SNAME Transactions, Vol. 109,2000, pp.

291-299

Corrosion Protection Strategies for High Speed Craft

Daniel Engel, Visitor, and John Holland, Associate Member, Germanischer Lloyd AG, Hamburg

ABSTRACT

The introduction of car carrying high speed craft in the early nineties lead to a worldwide
revolution in short sea passenger transport. Although steel is employed in some types and sizes of
HSC, aluminum has become the material of choice for most designs. The corrosion protection
stratea applied to conventional ships does not apply to HSC for numerous reasons. Therefore
special attention for both lightweight steel and aluminum structures are required to insure a long
service l&e. The paper describes the often conflicting requirements involved in corrosion
protection of HSC craft and offers solutions which satisfy the designer 3, owners and societys
concerns. Strategies for protection of lightweight steel and aluminum structures against corrosion
are explored.

1NTRODUCTION Today much greater attention is paid to the

One of the factors influencing the service life and
reliability of marine structures exposed to seawater and
sea atmosphere is corrosion. High corrosion rates of
uncoated or improperly coated steel surfaces may
significantly reduce the scantlings of structural
elements, so that within a relatively short period the
required minimum wall thickness is no longer present.
Other materials such as stainless steels, aluminum alloys
and copper or nickel alloys may also be attacked by
marine corrosion under particular conditions. Extensive
knowledge about the corrosion characteristics of the
materials and service conditions of the structures is
required to avoid deterioration.
Fig. 1 Corrosion in a coated ballast water tank
corrosion protection [I] especially for oil tankers and
bulk carriers. Reliable corrosion protection, particularly
in the critical areas such as ballast tanks and holds,
plays a key role in ensuring economical and safe
operation. Figure 1 shows the condition of a ballast
tank after coating failure.
Lightweight construction has always been of great
importance in shipbuilding. For high speed craft weight
saving is absolutely essential. Reducing the weight of
ship structures requires increased effort in the selection
and application of sophisticated materials and
manufacturing processes. For ship operation and survey
activities it must be remembered that reducing the
weight increases the risk of under dimensioning with
respect to possible failure modes such as fatigue,
buckling and corrosion. For high tensile steels or
aluminum alloys applied for lightweight construction, it
is important to realize that traditional strategies for
design and survey should be adapted to the
characteristics of the material in question.
Conventional ships like container ships and oil
tankers are normally designed for a lifetime of about 30
years. Safe ship operation with regard to classification
societies requirements can be achieved through out the
life of the ship by applying a complex set of measures.
These measures are based on the material properties,
careful engineering and fabrication technology.
Additionally, such measures must be combined with

291
periodic surveys which take into consideration ship
type, age, structural condition etc. In this context the
corrosion allowance presents a significant gain in the
safety margin of the structural design.
High speed craft typically operate in considerably
different conditions compared to conventional vessels.
Hull, machinery and equipment are highly loaded and
tight operating schedules give limited opportunity for
maintenance. The planned operating life of high speed
Fig. 2 Light weight structure
LIGHTWEIGHT STRUCTURES
Lightweight construction has always been an
important issue in shipbuilding, but is increasingly
significant. The reasons for this are obvious:
292 Corrosion Protection Strategies for High Speed Craft
craft (HSC) is usually much shorter than for
conventional ships. In addition, the operating profile is
more often changed to meet changing market
conditions. This may result in more intense operation
and a shorter operational lifetime. Additionally HSC are
build to special classification rules [2] which take into
account the needs and demands for reliable construction
and safe ship operation.
1. a reduced lightship weight permits increased
deadweight for a given displacement, and/or
2. operating costs are reduced due to lower fuel
consumption at a given speed.
 As defined in the SOLAS regulations a High
Speed Craft (HSC) is a craft capable of a speed equal to
or exceeding 3.7 V Jo (m/s). As an example Fig. 2
shows the typical construction of an HSC with a
cruising speeds in excess of 40 knots.
Reduction in light-ship weight can be achieved by
optimization of the scantlings, by innovative design and
by the use of higher strength to weight ratio structural
steels, aluminum alloys or composite materials (fiber-
reinforced plastics, FRP). In the endeavor to obtain
structures of increasingly lighter weights adequate
strength must, of course, be ensured with respect to
possible failure modes. Optimized scantlings are
obtained using highly sophisticated design and analysis
tools. The corrosion allowances normally applied to
conventional ships are not used for HSC due to weight
constraints. Therefore the margin of structural safety at
delivery is considerably less than that for conventional
vessels.
MATERIAL APPLICATIONS IN HSCs
Ordinary and higher-tensile steels (HTS), materials
traditionally employed in shipbuilding, are also
frequently used in present-day lightweight structures.
For seagoing ships of approx. 150 m in length and over,
higher-tensile hull structural steels with minimum yield
strength of up to 390 N/mm2 are employed. This permits
the amount of required material to be considerably
reduced and also avoids forming and welding problems
associated with excessive plate thickness. HTS is
generally applied only in larger high speed craft where
the minimum thickness criteria for steel is at least 4mm.
Aluminum alloys are currently the most commonly
employed materials for high speed craft. All aluminum
vessels of over 100 meters in length with cruising
speeds of over 40 knots are becoming common. In
shipbuilding, aluminum alloys of the 5000 series (AIMg
alloys) and the 6000 series (AlMgSi alloys) are
employed both for ships hulls and superstructures.
These aluminum alloys are characterized by good
weldability and corrosion resistance. For
superstructures such as the wet decks of catamarans
coatings and/or cathodic protection are not necessarily
required. However if aluminum alloys are in direct
contact or immersed in seawater for a prolonged period,
corrosion protection measures are absolutely necessary
to avoid critical corrosion attack. The so-called fully
seawater resistant aluminum alloys which are often
mentioned have yet to be developed
When employing higher-tensile steel and
aluminum alloys in lightweight ship construction,
special attention must be paid to the particular
characteristics of these materials regarding fatigue
strength, buckling and corrosion behavior.
Corrosion Protection Strategies for High Speed Craft
STRENGTH BEHAVIOR OF HSCs
Fatigue strength in welded structures has a major
influence on structural design. Fatigue problems for
high tensile steel are well known, however, fatigue is
also especially important for aluminum alloys. In view
of the heavy dynamic loads acting on fast vessels and
the magnitude of load cycles it becomes particularly
important to ensure adequate fatigue strength in the
design phase.
Fig. 3 Construction detail
The design of intersecting structural members
employing fillet welds and the welded connections of
highly stressed transverse and longitudinal members
must be considered with respect to fatigue. Figure 3
shows the fatigue optimized connection of a stanchion
supporting an extruded aluminum deck. Smooth
transitions of transverse joints, soft brackets, single-
bevel and/or double-bevel welds with full root
penetration and well rounded free edges all improve the
fatigue strength properties of highly stressed structures.
For special structures, such as the waterjet inlet ducts,
analysis of structural details on the basis of finite
element models is required to ensure adequate fatigue
strength.
CORROSION BEHAVIOR AND PROTECTION
MEASURES
High Tensile Steel
Unprotected carbon steels such as high tensile
steels in direct contact with seawater are normally
attacked by uniform corrosion. No significant
difference in corrosion rates can be observed between
mild and high tensile steels. Under the worst conditions
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corrosion rates of I,5 to 2 mm/year may be assumed.
Since such corrosion can ultimately result in a reduction
of the structural strength or induce leakage in watertight
boundaries, organizations like IMO and classification
societies have introduced measures to deal with this
problem. Regulations and rules have been adopted
providing suitable corrosion contra! systems such as
protective coatings and/or cathodic protection. In
addition surveys have been adjusted to account for
structural deterioration due to corrosion. Figure 4
shows the relatively uniform corrosion of an uncoated
steel ballast tank.
Fig. 4 Uniform corrosion in a ballast tank
In the design phase structural scantlings are
calculated under consideration of classification
requirements. A corrosion allowance is required when
following Germanischer Lloyds Rules for
Classification and Construction of Seagoing Ships,.
Plate thicknesses up to 10 mm require a corrosion
allowance of tk=1,5 mm. For plate thickness above 10
mm, the corrosion allowance is determined by tk = 0,l x
tl ks2 f 0,5 or a maximum of 3 mm. The t is the
thickness required to provide adequate strength.
Introducing a corrosion allowance is equivalent to
increasing the time frame available for safe ship
operation.
Coated carbon steels behave much like passive
materials such as stainless steels and aluminum alloys.
The coating system or rather the passive layer is
normally able to protect the material from uniform
corrosion. When the passive layer is damaged and not
recoated, localized corrosion will attack the base metal.
Such attacks are characterized by being extremely
localized and the penetration is deep in relation to the
area attacked. Corrosion rates in such situations will
depend on factors such as the size of the breakdown and
the availability of oxygen. It can generally be assumed
that significantly increased corrosion rates compared to
uniform corrosion will result.
Corrosion Protection Strategies for High Speed Craft
In such cases a corrosion allowance will not
enhance longevity. Because it is impractical to apply a
perfect coating without some defects and given the
harsh environmental conditions and service which ships
operate in, it is unlikely that local corrosion attack can
be totally prevented. Therefore coated carbon steels
submerged in seawater need additional peasures to
protect the material from localized corrosion. A
cathodic protection system is able to provide suitable
protection against pitting corrosion in cases where the
coating has broken down.
A detailed discussion of the principles of cathodic
protection are beyond the scope of this paper. Briefly
one method of cathodic protection is the use of
sacrificial anodes made of Zinc or aluminum alloys.
Another method or protection is through an active
impressed current system. Details for design and layout
of cathodic protection systems can be found in [2] and
in [3].
Aluminum Alloys
Aluminum is a reactive metal with a high affinity
for oxygen. The corrosion of aluminum is dependent on
the pH value of the immersing electrolyte. Since the pH
value of seawater is close to neutral, the natural oxide
film which forms on unprotected aluminum is normally
stable. The exact chemical composition of the aluminum
alloy and the related presence and absence of other
elements which are used to produce the alloy also
determines the way in which aluminum will suffer
corrosion. The very limited copper content combined
with magnesium of the 5000 and 6000 series alloys
provides the good corrosion resistance in the marine
environment. However, where no corrosion measures
are taken aluminum alloys may be attacked by pitting
corrosion when permanently immersed in seawater. The
susceptibility to corrosion is mainly related to the time
of exposure, the alloys chemical composition and its
grain structure.
According to the galvanic series in seawater zinc
and aluminum are the least noble materials. This means
aluminum alloys combined and in contact with other
more noble materials such as carbon steel or stainless
steels will suffer bimetallic corrosion. The corrosion
which can be observed can be described usually as
enhanced pitting or swallow pitting corrosion. This
phenomenon is most visible in areas where stainless
steels or copper alloys are present. Figure 5 shows the
bimetallic corrosion of a waterjet flange welded to the
transom of a HSC. The waterjet has a high percentage
of stainless steel components.
If aluminum alloys are utilized in a marine
environment, special corrosion protection measures
must be applied. Coatings applied to aluminum ships
Fig. 5 Bimetallic corrosion of aluminum
are frequently used for corrosion protection as well as
for decorative purposes. Products such as epoxy
polymer and epoxy glass flake coatings can be used to
reduce the risk of pitting corrosion. These coatings can
also be used to provide an electrically non-conductive
surface. The application of coatings can also be used to
achieve an electrical isolation between aluminum and,
for example, stainless steels in order to avoid bimetallic
corrosion. Of course the specified coating procedure
must be closely observed. Usually surfaces on which
epoxy coatings are applied must be blasted and the
coating should be applied in two or possibly three coats
to achieve a long-standing protection against bimetallic
and pitting corrosion. If coatings are applied on
aluminum it is important to realize that any coating
failure will concentrate the corrosion on the exposed
corrosion cell, leading to deeper and faster penetration
of the pit. Therefore during construction and
maintenance considerable attention must be paid to the
coating application. It is also essential that any
mechanical damage to the coating during construction
be repaired before launching.
Aluminum protected by coatings and immersed in
seawater should always be combined with cathodic
protection to avoid pitting corrosion where the coating
has broken down. Cathodic protection by means of
sacrificial anodes made from aluminum or zinc can be
used. Additionally, bimetallic corrosion can be avoided
with anodes. The protective potential applicable for
Corrosion Protection Strategies for High Speed Craft
AlMg and AlMgSi alloys has to be limited to Un= -
0,55 V versus the standard hydrogen electrode. Any
shift in the protective potential may result in an altered
pH- value leading to accelerated corrosion rates. If
anodes are used to protect aluminum against bimetallic
corrosion, for example in the presence of large stainless
steel components, the design of cathodic protection
must be thoroughly investigated.
Impressed current systems (ICS) have so far not
been used for the corrosion protection of aluminum
ships hulls. As mentioned above the electrochemical
potential necessary for the corrosion protection of
aluminum has to be precisely adjusted. Traditionally
designed impressed current systems with one or
maximum two impressed anodes will not be able to
achieve or adjust to an acceptable current distribution.
Thus, unacceptable potentials may result in corrosion
being accelerated by the ICS.
CORROSION PROTECTION STRATEGIES
Unlike conventional sea going vessels, corrosion
protection for lightweight structures in high speed craft
needs to be adapted according to the material employed,
its intended service and its environment.
Protection of Steel in HSCs
All surfaces of high speed craft built of carbon
steel should be protected against uniform corrosion.
295
This includes high tensile steels and is applicable for all
surfaces in direct contact to seawater and to sea
atmosphere. The protective coatings employed are
traditionally epoxy and polyurethane based. Surfaces
immersed in seawater such as ballast tanks and the
underwater hull are to be protected by coatings with a
dry film thickness of at least 300 pm before antifouling.
For these areas cathodic protection is additionally
required to avoid corrosion in case of a coating break
down. If coatings are combined with cathodic
protection their compatibility must be checked. For
ballast tanks sacrificial anodes (zinc or aluminum) can
be used. Impressed current systems are not permitted in
confined spaces such as ballast tanks due to the possible
development of hydrogen gas. As with ballast tanks,
the underwater hull should be protected by cathodic
protection. Sacrificial anodes (zinc or aluminum) or an
impressed current system may be utilized. _I
Insulated interior areas exposed to dry heat such as
passenger spaces normally receive only shop primer.
Areas susceptible to sweating should receive a
protective coating in addition to the shop primer.
For newbuildings the corrosion protection
specification has to be submitted to class for approval.
The specification must contain information about the
intended surface preparation before coating application,
coating types (name and manufacturer), number of
layers, film thickness, etc. Coatings used for immersed
areas are to be type approved. The design and layout of
cathodic protection measures must be specified to
obtain approval. The specification of the cathodic
protection system should follow the requirements given
in [2]. For surfaces immersed in seawater the
application of the corrosion protection system has to be
documented. Surface preparation as well as activities
connected to coating application must be fixed in a
protocol. If applicable, a functional test of the
impressed current system has to be undertaken during
sea trials.
Protection of Aluminum in HSCs
For HSC built of aluminum the corrosion
protection measures are divided into two broad
categories. The first category is for areas exposed to sea
and interior atmospheres; the second category is for
surfaces which are immersed in seawater.
Surfaces Exposed to the Atmosphere
Surfaces which are exposed to sea and interior
atmospheres do not necessarily need corrosion
protection by means of coating systems. The corrosion
behavior of aluminum alloy employed on HSCs has
demonstrated no uniform corrosion. In some cases,
local corrosion attack may be observed as an uneven
appearance of the surface. However, the depth of the
corrosion penetration is rather limited and the corrosion
rates are slowed through the formation of an oxide
296 Corrosion Protection Strategies for High Speed Craft
layer. Current practice is to coat all visible surfaces
above the waterline on HSC to improve the visual
appearance for passengers. The coatings are usually
well maintained thus avoiding local corrosion. Suitable
coatings are generally epoxy or polyurethane based. A
phosphate wash primer with a polyurethane top coat or
similar makes a durable and very lightweight coating
system for such areas.
If aluminum is used in combination with other
materials in a sea atmosphere it is recommended that
stainless steels such as 3 16 grades be used. Carbon
steel should not be combined with aluminum.
Surfaces Immersed in Seawater
For the corrosion protection of aluminum surfaces
immersed in seawater suitable coating systems
combined with cathodic protection is required. The
corrosion protection of ballast tanks on HSCs is not as
critical as for conventional ships as these craft rarely use
water ballast. Therefore the corrosion protection
strategies should be focused on the protection of the
underwater hull to avoid local and bimetallic corrosion.
The requirements applicable for HSCs using
aluminum are basically similar to those for using steel.
For coating systems on underwater surfaces of
aluminum the dry film thickness required is 300 pm
without antifouling. The coatings are to be type
approved. As the coatings are required to be combined
with cathodic protection, the coating must be
compatible for the chosen cathodic protection system.
Vinyl epoxies or similar are generally suitable for this
type of service.
The corrosion protection specification must be
submitted for approval to class for each newbuilding
project. Information about the intended surface
preparation, coating types (name and manufacturer),
number of layers, film thickness, etc. must be provided.
The application of the coating system has to be
documented. The protocol must include the surface
preparation, environmental conditions as well as
complete activities connected with the coating
application.
The cathodic protection of aluminum can be
assured by using zinc or aluminum sacrificial anodes.
Due to the risk of overprotection magnesium anodes
should not be used. The anodes are generally flush
mounted to the surface to avoid increased resistance. In
the presence of stainless steel components such as
waterjets a calculation of anode mass is required to
avoid bimetallic corrosion. The calculation has to
consider the exposed area of the stainless steel as well
as water velocities, alloy characteristics, coating system,
etc. The distribution and size of the anodes should be
laid out for a protective potential of UH= - 0,55 V. For
the approval of cathodic protection measures the design
and layout of the system has to be specified and
approved.
The use of sacrificial anodes for waterjet
propulsion systems is rather limited due to the very high
water velocities and limited space for attaching anodes.
Recently, impressed current protection systems have
been used to protect aluminum against bimetallic
corrosion for such systems. These areas are highly
susceptible to bimetallic corrosion as the propulsion
systems are normally manufactured from stainless steel.
Such impressed current systems use a stable anode
manufactured from an inert material coated with an
active layer of platinum or metal oxide. The surfaces
which are to be protected are connected to the negative
supply while the positive supply is connected to the
anode, thus forming an electrolytic cell. Potent@ly
harmful corrosion is prevented by introducing a
negative charge onto the aluminum surface thus
returning the potential to nearly the passive potential.
The potential and current flow has to be adjusted
by a control system using reference electrodes cells.
This control system is similar to those for impressed
current systems used to protect steel structures. It is
absolutely essential that the correct potential be
maintained to obtain sufficient protection on the one
hand and avoid overprotection on the other hand. Any
shift in the potential generated on the aluminum surface
may introduce areas of over- or under protection
resulting in rapid corrosion attack. The protective
potentials which have to be achieved to avoid bimetallic
as well as pitting corrosion in the presence of highly
divergent velocities were recently investigated. The
final conclusions of this study are still outstanding.
However, recent experience has improved our
understanding of the mechanics involved and the future
application of impressed current systems for propulsion
units looks promising.
Inspection and Maintenance
In addition to corrosion protection systems, the
inspection procedures by the owner and classification
society have to be adapted for the service and operating
conditions of high speed craft. The lack of a corrosion
allowance and the highly stressed structure of HSCs
impose the need for owners and classification societies
to pay increased attention to localized corrosion attack.
Since high speed craft are usually operated as
passenger vessels, the annual inspections are undertaken
in dry dock. It is imperative that a detailed, thorough
inspection of the vessel be carried out together with the
classification society. Increased attention has to be paid
to highly loaded structural components to detect
possible failure modes such as cracks, buckling and
corrosion. The time required for thorough inspections
has to be adapted to the type of details and scope of
surface area to be inspected.
Corrosion Protection Strategies for High Speed Craft
Due to the localized nature of HSC corrosion,
more time is needed than for conventional vessels where
uniform corrosion takes place. Special consideration
must be given to the characteristics of the affected
material, its composition and its suitability for welding.
Pitting corrosion can also take place below the surface
of the coating in the absence of oxygen. In such cases
there may be no visible evidence or perhaps only a
slight swelling of the coating surface. Where corrosion
is evident repair strategies have to be discussed with
class.
Areas of increased probability of fatigue failure
should also be regularly inspected during periodic
surveys and special inspection plans are to be
scheduled. Relevant detection technology and
documentation systems must be provided.
Due to the rapid development of pitting corrosion
it is recommended that operators implement regular
inspection between class surveys for the underwater and
susceptible areas of the hull and equipment. The
findings should be documented with reports, photos
and/or videos. Such an inspection plan need not be
approved by class. It will however prove helpful in
reducing maintenance costs and unscheduled time out of
service. In addition, the longevity and resale value of
the vessel can be enhanced when such measures are
well documented.
CONCLUSION
High speed craft are built under consideration of
rules specially developed for their design. In order to
reduce weight and improve performance their structures
are dimensioned solely on the basis of strength
regardless of the corrosion resistance of the material
employed. A corrosion allowance is not usually
considered. This imposes the demanding requirement
for a highly reliable corrosion protection system as well
as thorough inspection and supervision of the vessel and
its protection system. Additionally, it is important for
the owner and operator to realize that the increased
safety margins due to a corrosion allowance are not
present. Where local corrosion is discovered,
immediate action to repair the damage and mediate the
cause of the corrosion is imperative.
REFERENCES
[l] Germanischer Lloyd Germanischer Lloyd Rules
for Classification and Construction, I - Ship
Technology, Part 1 - Seagoing Ships, Chapter 1 -
Hull Structures, Section 35 - Corrosion
Protection, 1998
[2] Germanischer Lloyd Germanischer Lloyd Rules
for Classification and Construction, I - Ship
297
 Technology, Part 1 - Seagoing Ships, Chapter 5 - Korrosionschutz, Frankfurt - Jahrestagung 1998 -
High Speed Craft, 1998 2 l-22 October 1998
[3] Weber, S. and B. Richter Aluminium
Anwendungen im Schiffbau, Gesellschafi Air

298 Corrosion Protection Strategies for High Speed Craft