TUGAS

Mata Kuliah Pilihan

Turbin

Oleh :

Nama : Muhammad Ilham Nadhief

NIM : I0414036

PROGRAM STUDI TEKNIK MESIN FAKULTAS TEKNIK

UNIVERSITAS SEBELAS MARET

SURAKARTA

2017
 Chapter 3

Two-dimensional Cascades
Introduction

The operation of any turbomachines is directly dependent upon changes in

the working fluids angular momentum as it crosses individual blade rows. A deeper
insight of turbomachinery mechanics may be gained from consideration of the flow
changes and forces exerted within these individual blade rows.

A review of the many different types of cascade tunnel, which includes low-
speed, high-speed, intermittent blowdown and suction tunnels, etc. is given by
Sieverding (1985). The range of Mach number in axial-flow turbomachines can be
considered to extend from M = 0.2 to 2.5 (of course, if we also include fans then
the lower end of the range is very low). Two main types of cascade tunnel are :

1) Low-speed, operating in the range 20 60 m/s; and

2) High-speed, for the compressible flow range of testing.

A typical low-speed, continuous running, cascade tunnel is shown in Figure

3.1(a). The linear cascade of blades comprises a number of identical blades, equally
spaced and parallel to one another. A suction slot is situated on the ceiling of the
tunnel just before the cascade to allow the controlled removal of the tunnel
boundary layer. Carefully controlled suction is usually provided on the tunnel
sidewalls immediately upstream of the cascade so that two-dimensional, constant
axial velocity flow can be achieved.

Figure 3.1b shows the test section of a cascade facility for transonic and
moderate supersonic inlet velocities. The upper wall is slotted and equipped for
suction, allowing operation in the transonic regime. The flexible section of the
upper wall allows for a change of geometry so that a convergent divergent nozzle
is formed, thus allowing the flow to expand supersonically upstream of the cascade.
 To obtain truly two-dimensional flow would require a cascade of infinite
extent. Of necessity cascades must be limited in size, and careful design is needed
to ensure that at least the central regions (where flow measurements are made)
operate with approximately two-dimensional flow.

For axial flow machines of high hub-tip ratio, radial velocities are negligible
and, to a close approximation, the flow may be described as two-dimensional. The

flow in a cascade is then a reasonable model of the flow in the machine. With lower
hub-tip radius ratios, the blades of a turbomachine will normally have an
appreciable amount of twist along their length, the amount depending upon the sort
of vortex design chosen (see Chapter 6). However, data obtained from two-
dimensional cascades can still be of value to a designer requiring the performance
at discrete blade sections of such blade rows.

Compressor cascade wind tunnels. (a) Conventional low-speed,

continuous running cascade tunnel (adapted from Carter et al. 1950). (b)
Transonic/supersonic cascade tunnel (adapted from Sieverding 1985).
Cascade nomenclature

Useful Parameter

Camber line shape: mainly, circular or parabolic arc

Type of thickness distribution t x

t max b a
also, the following ratios
l l l
s
Space chord ratio
l
Camber angle '1 ' 2

Stagger angle
1
'1 ' 2
2
b
'1 tan 1 l
a l 2

b
' 2 tan 1 l

1 a
l

2
Cascade Forces

Applying the principle of continuity to a unit depth of span and noting the
assumption of incompressibility, yields
c1 cos 1 c2 cos 2 c x
The momentum equation applied in the x and y directions with constant axial
velocity gives,
X p2 p1 s

Y sc x c y1 c y 2 or Y sc x tan 1 tan 2
2

Energy Losses

Loss in total pressure

p 0


p1 p 2


2

1 2
c1 c 2
2

2

Noting that c1 c2 c y1 c x c y 2 c x
2 2 2
2 2
c y1 c y 2 c y1 c y 2

p 0

1
X Y tan m
s
where

tan m
1
tan 1 tan 2
2
A non-dimensional form:
 p 0

1 c 2
2 x
p 0

1 c 2
2 1
pressure rise coefficient C p and a tangential force coefficient C f

p 2 p1 X
Cp
1 c x 2 1 sc x 2
2 2
C p C f tan m
2tan 1 tan 2
Y
Cf
1 sc x 2
2

Lift and Drag

Drag
D Y sin m X cos m
cos m Y tan m X
sp0 cos m

Lift
L X sin m Y cos m
Y tan m sp0 sin m Y cos m
Y sec m sp0 sin m
sc x tan 1 tan 2 sec m sp0 sin m
2

Lift and Drag Coefficients

L
CL
1 c 2 l
2 m
sc x 2 tan 1 tan 2 sec m sp 0 sin m

1 c 2 l
2 m
2 cos m tan 1 tan 2 C D tan m
s
l
s sin 2 m
cos m C f
l 2
 D
CL
1 c m 2 l
2
sp 0 cos m

1 c m 2 l
2
s
cos 3 m
l
As m is unlikely to exceed 60 deg, C D tan m can be dropped.

L C L 2 sec 2 m C
tan 1 tan 2 f sec 2 m
D CD

Lift and drag force exerted by a cascade blade (of unit span) upon the fluid

Axial and tangential force exerted by unit span of a blade upon the fluid
 Chapter 4

Axial-flow Turbines:

Two-dimentional Theory
Introduction

The simplest approach to the study of axial-flow turbines (and also axial-
flow compressors) is to assume that the flow conditions prevailing at the mean
radius fully represent the flow at all other radii. This two-dimensional analysis at
the pitchline can provide a reasonable approximation to the actual flow, if the ratio
of blade height to mean radius is small. When this ratio is large, however, as in the
final stages of a steam turbine or, in the first stages of an axial compressor, a three-
dimensional analysis is required.

Velocity diagrams of the axial turbine stage

Turbine stage velocity diagrams

The continuity equation for uniform, steady flow is,

In two-dimensional theory of turbomachines it is usually assumed, for simplicity,

that the axial velocity remains constant i.e.

This must imply that,

Thermodynamics of the axial turbine stage

Mollier diagram for a turbine stage

Stage losses and efficiency

For a turbine stage the total-to-total efficiency is,

Soderbergs correlation

One method of obtaining design data on turbine blade losses is to assemble

information on the overall efficiencies of a wide variety of turbines, and from this
calculate the individual blade row losses. This system was developed by Soderberg
(1949) from a large number of tests performed on steam turbines and on cascades,
and extended to fit data obtained from small turbines with very low aspect ratio
blading (small height chord). Soderbergs method was intended only for turbines
conforming to the standards of good design.

Soderbergs correlation of turbine blade loss coefficient with fluid

deflection (adapted from Horlock (1960).
Types of axial turbine design

The process of choosing the best turbine design for a given application
usually involves juggling several parameters which may be of equal importance,
for instance, rotor angular velocity, weight, outside diameter, efficiency, so that the
final design lies within acceptable limits for each parameter.

Consider the problem of selecting an axial turbine design for which the
mean blade speed U, the specific work 1W, and the axial velocity cx, have already
been selected. The upper limit of blade speed is limited by stress; the limit on blade
tip speed is roughly 450 m/s although some experimental turbines have been
operated 100 Fluid Mechanics, Thermodynamics of Turbomachinery at higher
speeds. The axial velocity is limited by flow area considerations. It is assumed that
the blades are sufficiently short to treat the flow as two-dimensional.

The specific work done is

With , U and cx fixed the only remaining parameter required to completely

define the velocity triangles is cy2, since

For different values of cy2 the velocity triangles can be constructed, the loss
coefficients determined and calculated.

EXAMPLE 4.1. Verify the peak value of the total to static efficiency ts shown in
Figure 4.4 for the curve marked W/U2 = 1, using Soderbergs correlation and the
same data used by Stenning in Shapiro et al. (1957).

Solution from equation

 Variation of efficiency with (Cy2/U) for several values of stage loading factor
W=U2 (adapted from Shapiro et al. 1957).

Stage reaction

The classification of different types of axial turbine is more conveniently

described by the degree of reaction or reaction ratio R, of each stage rather than by
the ratio cy2/U. It is more useful to define the reaction ratio as the static enthalpy
drop in the rotor to the static enthalpy drop in the stage because it then becomes, in
effect, a statement of the stage flow geometry Thus,
Zero reaction stage

Velocity diagram and Mollier diagram for a zero reaction turbine stage.

Mollier diagram for an impulse turbine stage

Velocity diagram and Mollier diagram for a 50% reaction turbine stage