Energy Conversion

Dr. Wisam AlSaadi

Dr. Khalil Khanafer
Mechanical Engineering Department
Australian Collage Kuwait

Lecture 5
INTRODUCTION TO COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
Compressible Flow

Compressible flow (gas dynamics) is the branch of fluid

mechanics that deals with flows having significant changes in
fluid density. Gases, but not liquids, display such behaviour.

3
Compressible Flow

Vapour Cloud

Vapour cloud around an F/A-18F

Super Hornet as it flies near the
speed of sound.
4
Compressible Flow

Compressible Flow Incompressible Flow

Fluid velocities are appreciable
compared with the velocity of
sound
Density is not constant
Compressibility factor is greater
than one
Fluid velocities are small compared
with the velocity of sound
Density is constant
Compressibility factor is less than
one

5
Compressibility and Speed of Sound
Ccoefficient of compressibility (also called the bulk modulus
of compressibility or bulk modulus of elasticity) for fluids

A fluid can be compressible while the flow is effectively

incompressible

6
Compressibility and Speed of Sound

7
Compressibility and Speed of Sound

8
Compressibility and Speed of Sound

9
Compressibility and Speed of Sound

10
Compressibility and Speed of Sound

The Mach number depends on the

speed of sound, which depends on
the state of the fluid.

The speed of sound

changes with temperature
and varies with the fluid. The Mach number can be different
at different temperatures even if
the flight speed is the same. 11
Example 1

12
Key Thermodynamics Concepts
In a perfect gas, molecules dont interact
Described by an equation of state

This assumes molecules far enough apart to

avoid inter-molecular forces
R: gas constant
M: molar mass (kg/kmol)
Ru: universal gas constant

Practical flows in aerodynamics are well-

described by these relations 13
Key Thermodynamics Concepts

The total energy consists of three parts for a nonflowing fluid and four parts for a flowing
fluid. 14
Key Thermodynamics Concepts
Internal energy and enthalpy vary with
temperature

Introduce specific heat coefficients

Specific heat for constant volume = cv
Specific heat for constant pressure = cp

15
Key Thermodynamics Concepts
How do the specific heats relate to specific gas
constant R?
The relationship between cp, cv and R

dh = cpdT and du = cvdT

Introduce ratio of specific heats k

k = 1.4 for air at standard conditions

16
Key Thermodynamics Concepts
Introduce ratio of specific heats k
k = 1.4 for air at standard conditions

= =1

1
1
=1 =


= & =
1 1

17
Key Thermodynamics Concepts
The First Law of Thermodynamics
balances change in internal energy with
work done on, and heat added to, a
system

18
Key Thermodynamics Concepts
In an adiabatic process, no heat is added to, or
subtracted from, our system

In a reversible process, no dissipative phenomena

occur
Viscosity (friction)
Thermal (diffusivity, conduction)

An isentropic process is both adiabatic and

reversible

19
Key Thermodynamics Concepts

The Second Law of Thermodynamics defines the

direction of a process

Does the tea draw heat from the surrounding air and heat
up, or does heat transfer from the hot tea, cooling it down?

20
Key Thermodynamics Concepts

Compressible flows describe behaviour of variables:

Velocity
Pressure
Density
Temperature
Internal energy
Additional equations:
Energy equation
Equation of state e.g. Perfect gas law
Internal energy relationship to temperature

21
Key Thermodynamics Concepts

Define state variable entropy as relating to heat

added reversibly to a system

=

If added heat includes an irreversible component, this
produces an irreversible generation of entropy

= +

Dissipative phenomena always increase entropy

22
Key Thermodynamics Concepts
To calculate entropy changes, express the First
Law in terms of entropy

the second T ds equation

Differential changes in
the first T ds, or Gibbs equation entropy in terms of
other properties

23
Key Thermodynamics Concepts
To calculate entropy changes, express the First
Law in terms of entropy

Differential changes in
entropy in terms of
other properties

24
Stagnation Properties
Stagnation (or total) enthalpy

Static enthalpy: the ordinary enthalpy h

Energy balance (with no heat or work

interaction, no change in potential energy)

Aircraft and jet engines involve high

speeds, and thus the kinetic energy
Steady flow of a fluid through an term should always be considered
adiabatic duct. when analyzing them. 25
Stagnation Properties
If the fluid were brought to a complete stop, the energy balance becomes
Stagnation enthalpy: The enthalpy of a
fluid when it is brought to rest adiabatically.

During a stagnation process,

the kinetic energy of a fluid
is converted to enthalpy,
which results in an increase
in the fluid temperature and
pressure.
The properties of a fluid at
the stagnation state are
called stagnation
properties (stagnation
temperature, stagnation
pressure, stagnation density,
etc.). Kinetic energy is converted to enthalpy during a
stagnation process.
The stagnation state is
indicated by the subscript 0.
Stagnation Properties
Isentropic stagnation state: When the
stagnation process is reversible as well as
adiabatic (i.e., isentropic).
The stagnation processes are often
approximated to be isentropic, and the
isentropic stagnation properties are simply
referred to as stagnation properties.
When the fluid is approximated as an
ideal gas with constant specific heats

Stagnation (or total) temperature T0 : It

represents the temperature an ideal gas
attains when it is brought to rest
adiabatically.
Dynamic temperature: V2/2cp :
The actual state, actual stagnation
corresponds to the temperature rise
state, and isentropic stagnation
during such a process.
state of a fluid on an h-s diagram.
Stagnation Properties
Stagnation pressure P0 :The
pressure a fluid attains when
brought to rest isentropically.

Stagnation density 0

When stagnation enthalpies are

used, the energy balance for a
single-stream, steady-flow device
The temperature of an ideal
gas flowing at a velocity V
rises by V2/2cp when it is
When the fluid is approximated as an ideal brought to a complete stop.
gas with constant specific heats
Example 2: Compression of High-speed Air in an Aircraft
Example 2
One Dimensional Isentropic Flow
speed of
sound

For an k the specific heat ratio of the gas

ideal gas R the specific gas constant

Mach
number

During fluid flow through many devices such as nozzles, diffusers,

and turbine blade passages, flow quantities vary primarily in the
flow direction only, and the flow can be approximated as one-
dimensional isentropic flow with good accuracy.
Example 3: Gas Flow through Converging-Diverging Duct
Example 3: Gas Flow through Converging-Diverging Duct
Example 3: Gas Flow through Converging-Diverging Duct
Example 3: Gas Flow through Converging-Diverging Duct

Note that as the pressure decreases, the temperature and speed

of sound decrease while the fluid velocity and Mach number
increase in the flow direction.
The density decreases slowly at first and rapidly later as the fluid
velocity increases.
Example 3: Gas Flow through Converging-Diverging Duct

Variation of normalized fluid properties and cross-sectional area

along a duct as the pressure drops from 1400 to 200 kPa.
We note from Example that the flow area
decreases with decreasing pressure up to a
critical-pressure value (Ma = 1), and then it
begins to increase with further reductions in
pressure.
The Mach number is unity at the location
of smallest flow area, called the throat.
The velocity of the fluid keeps increasing
after passing the throat although the flow
area increases rapidly in that region.
This increase in velocity past the throat is
due to the rapid decrease in the fluid density.
The flow area of the duct considered in this
example first decreases and then increases.
Such ducts are called converging
diverging nozzles.
These nozzles are used to accelerate The cross section of a nozzle at the
gases to supersonic speeds and should not smallest flow area is called the throat.
be confused with Venturi nozzles, which are
used strictly for incompressible flow.
Variation of Fluid Velocity with Flow Area
In this section, the relations for the
variation of static-to-stagnation
property ratios with the Mach number
for pressure, temperature, and density
are provided.

This relation describes the variation of

pressure with flow area.
At subsonic velocities, the pressure
decreases in converging ducts
(subsonic nozzles) and increases in
diverging ducts (subsonic diffusers).
At supersonic velocities, the
pressure decreases in diverging ducts
(supersonic nozzles) and increases in
converging ducts (supersonic Derivation of the differential form
diffusers). of the energy equation for steady
isentropic flow.
Variation of Fluid Velocity with Flow Area
This equation governs the shape of a nozzle
or a diffuser in subsonic or supersonic
isentropic flow.

The proper shape of a nozzle depends on

the highest velocity desired relative to the
sonic velocity.
To accelerate a fluid, we must use a
We cannot obtain supersonic
converging nozzle at subsonic velocities and
velocities by attaching a converging
a diverging nozzle at supersonic velocities.
section to a converging nozzle. Doing
To accelerate a fluid to supersonic so will only move the sonic cross
velocities, we must use a converging section farther downstream and
diverging nozzle. decrease the mass flow rate.
Variation of Fluid Velocity with Flow Area

Variation of flow properties in subsonic and

supersonic nozzles and diffusers.
Property Relations for Isentropic Flow of Ideal Gases

The relations between the static

properties and stagnation
properties of an ideal gas with
constant specific heats

Critical
ratios
(Ma=1)

When Mat = 1, the properties at the nozzle

throat become the critical properties.
Example 4: Critical Temperature and Pressure in Gas Flow

Example 3

Example 3
Isentropic Flow through Nozzles
Converging or convergingdiverging
nozzles are found in steam and gas
turbines and aircraft and spacecraft
propulsion systems.
In this section we consider the effects
of back pressure (i.e., the pressure
applied at the nozzle discharge region)
on the exit velocity, the mass flow rate,
and the pressure distribution along the
nozzle.

Converging Nozzles

Maximum mass flow rate

The effect of back pressure on the pressure
distribution along a converging nozzle.
Isentropic Flow through Nozzles

The variation of the mass flow rate through

a nozzle with inlet stagnation properties.

The effect of back pressure Pb on the

mass flow rate and the exit pressure Pe
of a converging nozzle.
Isentropic Flow through Nozzles
Ma* is the local
velocity
nondimensionalized
with respect to the
sonic velocity at the
throat.
Ma is the local
velocity
nondimensionalized
with respect to the
local sonic velocity.

Various property
ratios for
isentropic flow
through nozzles
and diffusers are
listed in Table A
13 for k = 1.4 for
convenience.
Example 5: Effect of Back Pressure on Mass Flow rate
Example 5: Effect of Back Pressure on Mass Flow rate
Example 5: Effect of Back Pressure on Mass Flow rate
ConvergingDiverging Nozzles
The highest velocity in a converging nozzle is limited to the sonic velocity (Ma =
1), which occurs at the exit plane (throat) of the nozzle.
Accelerating a fluid to supersonic velocities (Ma > 1) can be accomplished only
by attaching a diverging flow section to the subsonic nozzle at the throat (a
convergingdiverging nozzle), which is standard equipment in supersonic
aircraft and rocket propulsion.

Convergingdiverging nozzles are commonly

used in rocket engines to provide high thrust.
ConvergingDiverging Nozzles
When Pb = P0 (case A), there will be no
flow through the nozzle.

1. When P0 > Pb > PC, the flow remains

subsonic throughout the nozzle, and the
mass flow is less than that for choked
flow. The fluid velocity increases in the
first (converging) section and reaches a
maximum at the throat (but Ma < 1).
However, most of the gain in velocity is
lost in the second (diverging) section of
the nozzle, which acts as a diffuser. The
pressure decreases in the converging
section, reaches a minimum at the
throat, and increases at the expense of
velocity in the diverging section.

The effects of back

pressure on the flow
through a converging
diverging nozzle.
ConvergingDiverging Nozzles
2. When Pb = PC, the throat pressure
becomes P* and the fluid achieves sonic
velocity at the throat. But the diverging
section of the nozzle still acts as a
diffuser, slowing the fluid to subsonic
velocities. The mass flow rate that was
increasing with decreasing Pb also
reaches its maximum value.
3. When PC > Pb > PE, the fluid that
achieved a sonic velocity at the throat
continues accelerating to supersonic
velocities in the diverging section as the
pressure decreases. This acceleration
comes to a sudden stop, however, as a
normal shock develops at a section
between the throat and the exit plane,
which causes a sudden drop in velocity to
subsonic levels and a sudden increase in
pressure. The fluid then continues to
decelerate further in the remaining part of
the convergingdiverging nozzle.
ConvergingDiverging Nozzles
4. When PE > Pb > 0, the flow in the
diverging section is supersonic, and the
fluid expands to PF at the nozzle exit
with no normal shock forming within the
nozzle. Thus, the flow through the
nozzle can be approximated as
isentropic.
When Pb = PF, no shocks occur within
or outside the nozzle.
When Pb < PF, irreversible mixing and
expansion waves occur downstream of
the exit plane of the nozzle.
When Pb > PF, however, the pressure
of the fluid increases from PF to Pb
irreversibly in the wake of the nozzle
exit, creating what are called oblique
shocks.
Example 6: Air Flow through Converging Diverging Nozzle
Example 6: Air Flow through Converging Diverging Nozzle
Example 6: Air Flow through Converging Diverging Nozzle
Example 7: Gas Flow through Converging Diverging Nozzle
cen72367_appx1.qxd 11/17/04 4:34 PM Page 899

899
APPENDIX 1

k$1 TA B L E A 1 3
Ma* ! Ma
B 2 $ (k " 1)Ma2 One-dimensional isentropic compressible flow functions for an ideal
0.5(k$1)%(k"1)
A 1 2 k"1 gas with k ! 1.4
! ca b a1 $ Ma2bd
A* Ma k $ 1 2 Ma Ma* A/A* P/P0 r/r0 T/T0
"k%(k"1)
P k"1
! a1 $ Ma2b 0 0 & 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
P0 2
0.1 0.1094 5.8218 0.9930 0.9950 0.9980
"1%(k"1)
r k"1 0.2 0.2182 2.9635 0.9725 0.9803 0.9921
! a1 $ Ma2b
r0 2 0.3 0.3257 2.0351 0.9395 0.9564 0.9823
T k"1 "1 0.4 0.4313 1.5901 0.8956 0.9243 0.9690
! a1 $ Ma2b 0.5 0.5345 1.3398 0.8430 0.8852 0.9524
T0 2
0.6 0.6348 1.1882 0.7840 0.8405 0.9328
0.7 0.7318 1.0944 0.7209 0.7916 0.9107
0.8 0.8251 1.0382 0.6560 0.7400 0.8865
0.9 0.9146 1.0089 0.5913 0.6870 0.8606
1.0 1.0000 1.0000 0.5283 0.6339 0.8333
1.2 1.1583 1.0304 0.4124 0.5311 0.7764
1.4 1.2999 1.1149 0.3142 0.4374 0.7184
1.6 1.4254 1.2502 0.2353 0.3557 0.6614
1.8 1.5360 1.4390 0.1740 0.2868 0.6068
2.0 1.6330 1.6875 0.1278 0.2300 0.5556
2.2 1.7179 2.0050 0.0935 0.1841 0.5081
2.4 1.7922 2.4031 0.0684 0.1472 0.4647
2.6 1.8571 2.8960 0.0501 0.1179 0.4252
2.8 1.9140 3.5001 0.0368 0.0946 0.3894
3.0 1.9640 4.2346 0.0272 0.0760 0.3571
5.0 2.2361 25.000 0.0019 0.0113 0.1667
' 2.2495 ' 0 0 0

3.0

A/A*

2.5
Compressible flow functions

2.0
Ma*

1.5

1.0

T/T0
0.5

r/r*
P/P0
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Ma