Professional Documents
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John Bessant, David Francis, (1999),"Developing strategic continuous improvement capability", International Journal of
Operations & Production Management, Vol. 19 Iss 11 pp. 1106-1119 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/01443579910291032
Sarah Caffyn, (1999),"Development of a continuous improvement self-assessment tool", International Journal of Operations
& Production Management, Vol. 19 Iss 11 pp. 1138-1153 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/01443579910291050
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Focus
Environment Technique
Why should I learn?
How can I learn?
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Taught Discovery
Model Learn theory based on research. Identify problems. Experiment to
Test by application. Change behaviour. discover solutions. Develop theory.
Teach others, until better theory is Change behaviour. Apply to
developed similar situations
Focus Teacher-centred Learner-centred
Learning managed by the organization Learning managed by the
individual
Motivation Extrinsic Intrinsic
Culture Controlled Empowered
Bureaucratic Autonomous
Theoretical basis Behaviourist school Skinner et al. Gestalt school Kohler et al.
Determinism Free will
Advantages Consistency Creativity
Conformity Innovation
Low risk Responsiveness to customers
Disadvantages Can stifle intrinsic motivation Can focus on personal rather than
Can cause conditioned responses which organizational objectives
create barriers to change and learning Higher risk of failure
32
A learning process model The Learning Organization
Bill Buckler Volume 3 Number 3 1996 3139
To implement the learning company con- potential, resulting in behavioural change and
cept[2], seems to require a move through the creative and innovative process improvements
spectrum towards the discovery model, to will only really happen if existing learning
gain the benefits of creativity, innovation, systems move radically towards the discovery
customer responsiveness, and continuous model.
improvement, which this style of learning
can deliver. At the same time it is necessary
to manage the disadvantages of discovery The whys of learning creating an
learning, namely aligning organizational and environment which provides meaning
personal objectives, and minimizing the risk
of failure. A move too far along the spectrum Whichever learning method is appropriate, it
will lose some of the benefits of the taught is useful to consider the learning process as
model, such as consistency and conformity. taking place in stages, and the model devel-
Also, the move away from the taught model oped to explain this is shown in Figure 2.
will be resisted by conditioned responses In concept, learning requires a movement
which that model has itself created, and which through the stages, but for this to happen, the
show themselves as learning disabilities and individual will need to be motivated to expend
barriers to change. the effort necessary. Motivation can be
I do not believe that the taught model is intrinsic, i.e. from within the individual,
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bad, per se, and that the discovery model is or extrinsic, i.e. imposed from outside, usual-
good. It is more a case of what is appropriate ly by the organization. Theory suggests that
to the business requirements. For instance, in individuals will be intrinsically motivated to
a matter relating to the safety of staff or the move through the model, and the strength of
public, there may be a need to adhere strictly this motivation will vary from individual to
to safety procedures, and a taught learning individual. Also, individuals will be prevented
process may be the only effective way of from moving through the model by inbuilt
ensuring such conformity. A key requirement attitudes, values, beliefs and responses, of
in developing organizational learning will be which they are often not aware. These
to achieve an optimum balance between the responses may be the direct result of condi-
learning systems described, which meets the tioning, by the organization, or taught
detailed requirements of the business process. learning systems in general. An individual
Nevertheless the release of individual will only move through the model while the
I do not know
and do not care 1 Ignorance I ought to know about this
33
A learning process model The Learning Organization
Bill Buckler Volume 3 Number 3 1996 3139
driving forces exceed the restraining forces, to learn. This desire cannot be directed, but
and will become stuck when the forces are must come from within the individual. How-
exactly matched[3]. Typical expressions ever, it can be nurtured and encouraged. To
which describe the driving and restraining be most effective, learning at this level must
forces at each stage of the process are shown be pulled by the individual, not pushed by the
on the model, but it is important to under- organization. Also, the barriers preventing
stand that these will be unique to each indi- the transition from commitment to enactment
vidual[4]. It will be useful to look at each can be formidable. Usually, they will require
stage of the model in turn, and explore some the individual to change behaviour. Often this
of the issues which may surround it. will bring into play a powerful, inbuilt, and
unconscious defence mechanism. Argyris[6]
Ignorance calls this defensive reasoning. The individ-
No one knows what they dont know, so ual will need to develop a high level of self-
no blame can be attached to individuals who awareness if this barrier is to be breached.
finds themselves in a state of ignorance.
Indeed, this stage is, or was, the starting point Enactment
for everyone. It can be argued that it is also When individuals, working within teams,
the easiest stage to move from by enquiring. move to enactment, real improvements to
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increases understanding, which, in turn may be of benefit to both the individual and
increases commitment and action, and a the organization. The leader will need to have
virtuous cycle of learning is unleashed. this knowledge already, and the enthusiasm
and commitment to put it into practice. The
The role of leadership in creating a leaders position as a role model[13] will
learning environment therefore be vital in gaining the attention
My experience has shown me that success in and interest of the team. Other team members
achieving the learning company vision may also have greater understanding, and can
depends greatly on the effectiveness of man- provide help as mentors and role models.
agers and team leaders in creating an environ-
ment where individual, team, and thereby, Developing shared vision and ownership
organizational learning is facilitated. In order Senge[9] sees developing a shared vision as
to do this they will need a deep understanding one of the five disciplines of learning, and an
of the learning process, to be able to identify ability to do this in a participative way with
an individuals position on the stages of learn- the team will be a key requirement of the
ing model, to understand the driving and leader. This will be a two stage process, as the
restraining forces applicable to the individual level of understanding of the team develops.
at that time, and have intervention strategies Initially the leader will concentrate of the
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to facilitate movement through the stages. whats of the vision, and the role that learn-
Figure 3 shows the stages of learning ing will play in its achievement. As learning
model, with the role of leadership super- develops, the debate will increasingly move
imposed. The various aspects of the leader- into the why areas, and the facilitation of
ship role will be examined in more detail. this process up and down the organization will
enhance organizational learning. It will also
Questioning start to expose the barriers preventing move-
The first step up the learning ladder is to ment up the learning ladder, and enable the
move from a state of ignorance to being aware leader to evolve his own understanding and
that an area of knowledge exists, and that it develop strategies to minimize their effects.
Enable
I want to know more
Develop ownership
ip
sh
to do this
Le
6 Reflection
er
ad
Develop shared
Le
vision whys
This is not my job 3 Understanding I want to know about this
ip
rsh
Develop shared
Le
I do not
er
ad
35
A learning process model The Learning Organization
Bill Buckler Volume 3 Number 3 1996 3139
The participative approach[14] will help to come directly from the requirements of the
unlock intrinsic motivation, by enabling business process to which they relate, and the
individuals to satisfy their inner needs[7,8]. needs of the individuals working within that
process. By applying the four areas of learning
Enabling outlined in Demings system of profound
At some stage there will be a need to try knowledge[4] to a business process, a
something new. We can develop an under- menu of learning, as shown in the
standing and commitment to riding a bicycle, Appendix, can be developed. This will form a
but until we try we will never be able to ride. basis from which detailed, prioritized learning
However, the first few attempts involve a high plans can be formulated.
risk of falling off. The leader must, at this The menu contains a mixture of knowl-
stage, provide both opportunity and encour- edge, attitudes and skills, and different
agement, if the benefits are to be achieved. approaches will be needed to assess, and
Strategies must also be developed to minimize provide learning opportunities in these areas.
risk, and ensure that failure does not prevent
the individual from trying again. The more
A learning process model
quickly individuals can be moved to the enact-
ment stage, the more quickly experiential The learning process model, Figure 4, has
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Mentoring programme
Self-managed learning
Company policy Distance learning
deployment process
Personal development
Team development
avoided. Extensive work will be needed with motivation. At the same time, activities
managers and team leaders during the imple- will need to be aligned with business objec-
mentation of the model. tives.
Team learning support Experimentation opportunities
Flatter structures, with fewer tiers of manage- Discovery learning requires that opportunities
ment, and greater empowerment of teams, are for individuals and teams to experiment are
a feature of business process re-engineering. maximized. This will require a creative
These structures require changes in the way approach to problem solving, which initially
people work together, and support each other. will not sit easily with the existing culture of
Support for these changes towards effective most organizations. Careful management of
teamworking will be necessary. The move of risk will be needed, which will include identi-
leaders from a directive role to a facilitating fying and minimizing exposure to risk.
role, and the greater responsibility placed on
Learning resource information systems
team members will need to be supported by
Recent developments in computer systems
team building and group learning activities.
present exciting opportunities to develop
There will be a need to move teams more
learning resource material, which can be
quickly towards action mode, with effective
accessed according to need. This enables
what have we learned? reviews.
training and learning material to be pulled
Individual learning support by individuals and teams on a just-in-time
Support for individual learning will come basis. Multimedia systems open up enormous
from coaching and mentoring, assisting with potential for demonstrations to support the
self-managed learning, and making opportu- learning of skills. Feedback from learners can
nities available for distance learning where be added to the database. The result can be an
this is appropriate. The emphasis will need to organic learning resource, capable of rapid
be on identifying and removing barriers to response to changing circumstances, which
learning, and allowing individuals sufficient will help to maximize the effectiveness of
freedom to maintain high levels of intrinsic organizational learning.
37
A learning process model The Learning Organization
Bill Buckler Volume 3 Number 3 1996 3139
5 Vroom, V.H., Work and Motivation, Wiley, New York, Project management;
NY, 1964. The competitive environment.
6 Argyris, C., On Organizational Learning , Blackwell,
Oxford, 1992. Learning/knowledge acquisition;
7 Maslow, A., A theory of human motivation, Psycho- Learning processes;
logical Review, Vol. 50, 1942.
Learning styles: how we learn;
8 Herzberg, F., Mauser, B., Peterson, R.O. and Capwell, Learning process model: how to use it; how
D.F., Job Attitudes: Review of Research and Opinion,
to extend knowledge database;
Psychological Service of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA,
1957. Personal development opportunities.
9 Senge, P.M., The Fifth Discipline The Art and Practice
of the Learning Organization, Century Business, New Variation/data analysis;
York, NY, 1990. Quality management tools:
10 Kohler, W., The Mentality of Apes, Harcourt Brace brainstorming;
Jovanovich, New York, NY, 1925. Pareto;
11 Koestler, A., The Act of Creation, Pan Books, London, histograms;
1970. check lists;
12 Revans, R., The A.B.C. of Action Learning, Chartwell- cause and effect diagrams;
Bratt, Bromley, 1983. scatter diagrams;
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39
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