UM 2017 1 SteelDesign Lesson1 INTRO

STEEL STRUCTURES DESIGN
AND BEHAVIOR
A first advanced course for

designing steel structures
Isaac Hernandez-Fajardo, PhD

Universidad Militar, Bogota, Colombia, 2017.
1.1 What is Structural Design
- Mix of Art and Science
- It combines
- Intuition of the experienced engineer
on the behavior of the structure
- Precise knowledge of principles of,
- Statics - Dynamics
- Mechanics of Materials
- Structural Analysis
- To produce:
- A structure that fulfills its purpose
- In a manner both economic and safe
1.1 What is Structural Design?
- It is recent: until 1850 it was fully an art dependent on the

ability of the engineer
- Initially based on observations from nature: beams, arcs
- As we have advanced in understanding the principles of

the behavior of structures and materials, it has turned
more scientific
1.1 What is Structural Design?
BOTTOMLINE:
- Computations based on scientific principles act as guide

to make decisions.
- Computations should not be blindly followed.
- The art, the ability of an experienced engineer, gives form

and brings closure to the decision making involved in
designing structures
Computers do not take decisions, do not take responsibilites

and do not go to jail
1.2 Principles of Design
- Design: find optimal solution
- Structural Design: optimal size for structural components
- Optimality Criteria?
- Minimum Cost
- Minimum Weight
- Minimum Construction Time
- Minimum Fabrication Costs
- Maximum Operation Efficiency
- The assessment of optimal design is usually qualitative

1.2 Principles of Design
- Mathematical optimization, linear programming, can be

executed if a quantitative optimization criterion is
identified/chosen
- Usually the criterion is minimum weight which it is

assumed correlated to minimum cost.
1.3 Steps of a Design
- Two steps/stages: 1) Functional 2) Structural
Goals of functional Design
- Adequate working areas and clearances
- Proper ventilation and/or air conditioning
- Adequate transportation facilities, elevators, stairways,

cranes, material handling equipment
- Aesthetics
Two steps/stages: 1) Functional 2) Structural
Goals of Structural Design
- Selection and sizing of structural loads so that:
- Service loads can be safely carried
- Displacements are within acceptable limits

Iterative design process follows this outline
1. Planning: functions of the structure; optimality criteria for

design are set
2. Preliminary Structural Configuration: Chose/Propose one
3. Definition of Service Loads: According to the function of

the building
4. Preliminary Member Selection: Assign sections to the

structural configuration
5. Analysis: model of the loads and the structural

frameworks to obtain internal forces and displacements
6. Evaluation: Verification of strength and serviceability

requirements + Verification of design optimality
7. Redesign: Repeat 1 through 6 according to the results of

the evaluatio of optimality
8. Final Decision: Determination of whether an optimum

design has been achieved
1.4 Historical Background of Steel
Structures
- Metal as a structural material begins with Cast Iron (30 m
span arch in England 1777-1779
- Cast iron bridges built from 1780-1820. Arch based with

main girders made of individual cast-iron pieces forming
bar trusses
Structures
- Wrought iron started replacing cast iron after 1840.
- Brittania Bridge Menai Strait, Wales (1846-1850):
Tubular girder bridge of spans of 10-140-140-70 m, made
from wrought iron plates and angles
Structures
- Rolling shapes started with acceptance of cast and
wrought iron
- Bars rolled in industrial scale from 1780 and on
- Rolling of rails after 1820
- Rolling of I shapes after 1870
- Key events:
Development of the Bessemer process (1855)
Basic liner in the Bessemer converter (1870)
Structures
- Key events:
Open hearth furnace
- Steel replaces wrought iron from 1890 on
- Very strong and quality produced steels available today

from multiple sources
1.5 LOADS
- Key events:
- Load estimation is exactly that: an estimation
- Load estimation involves both magnitude and location
- This process requires assumptions and approximations

1.5 LOADS: DEAD LOADS
- Fixed-position gravity service loads include:
Weight of the structure

Attachments to the structure
Pipes
Electric conduits
Air Conditioning and heating ducts, HVAC
Lighting fixtures
Floor covering
Roof covering, suspended ceilings
Floor slabs
Gratings, checkering plates
1.5 LOADS: DEAD LOADS
- Known accurately, but fully only until the end of design
- Weight of the structure must be assumed, sections

selected, and weight recomputed
- Sections must be updated if required

1.5 LOADS: LIVE LOADS
- Gravity load acting when the structure is in service
- This load changes in magnitude and location

Examples:
Human occupants
Furniture
Movable equipments
Vehicles
Stored goods
- Usually prescribed by state and local code.

- Empirical an conservative. Based on experience and
accepted practice
- A widely recognized provision: Minimum Design Loads for

Buildings and Other Structures ASCE 7
- ASCE, American Society of Civil Engineers
- Last Version of this standard: ASCE 7-10 (2010)

- This load must be applied to give maximum effect
- The assumption of full uniform loading everywhere must

be used only when it is indeed appropriate
- Given that probability of full uniform load is almost zero, a

percentage reduction of it is allowed
- ASCE-7 allows members having an influence area of 400

ft2 or more to be designed for a reduced live load
With,
L, reduced live load in lb/ft2

Lo, unreduced live load in lb/ft2
AT, tributary area in ft2
KLL, live load element factor
L>= 50% Lo for members supporting floors, 40% otherwise

KLL= 4, for interior/exterior columns with no cantilever slabs
KLL = 3, for edge columns with cantilevered slabs
KLL= 2, for corner columns with C.S. edge beams without

C.S, and interior beams
KLL = 1, for all other members

KLL= 4, for interior/exterior columns with no cantilever slabs
KLL = 3, for edge columns with cantilevered slabs
KLL= 2, for corner columns with C.S. edge beams without

C.S, and interior beams
KLL = 1, for all other members

1.5 LOADS: HIGHWAY LIVE LOADS
- Standardized by the American Association of State

Highway and Transportation Officials, AASHTO
- Consider truck loads and lane loads that approximate a

series of trucks
- Three basic types, for one design lane, and are known as
HL-93
- Type 1: The HS20 Design Truck Loading. Tractor truck

with a semitrailer of three axles (8, 32, 32 kips)
- Type 2: The Design Uniform Lane Loading. A uniform load

of 640 lb/ft (plf)
- Type 3. The Design Tandem Loading. A two-axle vehicle

with each axle carrying 25 kips (kilopounds).
- The design of a bridge required the combination of the

tree loads above in three different ways to obtain the
maximum effect:
1. HS20 + Uniform load of 0.64 klf

2. 1 Tandem vehicle + uniform load of 0.64 klf
3. 2 HS20 placed in adjacent spans plus the uniform load of
0.64 klf
- This last combination aims to produce maximum negative

moments between inflection points.
- Railroad bridges are designed to carry a similar

semiempirical loading known as the Cooper E72 train
- Railway loads prescribed by the American Railway

Enginering and Maintenance of Way Association,
AREMA
1.5 LOADS: IMPACT
- Dynamic effect of a suddenly applied load
- Cranes and various types of machinery have dynamic

effects
1.5 LOADS: IMPACT
- Force in the dynamic condition is
F = Ks*Delta = Ks(X+X) = 2XKs,
that is twice that of the dynamic condition
- To account for this, a load twice the static load W should

be used to account for the dynamic effect
- The increasing factor applied to the static load is the

impact factor
1.5 LOADS: IMPACT
- In some cases, when the dynamic effect is small, a

conservative, higher value of the static load is enough
- For highway bridge design, impact is always considered
- AASHTO uses the empirical expression
with L, the length of the portion of the span loaded for maximum
effect on the member in ft.
- This factor applies to elements of the superstructure only

1.5 LOADS: IMPACT
- For the substructure, abutments, retaining walls, piers,

are assumed to have adequate damping or to be far
enough from the impact source.
- In buildings, impact applies to designing supports for

cranes and heavy machinery
- ASCE 7 requires increasing the maximum live load by the

following percentages:
For supports of elevators and elevator machinery: 100%

For supports of light machinery, shaft, or motor-driven: 20%
1.5 LOADS: IMPACT
- ASCE 7 requires increasing maximum live load by
For supports of elevators and elevator machinery: 100%

For supports of light machinery, shaft, or motor-driven:
20%
For supports of reciprocating machinery or power driven
units: 50%
For hangers supporting floor and balconies: 33%
For cab-operated traveling crane support girders and their
connections: 25%
For pendant-operated traveling crane support girders and
their connections: 10%
1.5 LOADS: IMPACT
- For designing crane runway girders, the horizontal forces

caused by the moving crane trolleys must be considered
- ASCE 7 establishes using at least 20% of total lifted load

+ weight of the crane trolley
- This horizontal force shall be applied at the top of the rails

acting in either direction normal to the runway rails
- The force shall be distributed considering the lateral

stiffness of the supporting structures
1.5 LOADS: IMPACT
1.5 LOADS: IMPACT
- Additionally, due to acceleration and deacceleration of the

entire crane, a longitudinal tractive force goes to the
runway girder
- This is a consequence of friction of the end truck wheels

with the crane rail
- ASCE 7 requires this force to be at least 1o% of the

maximum wheel loads of the crane
- This load is applied to the top of the rail

1.5 LOADS: WIND LOADS
- Important for long bridges and for buildings higher than

three of four stories
- On a typical rectangular building, wind produces pressure

on the windward side and suction on the leeward side
- Also, wind induces either uplift or downward pressure on

the roof
- According to Bernoullis theorem for an ideal fluid striking

an object, the increase in static pressure equals the
decrease in dynamic pressure given as,
- With, q, dynamic pressure on the object

Rho, the mass density of air (0.07651 pcf at 15 Celsius)
V, wind velocity in miles per hour
- Using these values and adding modification factors, ASCE

7 defines the wind pressure as,
- With, Kd, wind directionality factor

Kz, velocity pressure exposure coefficient
Kzt, topographic factor
I, importance factor
qh, is the calculated 1z at midheight of the roof
- In design, the dynamic pressure q is converted into

equivalent static pressure p as,
with,
q = qz for windard walls at height z above ground
q = qh for leeward walls, side walls, and roofs
qi = qh for leeward walls, side walls, and roofs of
enclosed buildings
qi = qz for positive internal pressure evaluated in partially
enclosed buildings
G = gust effect factor
Cp, external pressure coefficient
GCPi, internal pressure coefficient
1.5 LOADS: EARTHQUAKE LOADS
- Induced by horizontal and vertical ground motions
- Vertical component much smaller
- Earthquake action: when the ground under the object

(structure) having mass suddenly moves the inertia of the
mass tends to resist the movement, a shear force is thus
developed between the ground and the mass
- Seismic provisions in building codes require either,
a) a dynamic analysis of the structure, or

b) for normal, rectangular, medium height buildings, use
a semiempirical lateral base shear force, CW
- Option b) is commonly known as equivalent lateral base

shear force procedure
- Sources for this procedure: Structural Engineers

Association of California (SEAOC) and ASCE 7
- Under ASCE 7, for regular buildings, with height lower

than 72 m (240 ft) the procedure establishes that,
With
- Cs, seismic coefficient , from 0.01 to around 0.35
- W, total dead load of the building
- The seismic response coefficient Cs is given as,

With SDS, the 5% damped design spectral response

acceleration for short periods
R, response modification factor related to the seismic

force-resisting structural system
I, the occupancy importance factor
- But, Cs needs not be greater than,

- But, Cs needs not be greater than,
- With, SD1, design spectral response parameter at 1.0 s

T, fundamental period of the structure
TL, long transition period specified in ASCE 7
- Also, Cs shall not be less than,

- With, S1 mapped maximum spectral response acceleration

parameter
- The fundamental period of the structure T used above shall

not exceed
with Cu, coefficient related to SD1, ranging from 1.4 to 1.7 as

SD1 varies from 0.4 to 1.7
Ta, approximate fundamental period obtained as
Ta, approximate fundamental period obtained as
With Ct and x, parameters related to the structural type and

hn, the height of the structure above the base
- All the steps and rules above for the b) option, the
equivalent lateral force procedure for regular buildings
only
- Irregular buildings posses either 1) plan structural

irregularities or b) vertical structural irregularities
a) Plan structural irregularities
Torsional irregularities
Reentrant corners
Diaphragm discontinuity
Out-of-plane offsets
Nonparallel systems
b) Vertical structural irregularities
Stiffness (soft story) irregularity
Mass irregularity
Geometric irregularity
In-plane discontinuity in vertical lateral force resisting

elements
Discontinuity in lateral strength (weak story)

- After the base shear force V is determined, the vertical

distribution of seismic forces must be determined
- The seismic design story shear must also include torsion

plus shear
- The building must be designed against overturning effects

induced by seismic action
- Second order effects in terms of forces and moments must

be included
- Story drifts and stability indexes must be checked
- And seismic detailing must be provided as necessary

according to the requirements of seismic provisions.
1.6 TYPES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL MEMBERS
- The function of a structure determines the structural

configuration
- Structural configuration + Loads Individual components
- Usually selected from standard rolled shapes adopted by

AISC
- AISC, American Institute of Steel Construction
- Notice that welding allows combining plates to rolled

shapes to generate new sections
- Most common section: wide flange shape formed by hot

rolling in a steel mill
- The wide flange shape is designate by

its nominal depth and weight per foot,
e.g., W18x97
- W18x97, nominally 18 inches high (actual 18.59 in),

weight 97 pounds per foot
- Rolled W shapes are also designated using ASTM A6/A6M

- Rolled W shapes are also designated using ASTM A6/A6M

according to web thickness
- In groups ranging from Group 1 to Group 5. Thinnest web

sections in Group 1.
- The American Standard beam, commonly called the I-

beam is narrow and sloping in the flanges and thick in the
web compared to the wide flange shape
- So, it is not commonly used. Excess material in the web

and low lateral stiffness due to narrow flanges
- The Channels and Angles shapes used either alone or in

combination with other sections
- Channels are designated by its nominal depth and weight

in pounds per foot.
- For example a C12x20 is a channel shape with a nominal

weight of 12-in. and a weight of 20.7 plf.
- Angles are designated by their leg length, long leg first,

and their thickness, such as L5x4x3/8 with all units in
inches
- The structural tee is made by cutting wide flange or I-

beams in half. Commonly used for chord members in
trusses
- A WT5x44 is a tee 5-in. high and weight of 44 plf, cut from

a section W10x88.
- Pipe sections are designated

- Standard
- Extra strong
- Double extra strong
- All this according to the thickness of the element and are

designated by diameter.
- Hollow Structural Sections (HSS) used when exposing

steel is planned
- HSS designated by outside dimensions and thickness,

e.g., HSS8x6x1/4
- Pipe sections and HSS

- All sections discussed above: hot rolled.
- Hot rolled: formed from hot billets of steel (blocks of steel)

by passing through rolls many times, till the final shape is
obtained
- Many other sections are cold-formed from plates having a

thickness smaller than 1-in.
- Cold-formed sections do not have true standards as many

manufactures make their own varieties
- All sections discussed above: hot rolled.

1.7 TENSION MEMBERS: SECTIONS
- Found in,
Chord members in trusses
Diagonal braces
Direct support of balconies
Cables in suspended roof systems
Main cables and suspenders in bridges
1.8 COMPRESSION MEMBERS: SECTIONS
- Compression resistance: function of cross-sectional shape
- Hence, area must be as spread as possible
- Found in,
Chord members in trusses
Interior columns
- Perfect compression is impossible. Always consider

certain flexural capacity
1.8 COMPRESSION MEMBERS: SECTIONS
1.8 BEAM MEMBERS: SECTIONS
- Subjected to transversal loading
- Most efficient when their area is distributed at the greatest

practical distance from the neutral axis
- Most common beam sections:

Wide-flange (W)
I-beams (S)
Smaller rolled I-beams (M), M stands for
miscellaneous shapes
1.8 BEAM MEMBERS: SECTIONS
- Also used: welded I-shaped sections, stiffened plate

girders.
- For moderate spans carrying light loads: open-web joists

1.8 BENDING AND AXIAL LOAD: SECTIONS
- Section selection depends on what effect is stronger
- A member subjected to axial compression and bending is

usually called a beam-column.
1.9 STEEL STRUCTURES
- Divided into three general categories
1) Framed structures with elements subjected to bending

and axial load
2) Shell-type structures with the shell working in tension
or compression, and
3) Suspension-type structures, tension cables
- The typical designer needs to mainly understand the

design and behavior of framed structures
1.10 SPECIFICATIONS AND BUILDING CODES
- AISC, fabricators, manufacturing companies, individuals

interested in steel design and steel construction
- The AISC specification describes design procedures

based on research and experience
- AISC-360-10, AISC from now on, is the specification for

structural steel buildings.
- In regards to the specification of any set of design rules,

1.10 SPECIFICATIONS AND BUILDING CODES
- Behavioral understanding must come first, application of

rules then follows. No matter what set of rules is applied,
the designer has the ultimate responsibility for a safe
structure
- The design of steel bridges is in accordance with the

specifications of the American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, AASHTO
- The design of railroads is done according with the

specifications from the American Railway Engineering and
Maintenance of Way Association, AREMA
1.11 PHILOSOPHIES OF DESIGN
- AISC-360-10 uses both ASD and LRFD
- We will use LRFD because NSR-10 does not consider

ASD
- Fundamental equation:
- With Rn, the nominal resistance of strength

- and Ru, the load expected to be carried out
- Rn is affected by a Phi factor, less than one to obtain the

design resistance
- Fundamental equation:
- Ru is the sum of load effects Qi which are affected by a

gamma factor
- This gamma factors are called overload factors
- The products of each load by its overload factors are

added to obtain the factored load Ru
- Overload factors are always greater than or equal to 1

- Developed by T. Galambos.
- Based on the following:

- A probability-based model
- Calibration with the 1978 AISC ASD specification
- Evaluation using judgement and past experience along
with studies executed by design offices
- The probability based criteria led to factored load

combinations of the 1982 ANSI standard that became
ASCE 7.
- Load combinations:
- With D, dead load

L, Live load
Lr, roof live load
W, wind load
S, snow load
E, earthquake load
R, rainwater or ice load
- These loads include moments, shears, axial forces,

torsional moments
1.11 ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURE
- To obtain the service load effects on the members
- Elastic methods of analysis are used except when the limit

state is the plastic collapse mechanism
- First-order analysis is sufficient in common framed

structures braced against sway
- For unbraced frames, second order analysis is required.

Include P-Delta effect due to structure displacement
- Second-order effects can be managed in the analysis or

later in the design using magnification factors.

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STEEL STRUCTURES DESIGN

A first advanced course for

Isaac Hernandez-Fajardo, PhD

- Mix of Art and Science

- It is recent: until 1850 it was fully an art dependent on the

- Initially based on observations from nature: beams, arcs

- As we have advanced in understanding the principles of

- Computations based on scientific principles act as guide

- Computations should not be blindly followed.

- The art, the ability of an experienced engineer, gives form

Computers do not take decisions, do not take responsibilites

- Design: find optimal solution

- Structural Design: optimal size for structural components

- The assessment of optimal design is usually qualitative

- Mathematical optimization, linear programming, can be

- Usually the criterion is minimum weight which it is

- Two steps/stages: 1) Functional 2) Structural

Goals of functional Design

- Adequate working areas and clearances

- Proper ventilation and/or air conditioning

- Adequate transportation facilities, elevators, stairways,

Two steps/stages: 1) Functional 2) Structural

Goals of Structural Design

- Selection and sizing of structural loads so that:

- Service loads can be safely carried

- Displacements are within acceptable limits

Iterative design process follows this outline

1. Planning: functions of the structure; optimality criteria for

2. Preliminary Structural Configuration: Chose/Propose one

3. Definition of Service Loads: According to the function of

4. Preliminary Member Selection: Assign sections to the

5. Analysis: model of the loads and the structural

6. Evaluation: Verification of strength and serviceability

7. Redesign: Repeat 1 through 6 according to the results of

8. Final Decision: Determination of whether an optimum

- Cast iron bridges built from 1780-1820. Arch based with

- Bars rolled in industrial scale from 1780 and on

- Rolling of rails after 1820

- Rolling of I shapes after 1870

- Steel replaces wrought iron from 1890 on

- Very strong and quality produced steels available today

- Load estimation is exactly that: an estimation

- Load estimation involves both magnitude and location

- This process requires assumptions and approximations

Weight of the structure

- Weight of the structure must be assumed, sections

- Sections must be updated if required

- This load changes in magnitude and location

- Usually prescribed by state and local code.

- A widely recognized provision: Minimum Design Loads for

- ASCE, American Society of Civil Engineers

- Last Version of this standard: ASCE 7-10 (2010)

- The assumption of full uniform loading everywhere must

- Given that probability of full uniform load is almost zero, a

- ASCE-7 allows members having an influence area of 400

L, reduced live load in lb/ft2

L>= 50% Lo for members supporting floors, 40% otherwise

KLL= 4, for interior/exterior columns with no cantilever slabs

KLL = 3, for edge columns with cantilevered slabs

KLL= 2, for corner columns with C.S. edge beams without

KLL = 1, for all other members

KLL= 4, for interior/exterior columns with no cantilever slabs

KLL = 3, for edge columns with cantilevered slabs

KLL= 2, for corner columns with C.S. edge beams without