LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE

The presentation of scientific findings in English is all the more crucial for
scientists because even in non-English speaking countries, scientific journals are
published in English. In order to succeed in science, not only do non-English speaking
scientists have to cope with new developments in their field but they also master
English writing. This also happens to the native English. If we are used to reading
scientific artcles in English, we realize that being America or British does not
guarantee being able to write good English.

Organisation

The following characteristics are typical of scientific writing, particularly in longer

texts such as thesis chapters:

• They are structured for easy access to information using headings and sub-
headings.
• There are cohesive links across sentences using logical connectors
o Example: however, The first measurement… For the second
measurement see XXXX
o More information: see connecting words.
• Use of forecasting and signposting, explaining what is to follow
• Importance of introductions, conclusions, and transitions between sections.
Transitions signal a major change of topic within a chapter.
• Patterns that are specific to the field of science and technology
o Example: IMRaD: Introduction, Method, Results and Discussion)
• Matrix or hierarchical structures to organise ideas
o Example: There are two main branches of mycorrihizas:
endomycorrhizas ectomycorrrhizas. Endomycorrhizas live within
herbaceous plant cortical cells and grow intercellularly. … (5
sentences on endomycorrhizas ) Ectomycorrrhizas are found mainly
on woody plant species and form a fungal sheath…
There are four main sections to this report: introduction, method,
results and conclusion.
• Cross referencing in longer texts.
o Example (forward pointing):This process is explained in more detail in
section 4.2.
o Example (backward pointing):In Chapter 3, R bulbosus conditioned
soil was also found to have higher level of bacterial, fungal and total
PLFA than L.perenne and L. corniculatus conditioned soil types.
Backward pointing
• Paragraphs should be well structured and begin with topic sentences
 o More information: see paragraphs.

Formal and Objective Style

• The first person singular ‘I’, to a lesser extent the plural form ‘we’ and the
second person ‘you’ are avoided in most writing.
• Contracted verb forms used in everyday speech are avoided: can’t, doesn’t:
cannot, does not.
• Formal rather than colloquial English is used; vague/imprecise words are
avoided: loads, lots – substitute them with significant number/ large quantities.
However, it’s always better, where possible to provide figures.
• Spoken negatives are avoided: there are not many = few/ little.
• Attitudinal words really, actually, great, magnificently are generally avoided
in favour of objectivity:

This is covered in more detail in the section on Writing in an Impersonal Style.

Scientific Verbs

Avoid 2 word (or ‘phrasal’) verbs as they are too informal for scientific writing
e.g.:

look into set up find out look at look up

These verbs are the province of everyday language but often lack the precision
required for scientific expression. Instead choose one word verbs such as:

discover/
investigate prepare survey consult
establish

The last 5 verbs, derived from Latin or Greek, convey more precise meanings and can
give your work a more scientific tone.

Vocabulary Choice

Precise and often abstract vocabulary is preferred. For example, very colloquial
words such as ‘stuff’ or vague nouns such as ‘things’ can be replaced by a better
description, eg:

• issues
• values
• materials
• specifications
• components
• items
• factors

For example:
"There are three things to consider" could become "There are three issues to consider"

"All the things in this system need to work together" could become "All the
components in this system need to work together"

Grammar

Scientific texts tend to be densely packed with information, particularly with nouns
clustered into noun groups e.g. microbial community structure. Avoid overlong noun
groups which can be difficult for the reader to process.

For example:
“The Bragg scattering of random, non-stationary surface gravity waves by
random topography on a gently sloping bottom is investigated.”

Michel McCarthy in the Guardian:

http://www.guardian.co.uk/education/2006/apr/11/highereducation.uk1

Direct questions e.g. What level of toxicity can the plant withstand? are usually
avoided in favour of indirect questions, for example, The next step is to determine the
level of toxicity that a plant can withstand.

Spoken negative such as There are not any cases of leukaemia in areas… can be
written as There are no cases of...

The passive e.g. ‘Two specimens were then selected' .. is commonly used rather than
‘I then selected 2 samples…’ This gives a more objective tone, but should not be
overused. For more information, see Writing in an Impersonal Style.

Complex sentence structure (with more than 1 clause) should be used to relate ideas
and improve the flow of ideas. However, avoid too many clauses, where the cetral
idea is lost. For more information, see Sentences.

Modals (can, may, might) are important in making carefully weighted claims.

Exercise

Read the following 4 extracts all dealing with scientific issues.

• Which of these do you think is acceptable as scientific or technical writing in

an academic setting?
• Can you identify the source or type of source and the readership addressed?
• Think about the scientific language and organisation of each of these extracts

Extract 1
On the basis of our findings, it appears that ibuprofen is as effective as
indomethacin in promoting ductal closure in premature infants. The rate of
closure in the group assigned to indomethacin was similar to rates previously
reported. In 15 of 21 infants with birth weights of less than 1750 g (71 percent)
(30) and in 87 of 113 infants with similar gestational ages and birth weights (77
 percent), (5) a hemodynamically important patent ductus arteriosus disappeared
after indomethacin treatment at the age of two to seven days. More recently, a
hemodynamically important ductus arteriosus was closed after prophylactic
treatment with indomethacin in 22 of 31 preterm infants (71 percent). (31)
Although we observed differences in the overall rate of ductal closure among
the centers participating in our study, the efficacy of the two drugs remained
similar in each of the centers.

Ibuprofen has been shown to constrict the ductus arteriosus effectively in

lambs. (11) Earlier, smaller studies suggested that ibuprofen might be… [3
paragraphs omitted]

A limitation of our trial is the relatively small number of patients, which

limited the power of the study to detect significant differences in other clinical
effects that we observed -- notably, those related to outcomes such as
necrotizing enterocolitis, isolated bowel perforation, intraventricular
hemorrhage, and periventricular leukomalacia. For the same reason, small
differences in the efficacy of the drugs according to gestational age may not
have become apparent.

In summary, our data indicate that ibuprofen is as effective as indomethacin in

promoting ductal closure on the third day of life in premature infants. However,
ibuprofen is associated with significantly less impairment of renal function. No
significant differences with regard to other side effects were observed. A lower
gestational age (less than or equal to 26 weeks), antenatal indomethacin use,
receipt of high-frequency oscillatory ventilation, and an elevated pulmonary--
artery pressure increased the risk of treatment failure.

Is this acceptable as scientific writing for university? What do you think is the source?

Extract 2
SPIDERS may hold the key to colonising space, say Australian scientists. They
are blasting eight into space to see if their web-weaving skills can be used to
help design huge new space stations.

Orbiting "tin cans" like Mir and the new ISS can accommodate only a dozen
astronauts.

The scientists believe that the Australian orb weaver, which spins an almost
perfect symmetrical web with silk tougher than steel, can teach man "spider
technology" to use in constructing space stations miles wide and big enough to
house thousands.

The boffins at the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology will monitor the
spiders during their 16-day space mission to see how they spin webs in a
weightless environment.

Space stations at present have to be constructed on Earth and flown up. This
has limited their size. It is hoped the spiders will show how they can be built in
 space. The creatures - all female because they are more conscientious builders -
will blast off on NASA's space shuttle Columbia next February.

Is this acceptable as scientific writing for university? What do you think is the source?

Extract 3
AS A SPECIES, Cambridge physicists are not renowned for being excitable.
Popular imagery has them leading solitary existences in small, stuffy rooms,
where they ponder the finer points of life, the Universe and everything. For
relaxation, there are the mugs of stewed tea, over which endless debates take
place about the number of currants in the canteen buns.

But in the spring of 1989, the occupants of Cambridge University's Cavendish

Laboratory were jolted from their deep deliberations on both cosmos and
currants. The atmosphere glowed with speculation about a trio of researchers
who had been spotted in hushed conversation. Rumours abounded of secret
experiments, and there were ever-so-slightly envious whispers about the "P"
word - patent. Something extraordinary seemed to have happened, and the
question on everyone's lips was - what have they found?

At face value, something unremarkable. By chance, Jeremy Burroughes, Donal

Bradley (now at the University of Sheffield) and Richard Friend had discovered
that if you slapped a voltage across an ultrathin film of an exotic plastic known
as poly(p-phenylene vinylene), or PPV, it glowed a pale yellow-green. "I was
about six feet away, facing in the other direction, when I noticed this bright
green light in the corner of my eye," recalls Burroughes. "It was just pouring
light out all over the place!“

So what was the big deal? After all, you can make almost anything glow with
enough volts, although you will probably fry it in the process. But this was no
inadvertent example…

Is this acceptable as scientific writing for university? What do you think is the source?

Extract 4
6.7 Summary
At the end of this chapter the following conclusions are made.

• It is possible to construct trellis structures to meet the requirements in a

quasi-synchronous adder channel. These trellises are modified versions of the
synchronous cases and have improved the reliability of composite codewords.
• A price paid for the improvement of the individual user is a reduction in the
sum rate.
• In an M-choose T scenario, the identification process based on metric
accumulation is shown to be reliable when using the modified decoders catering
for each quasi-synchronous set.