sleep denies Jung's dramatic
structure of dream, and especially culmination phase. In response, Jung
held:
"We should not overlook the fact that the very dreams which
disturb sleep most - and these are not uncommon - have a
dramatic structure which aims logically at creating a highly
affective situation, and builds it up so efficiently that it
unquestionably wakes the dreamer. Freud explains these dreams
by saying that the censor was no longer able to suppress the
 16

painful affect. It seems to me that this explanation fails to do

justice to the facts. Dreams which concern themselves in a very
disagreeable manner with the painful experiences and activities of
daily life and expose just the most disturbing thoughts with the
most painful distinctness are known to everyone. It would, in my
opinion, be unjustified to speak here of the dream's sleep-
preserving, affect-disguising function. One would have to stand
reality on its head to see in these dreams a confirmation of Freud's
view." (Jung 1978: 485)
4 CONCLUSION
Jung's and Freud's interpretations of dreams are similar as they both
stress importance of dreams in therapy and are based on premise that
dreams reflect conflicts. The process of acquireing data from the dreams
told is similar too. Both interpretations repose on dreamer's associations,
which come from subconsciousness and are therefore determined.
However, an important difference can be observed in use of information
acqueired with interpretation of dreams. For Freud, dreams were merely a
mirror of conflict (suppressed unsatisfied desire), which needed to be
discovered, whereas Jung searched for solutions already expressed in
dreams. Jung did not agree with Freud that all dream themes are only a
subject to repressed sexual traumas. He claimed that we can also repress
things like "the problem of social adaptation, tragical life circumstances,
a need for respect, and so forth." (Jung 1989: 162)
Jung started to doubt in Freud's sexual theory at the very first meeting
with him, when he realized they had different views on interpretation of
dreams and psychology in general. Despite that, Freud helped Jung (The
Interpretation of Dreams, 1900) a great deal to understand the resistance
of interpretation of dreams. Jung was then a young doctor, who shared
many of the Freud's ideas. However, Jung soon realized that certain parts
of Freud's interpretation (e.g. dream symbols) were conformed to verify
the sexual theory. Rather than accepting the sexual theory as the only
truth, Jung started to accumulate his knowledge through experiences he
had with various patients. Jung's methodology thus prefered the induction
over deduction. Or rather, as he put it:
"I have no theory about dreams, I do not know how dreams arise.
And I am not at all sure that - my way of handling dreams even
deserves the name of a "method." I share all your prejudices
against dream-interpretation as the quintessence of uncertainty
and arbitrariness. On the other hand, I know that if we meditate on
a dream sufficiently long and thoroughly, if we carry it around with
us and turn it over and over, something almost always comes of it.
This something is not of course a scientific result to be boasted
about or rationalized; but it is an important practical hint which
shows the patient what the unconscious is aiming at."12
 17

I am inclined to think that the differences in approaches of both

scientists, which eventually separated a pupil and a teacher, originate
from social and perhaps political circumstances.13 Freud developed his
theory in harsh times. We can readily understand that the sexual theory
was the last thing society wanted at that time. The most shocking of all
was Freud's concept of the libido, what at the bottom meant that all
creative impulses and the entire motivating force of human behaviour are
an expression of repressed sexuality. His theory was on the brink of ruin
as the conservative scientists fought with all their might against it.
However, the young generation of scientists saved Freud along with his
theory. Jung's association experiment proved that there is some truth in
Freud's theory. He defended Freud in almost all scientific debates despite
the fact that his career was at stake. Freud realized that his theory was
spreading around the world. As soon as international psychoanalitic
association had been founded, his theory would be preserved. Therefore
Freud viewed Jung as his pupil, successor and a leader of such
association. Jung, however, knew that he was not "able to do that
correctly, that is, in his way represent his standpoints, because [Jung's]
main ambition was not personal reputation, but to research the truth."
(Jung 1989: 171, 172) Jung decided to leave the psycho-analysis and start
analytical school of psychology after first meeting he had with Freud. In
13 hours lasting discussion, Freud passionately said: "My dear Jung,
promise me you will never abandon sexual theory. It is the most
important thing. You see, we have to make a dogma out of it, a dam that
will never become loose." (Jung 1989: 164)
When saying that Freud had occultism in his mind. Jung could not accept
to reject the relevance of occultism and especially mythology as his
concept was based on them (e.g. collective unconsciousness). He
understood what Freud wanted to achieve, to set psycho-analysis as
"belief, which cannot be discussed and is put in practice only where you
want to remove doubts for ever." (Jung 1989: 165)
FOOTNOTES:
1
"Sigmund Freud proposed that the human psyche could be divided into
three dependent parts, the id, the ego and the superego. The first of
these "consisted of amoral, irrational, driving instincts for sexual
gratification, aggression, and general physical and sensual pleasure. The
superego constituted the external moral imperatives and expectations
imposed on the personality by its society and culture. The ego stood as
the mediator between the impulses of the id and the asceticism of the
superego. The ego allowed the personality to cope with the inner and
outer demands of its existence." To personify the three voices their
conversation would follow with the biological id constantly screaming "I
want it now, I want it now" and the ego replying, "You can't have it, but
try this instead" and the superego overseeing the decisions of the ego
 18

and judging either "You have done well" or "No, you have erred and done
wrong!" (Smith 1990)
2
"Residua of the day are mental investments, which had not
subordinated to general withdrawal of investments, [but] despite that
preserved certain amount of libidinal or some other interest." (Freud
1987:185)
3
When translating original text (which was written in Slovene), I have
come accross a linguistic problem regarding terms wish and desire.
Slovenian language does not make such explicit difference between the
two. For evidently, the difference is in English: "We generally speak of
wishing rather than wanting where we take real satisfaction to be out of
the question. Hence we may wish that we were younger, or that the past
had been different, but do not take ourselves to desire such things. And
since the role of wishes is not to produce actions, but rather to be related
to imaginings or other expressions, we do not require that wishes be
reasonable, sensible, or consistent." (Watkins 1997) In what follows I shall
be using the term wish.
4
In order to explore psychological background, the therapist will ask
patient about his/her life, motives, and memories in great detail. "An
analysis would be complete, in theory, when we had gone as deep in
motive, and as far back in time, as was required to collect all the latent
material operative in producing the manifest." (Watkins 1997)
5
Deceased member of Jung family stated in his will that the money was
to be spent for study of theology. Jung's father therefore did not have
much choice, when there was the time for him to go to the university.
6
"On the Psychology of the Unconscious" (1953). In CW 7: Two Essays on
Analytical Psychology. P.162. Retrieved August 2, 1998 from the World
Wide Web:
http://www.enteract.com/~jwalz/Jung/dream3.html
7
"Marriage as a Psychological Relationship" (1925). In CW 17: The
Development of the Personality. P.338. Retrieved August 2, 1998 from the
World Wide Web:
http://www.enteract.com/~jwalz/Jung/anima2.html
8
Aion (1951). CW 9, Part II: Page 30. Retrieved August 3, 1998 from the
World Wide Web:
http://www.enteract.com/~jwalz/Jung/anima2.html
9
"Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious" (1935). In CW 9, Part I: The
 19

Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious. P. 62. Retrieved August 4,

1998 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.enteract.com/~jwalz/Jung/arche1.html
10
The example is taken from K.G. Jung: Dinamika nesvesnog. (1978.)
page 342.
11
Infantile dream in S. Freud 1977: 130.
12
"The Aims of Psychotherapy" (1931). In CW 16: The Practice of
Psychotherapy. P.86. Retrieved August 1, 1998 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.enteract.com/~jwalz/Jung/dream1.html
13
For more information see Douglas, A. D. (1995). Oedipus Redivivus -
Freud, Jung and Psychoanalysis. Haverford College. Retrieved August 5,
1998 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.haverford.edu/psych109/jung.freud.html.
REFERENCES:
Bras, S. (1977). Izbrana poglavja iz psihoterapije (Selected chapters from
psychotherapy). Ljubljana: Mladinska knjiga.
Freud, S. (1977). Metapsiholoski spisi (Papers on metapsychology).
Ljubljana: DZS.
Freud, S. (1987). Predavanja za uvod v psihoanalizo (Introductory lectures
on psycho-analysis). Ljubljana: Tiskarna Ljubljana.
Jung, K. G. (1978). Dinamika nesvesnog (The Structure and Dynamics of
the Psyche). Beograd: Tiskarna Radisa Timotis.
Jung, C. G. (1989). Spomini, sanje, misli (Memories, Dreams and
Reflections). Ljubljana: DZS.
Smith, J. M. (1990). Freud's Id, Ego and Superego in Anthills of the
Savannah. The Brown University Scholarly Technology Group. Retrieved
July 27, 1998 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.stg.brown.edu/projects/hypertext/landow/post/achebe/cafreud.html
Vered, A. (1997). Jung and Old. Retrieved August 5, 1998 from the World
Wide Web:
http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/avered/jung.htm
Watkins, G. (1997). The Interpretation of Dreams. King's College London,
Department of Philosophy. Retrieved July 12, 1998 from the World Wide
Web:
http://www.kcl.ac.uk/kis/schools/hums/philosophy/interpretation.html
© Brlizg
All rights reserved.
 20

Dream Psychology Psychoanalysis for

Beginners
by Sigmund Freud
Freud's legacy

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Freud's legacy
Psychotherapy
Freud's theories and research methods have always been controversial. He and psychoanalysis
have been criticized in very extreme terms.[41] For an often-quoted example, Peter Medawar, a
Nobel Prize winning immunolgist, said in 1975 that psychoanalysis is the "most stupendous
intellectual confidence trick of the twentieth century".[41] However, Freud has had a tremendous
impact on psychotherapy. Many psychotherapists follow Freud's approach to an extent, even if
they reject his theories.
One influential post-Freudian psychotherapy has been the primal therapy of the American
psychologist Arthur Janov.[42][43][44]
Freud's contributions to psychotherapy have been extensively criticized and defended by many
scholars and historians.
Critics include H. J. Eysenck, who wrote that Freud 'set psychiatry back one hundred years',
consistently mis-diagnosed his patients, fraudulently misrepresented case histories and that "what
is true in Freud is not new and what is new in Freud is not true".[45]
Betty Friedan also criticised Freud and his Victorian slant on women in her 1963 book The
Feminine Mystique.[46] Freud's concept of penis envy—and his definition of female as a
negative[47]—was attacked by Kate Millett, whose 1970 book Sexual Politics explained confusion
and oversights in his work.[48] Naomi Weisstein wrote that Freud and his followers erroneously
thought that his "years of intensive clinical experience" added up to scientific rigor.[49]
 21

Mikkel Borch-Jacobsen wrote in a review of Han Israëls's book Der Fall Freud published in The
London Review of Books that, "The truth is that Freud knew from the very start that Fleischl,
Anna O. and his 18 patients were not cured, and yet he did not hesitate to build grand theories on
these non-existent foundations...he disguised fragments of his self-analysis as ‘objective’ cases,
that he concealed his sources, that he conveniently antedated some of his analyses, that he
sometimes attributed to his patients ‘free associations’ that he himself made up, that he inflated
his therapeutic successes, that he slandered his opponents."[50]
Jacques Lacan saw attempts to locate pathology in, and then to cure, the individual as more
characteristic of American ego psychology than of proper psychoanalysis. For Lacan,
psychoanalysis involved "self-discovery" and even social criticism, and it succeeded insofar as it
provided emancipatory self-awareness.[51]
David Stafford-Clark summed up criticism of Freud: "Psychoanalysis was and will always be
Freud's original creation. Its discovery, exploration, investigation, and constant revision formed
his life's work. It is manifest injustice, as well as wantonly insulting, to commend
psychoanalysis, still less to invoke it 'without too much of Freud'."[52] It's like supporting the
theory of evolution 'without too much of Darwin'. If psychoanalysis is to be treated seriously at
all, one must take into account, both seriously and with equal objectivity, the original theories of
Sigmund Freud.
Ethan Watters and Richard Ofshe wrote, "The story of Freud and the creation of psychodynamic
therapy, as told by its adherents, is a self-serving myth".[53]
Philosophy
Freud did not consider himself a philosopher, although he greatly admired Franz Brentano,
known for his theory of perception, as well as Theodor Lipps, who was one of the main
supporters of the ideas of the subconscious and empathy.[54] In his 1932 lecture on
psychoanalysis as "a philosophy of life" Freud commented on the distinction between science
and philosophy:
Philosophy is not opposed to science, it behaves itself as if it were a science, and to a
certain extent it makes use of the same methods; but it parts company with science, in
that it clings to the illusion that it can produce a complete and coherent picture of the
universe, though in fact that picture must needs fall to pieces with every new advance in
our knowledge. Its methodological error lies in the fact that it over-estimates the
epistemological value of our logical operations, and to a certain extent admits the validity
of other sources of knowledge, such as intuition.[55]
Freud's model of the mind is often considered a challenge to the enlightenment model of rational
agency, which was a key element of much modern philosophy. Freud's theories have had a
tremendous effect on the Frankfurt school and critical theory. Following the "return to Freud" of
the French psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan, Freud had an incisive influence on some French
philosophers.
Freud once openly admitted to avoiding the work of Nietzsche, "whose guesses and intuitions
often agree in the most astonishing way with the laborious findings of psychoanalysis" [56].
Nietzsche, however, vociferously rejected the conjecture of so-called 'scientific' men, and despite
also 'diagnosing' the death of a father-God, chose instead to embrace the animal desires (or
'Dionysian energies') the humanist Freud sought to reject through positivism.
Science
 22

Austrian-British philosopher Karl Popper argued that Freud's psychoanalytic theories were
presented in untestable form.[57] Psychology departments in American universities today are
scientifically oriented, and Freudian theory has been marginalized, being regarded instead as a
"desiccated and dead" historical artifact, according to a recent APA study.[58] Recently, however,
researchers in the emerging field of neuro-psychoanalysis have argued for Freud's theories,
pointing out brain structures relating to Freudian concepts such as libido, drives, the
unconscious, and repression.[59][60]Founded by South African neuroscientist Mark Solms,[61]
neuro-psychoanalysis has received contributions from researchers including Oliver Sacks,[62]
Jaak Panksepp,[63] Douglas Watt, António Damásio,[64] Eric Kandel, and Joseph E. LeDoux.[65]
Still other clinical researchers have recently found empirical support for more specific
hypotheses of Freud such as that of the "repetition compulsion" in relation to psychological
trauma.[66]