2017611 TheHistoryofEnglishOldEnglish(c.500c.

1100)

INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION
HISTORY TIMELINE
HISTORY LANGUAGEISSUES
TIMELINE GLOSSARYOFTERMS GLOSSARYOFTERMS
LANGUAGEISSUES SOURCES&LINKSSOURCES&LINKS

HISTORY>OLDENGLISH(c.500c.1100)

InvasionsofGermanicTribes|TheComingofChristianityandLiteracy|TheAngloSaxonorOldEnglishLanguage|TheVikings|OldEnglishaftertheVikings

InvasionsofGermanicTribes BacktoTop

MoreimportantthantheCeltsandtheRomansforthedevelopmentofthe IMAGE
Englishlanguage,though,wasthesuccessionofinvasionsfromcontinental
EuropeaftertheRomanwithdrawal.NolongerprotectedbytheRomanmilitary
againsttheconstantthreatfromthePictsandScotsoftheNorth,theCeltsfelt
themselvesincreasinglyvulnerabletoattack.Around430AD,theambitious
CelticwarlordVortigerninvitedtheJutishbrothersHengestandHorsa(from
JutlandinmoderndayDenmark),tosettleontheeastcoastofBritaintoforma
bulwarkagainstsearaidsbythePicts,inreturnforwhichtheywere"allowed"
tosettleinthesouthernareasofKent,HampshireandtheIsleofWight.

ButtheJuteswerenottheonlynewcomerstoBritainduringthisperiod.Other
GermanictribessoonbegantomaketheshortjourneyacrosstheNorthSea.
TheAngles(fromaregioncalledAngeln,thespuroflandwhichconnects
modernDenmarkwithGermany)graduallybegantosettleinincreasing
numbersontheeastcoastofBritain,particularlyinthenorthandEastAnglia.
TheFrisianpeople,fromthemarshesandislandsofnorthernHollandand
westernGermany,alsobegantoencroachontheBritishmainlandfromabout
450ADonwards.Stilllater,fromthe470s,thewarlikeSaxons(fromtheLower
SaxonyareaofnorthwesternGermany)madeanincreasingnumberof
incursionsintothesouthernpartoftheBritishmainland.Overtime,these SettlementroutesofAngles,SaxonsandJutes
Germanictribesbegantoestablishpermanentbasesandtograduallydisplace (fromBBC)
thenativeCelts.

AllthesepeoplesallspokevariationsofaWestGermanictongue,similartomodern SOUNDCLIP
Frisian,variationsthatweredifferentbutprobablycloseenoughtobemutually
intelligible.ThelocaldialectinAngelnis,attimes,eventodayrecognizablysimilarto
English,andithasevenmoreincommonwiththeEnglishof1,000yearsago.Modern Shortpoem("Butter,breadandgreencheese")andnumbers
Frisian,especiallyspoken,bearsaneerieresemblancetoEnglish,ascanbeseenby 110inmodernFrisian(16sec)
someoftheFrisianwordswhichwereincorporatedintoEnglish,likemiel(meal),laam

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2017611 TheHistoryofEnglishOldEnglish(c.500c.1100)
(lamb),goes(goose),bter(butter),tsiis(cheese),see(sea),boat(boat),stoarm (fromPeterMeijesTiersma)
(storm),rein(rain),snie(snow),frieze(freeze),froast(frost),mist(mist),sliepe(sleep), Clickherefortranscriptandtranslation
blau(blue),trije(three),fjour(four),etc.

TheinfluxofGermanicpeoplewasmoreofagradualencroachmentoverseveralgenerationsthananinvasionproper,butthesetribesbetweenthem
graduallycolonizedmostoftheisland,withtheexceptionofthemoreremoteareas,whichremainedstrongholdsoftheoriginalCelticpeopleof
Britain.Originallyseafarers,theybegantosettledownasfarmers,exploitingtherichEnglishfarmland.Theratherprimitivenewcomerswereif
anythinglessculturedandcivilizedthanthelocalCelts,whohadheldontoatleastsomepartsofRomanculture.Nolovewaslostbetweenthetwo
peoples,andtherewaslittleintegrationbetweenthem:theCeltsreferredtotheEuropeaninvadersasbarbarians(astheyhadpreviouslybeen
labelledthemselves)theinvadersreferredtotheCeltsasweales(slavesorforeigners),theoriginofthenameWales.

Despitecontinuedresistance(thelegendsandfolkloreofKingArthurandtheKnightsoftheRoundTable IMAGE
datefromthistime),theCeltswerepushedfurtherandfurtherbackbytheinvadersintothewildsof
Scotland,Wales,CornwallandIreland,althoughsomechosetofleetotheBrittanyregionofnorthern
France(wheretheymaintainedathrivingcultureforseveralcenturies)andevenfurtherintomainland
Europe.TheCelticlanguagesurvivestodayonlyintheGaeliclanguagesofScotlandandIreland,the
WelshofWales,andtheBretonlanguageofBrittany(thelastnativespeakeroftheCornishlanguagedied
in1777,andthelastnativespeakerofManx,aCelticlanguagespokenonthetinyIsleofMan,diedas
recentlyasthe1960s,andthesearenowdeadlanguages).

TheGermanictribessettledinsevensmallerkingdoms,knownastheHeptarchy:theSaxonsinEssex,
WessexandSussextheAnglesinEastAnglia,MerciaandNorthumbriaandtheJutesinKent.Evidence
oftheextentoftheirsettlementcanbefoundinthenumberofplacenamesthroughoutEnglandending
withtheAngloSaxoningmeaningpeopleof(e.g.Worthing,Reading,Hastings),tonmeaningenclosure
orvillage(e.g.Taunton,Burton,Luton),fordmeaningarivercrossing(e.g.Ashford,Bradford,Watford)
hammeaningfarm(e.g.Nottingham,Birmingham,Grantham)andsteadmeaningasite(e.g.
Hampstead).

Althoughthevariousdifferentkingdomswaxedandwanedintheirpowerandinfluenceovertime,itwas
thewarlikeandpaganSaxonsthatgraduallybecamethedominantgroup.ThenewAngloSaxonnation,
onceknowninantiquityasAlbionandthenBritanniaundertheRomans,neverthelessbecameknownas
AnglalandorEnglaland(theLandoftheAngles),latershortenedtoEngland,anditsemerginglanguageas
Englisc(nowreferredtoasOldEnglishorAngloSaxon,orsometimesAngloFrisian).Itisimpossibleto
sayjustwhenEnglishbecameaseparatelanguage,ratherthanjustaGermandialect,althoughitseems
thatthelanguagebegantodevelopitsowndistinctivefeaturesinisolationfromthecontinentalGermanic
languages,byaround600AD.Overtime,fourmajordialectsofOldEnglishgraduallyemerged:
NorthumbrianinthenorthofEngland,Mercianinthemidlands,WestSaxoninthesouthandwest,and AngloSaxonKingdoms(Heptarchy)c.
Kentishinthesoutheast. 650
(fromWNCCoins)

TheComingofChristianityandLiteracy BacktoTop

AlthoughmanyoftheRomanoCeltsinthenorthofEnglandhadalreadybeen IMAGE
Christianized,St.Augustineandhis40missionariesfromRomebrought
ChristianitytothepaganAngloSaxonsoftherestofEnglandin597AD.After
theconversionoftheinfluentialKingEthelbertofKent,itspreadrapidlythrough
theland,carryingliteracyandEuropeancultureinitwake.Augustinewas
madeArchbishopofCanterburyin601ADandseveralgreatmonasteriesand
centresoflearningwereestablishedparticularlyinNorthumbria(e.g.Jarrow,
Lindisfarne).

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2017611 TheHistoryofEnglishOldEnglish(c.500c.1100)
TheCeltsandtheearlyAngloSaxonsusedanalphabetofrunes,angular
charactersoriginallydevelopedforscratchingontowoodorstone.Thefirst
knownwrittenEnglishsentence,whichreads"Thisshewolfisarewardtomy
kinsman",isanAngloSaxonrunicinscriptiononagoldmedallionfoundin
Suffolk,andhasbeendatedtoabout450480AD.TheearlyChristian
missionariesintroducedthemoreroundedRomanalphabet(muchasweuse
today),whichwaseasiertoreadandmoresuitedforwritingonvellumor
parchment.TheAngloSaxonsquiterapidlyadoptedthenewRomanalphabet,
butwiththeadditionofletterssuchas ("wynn"),(thorn),(edhoreth)
and3(yogh)fromtheoldrunicalphabetforcertainsoundsnotusedinLatin.
laterbecame"uu"and,stilllater,"w"andwereusedmoreorless
interchangeablytorepresentthesoundsnowspelledwiththand3wasused
for"y","j"or"g"sounds.Inaddition,thediphthong(ash)wasalsoused
"v"wasusuallywrittenwithan"f"andtheletters"q","x"and"z"wererarely
usedatall.

TheLatinlanguagethemissionariesbroughtwasstillonlyusedbythe
educatedrulingclassesandChurchfunctionaries,andLatinwasonlyaminor
influenceontheEnglishlanguageatthistime,beinglargelyrestrictedtothe
namingofChurchdignitariesandceremonies(priest,vicar,altar,mass,
church,bishop,pope,nun,angel,verse,baptism,monk,eucharist,candle,
templeandpresbytercameintothelanguagethisway).However,othermore
domesticwords(suchasfork,spade,chest,spider,school,tower,plant,rose,
lily,circle,paper,sock,mat,cook,etc)alsocameintoEnglishfromLatin AngloSaxonrunes
duringthistime,albeitsubstantiallyalteredandadaptedfortheAngloSaxon (fromWikipedia)
earandtongue.MoreecclesiasticalLatinloanwordscontinuedtobe
introduced,evenaslateasthe11thCentury,includingchorus,cleric,creed,cross,demon,disciple,hymn,paradise,prior,sabbath,etc.

OldEnglishliteraturefloweredremarkablyquicklyafterAugustinesarrival.Thiswas SOUNDCLIP
especiallynotableinthenortheasternkingdomofNorthumbria,whichprovidedEngland
withitsfirstgreatpoet(Caedmoninthe7thCentury),itsfirstgreathistorian(the
VenerableBedeinthe7th8thCentury)anditsfirstgreatscholar(AlcuinofYorkinthe TheLord'sPrayerinOldEnglish(31sec)
8thCentury),althoughthelattertwowrotemainlyinLatin.Theoldestsurvivingtextof (fromPastPerfect)
OldEnglishliteratureisusuallyconsideredtobe"Cdmon'sHymn",composed Clickherefortranscriptandtranslations
between658and680.NorthumbriancultureandlanguagedominatedEnglandinthe7th
and8thCenturies,untilthecomingoftheVikings,afterwhichonlyWessex,underAlfredtheGreat,remainedasanindependentkingdom.Bythe
10thCentury,theWestSaxondialecthadbecomethedominant,andeffectivelytheofficial,languageofBritain(sometimesreferredtoasthekoin,
orcommondialect).Thedifferentdialectsoftenhadtheirownpreferredspellingsaswellasdistinctivevocabulary(e.g.thewordevilwasspelledefel
inthesoutheast,andyfelelsewherelandwouldbelandinWestSaxonandKentish,butlondfurthernorthetc).

TheAngloSaxonorOldEnglishLanguage BacktoTop

About400AngloSaxontextssurvivefromthisera,includingmanybeautifulpoems,tellingtalesofwild IMAGE
battlesandheroicjourneys.TheoldestsurvivingtextofOldEnglishliteratureisCdmon'sHymn,
whichwascomposedbetween658and680,andthelongestwastheongoingAngloSaxonChronicle.
ButbyfarthebestknownisthelongepicpoemBeowulf.

Beowulfmayhavebeenwrittenanytimebetweenthe8thandtheearly11thCenturybyanunknown
authororauthors,or,mostlikely,itwaswritteninthe8thCenturyandthenrevisedinthe10thor11th
Century.ItwasprobablyoriginallywritteninNorthumbria,althoughthesinglemanuscriptthathascome

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2017611 TheHistoryofEnglishOldEnglish(c.500c.1100)
downtous(whichdatesfromaround1000)containsabewilderingmixofNorthumbrian,WestSaxon
andAngliandialects.The3,182linesoftheworkshowsthatOldEnglishwasalreadyafullydeveloped
poeticlanguagebythistime,withaparticularemphasisonalliterationandpercussiveeffects.Evenat
thisearlystage(beforethesubsequentwavesoflexicalenrichment),thevarietyanddepthofEnglish
vocabulary,aswellasitspredilectionforsynonymsandsubtletiesofmeanings,isevident.For
example,thepoemuses36differentwordsforhero,20forman,12forbattleand11forship.Thereare
alsomanyinteresting"kennings"orallusivecompoundwords,suchashronrad(literally,whaleroad,
meaningthesea),banhus(bonehouse,meaningbody)andbeadoleoma(battlelight,meaningsword).
Ofthe903compoundnounsinBeowulf,578areusedonceonly,and518ofthemareknownonly
fromthisonepoem.

OldEnglishwasaverycomplexlanguage,atleastincomparisonwithmodernEnglish.Nounshad
threegenders(male,femaleandneuter)andcouldbeinflectedforuptofivecases.Therewereseven
classesofstrongverbsandthreeofweakverbs,andtheirendingschangedfornumber,tense,
moodandperson.Adjectivescouldhaveuptoelevenforms.Evendefinitearticleshadthreegenders
andfivecaseformsasasingularandfourasaplural.Wordorderwasmuchfreerthantoday,the
sensebeingcarriedbytheinflections(andonlylaterbytheuseofpropositions).Althoughitlooked
quitedifferentfrommodernEnglishonpaper,oncethepronunciationandspellingrulesareunderstood,
manyofitswordsbecomequitefamiliartomodernears.

ManyofthemostbasicandcommonwordsinuseinEnglishtodayhavetheirrootsinOldEnglish,
includingwordslikewater,earth,house,food,drink,sleep,sing,night,strong,the,a,be,of,he,she,
you,no,not,etc.Interestingly,manyofourcommonswearwordsarealsoofAngloSaxonorigin
(includingtits,fart,shit,turd,arseand,probably,piss),andmostoftheotherswereofearlymedieval
provenance.Careshouldbetaken,though,withwhataresometimescalled"falsefriends",wordsthat
appeartobesimilarinOldEnglishandmodernEnglish,butwhosemeaningshavechanged,words
suchaswif(wife,whichoriginallymeantanywoman,marriedornot),fugol(fowl,whichmeantanybird,
notjustafarmyardone),sona(soon,whichmeantimmediately,notjustinawhile),won(wan,which
meantdark,notpale)andfst(fast,whichmeantfixedorfirm,notrapidly). FirstpageofBeowulf
(fromWikipedia)
Duringthe6thCentury,forreasonswhicharestillunclear,theAngloSaxonconsonantcluster"sk"
changedto"sh",sothatskieldbecameshield.Thischangeaffectedall"sk"wordsinthelanguageatthattime,whetherrecentborrowingsfromLatin
(e.g.diskbecamedish)orancientaboriginalborrowings(e.g.skipbecameship).AnymodernEnglishwordswhichmakeuseofthe"sk"clustercame
intothelanguageafterthe6thCentury(i.e.afterthesoundchangehadceasedtooperate),mainly,aswewillseebelow,fromScandinavia.

Then,aroundthe7thCentury,avowelshifttookplaceinOldEnglishpronunciation(analogoustotheGreatVowelShiftduringtheEarlyModern
period)inwhichvowelsbegantobepronoucedmoretothefrontofthemouth.Themainsoundaffectedwas"i",henceitscommondescriptionas"i
mutation"or"iumlaut"(umlautisaGermantermmeaningsoundalteration).Aspartofthisprocess,thepluralsofseveralnounsalsostartedtobe
representedbychangedvowelpronunciationsratherthanchangesininflection.Thesechangesweresometimes,butnotalways,reflectedinrevised
spellings,resultingininconsistentmodernwordspairingssuchasfoot/feet,goose/geese,man/men,mouse/mice,aswellasblood/bleed,foul/filth,
broad/breadth,long/length,old/elder,whole/hale/heal/health,etc.

Itisestimatedthatabout85%ofthe30,000orsoAngloSaxonwordsgraduallydiedout SOUNDCLIP
undertheculturalonslaughtoftheVikingsandtheNormanswhowouldcomeafter
them,leavingatotalofonlyaround4,500.Thisrepresentslessthan1%ofmodern
Englishvocabulary,butitincludessomeofthemostfundamentalandimportantwords BeginningofthePrologueofBeowulf(36sec)
(e.g.man,wife,child,son,daughter,brother,friend,live,fight,make,use,love,like, (fromUniversityofVirginia)
look,drink,food,eat,sleep,sing,sun,moon,earth,ground,wood,field,house,home, Clickherefortranscriptandtranslation
people,family,horse,fish,farm,water,time,eyes,ears,mouth,nose,strong,work,
come,go,be,find,see,look,laughter,night,day,sun,first,many,one,two,other,some,what,when,which,where,word,etc),aswellasthemost
importantfunctionwords(e.g.to,for,but,and,at,in,on,from,etc).Becauseofthis,uptoahalfofeverydaymodernEnglishwilltypicallybemade

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2017611 TheHistoryofEnglishOldEnglish(c.500c.1100)
upofOldEnglishwords,and,bysomeestimates,ALLofthehundredmostcommonlyusedwordsinmodernEnglishareofAngloSaxonorigin
(althoughpronunciationsandspellingsmayhavechangedsignificantlyovertime).

TheVikings BacktoTop

Bythelate8thCentury,theVikings(orNorsemen)begantomakesporadicraidsontheeast IMAGE
costofBritain.TheycamefromDenmark,NorwayandSweden,althoughitwastheDanes
whocamewiththegreatestforce.Notoriousfortheirferocity,ruthlessnessandcallousness,
theVikingspillagedandplunderedthetownsandmonasteriesofnorthernEnglandin793,
theysackedandlootedthewealthymonasteryatLindisfarneinNorthumbriabeforeturning
theirattentionsfurthersouth.Byabout850,theraidershadstartedtooverwinterinsouthern
Englandand,in865,therefollowedafullscaleinvasionandongoingbattlesforthe
possessionofthecountry.

VikingexpansionwasfinallycheckedbyAlfredtheGreatand,in878,atreatybetweenthe
AngloSaxonsandtheVikingsestablishedtheDanelaw,splittingthecountryalongaline
roughlyfromLondontoChester,givingtheNorsemencontroloverthenorthandeastandthe
AngloSaxonsthesouthandwest.AlthoughtheDanelawlastedlessthanacentury,its
influencecanbeseentodayinthenumberofplacenamesofNorseorigininnorthern
England(over1,500),includingmanyplacenamesendinginby,gate,stoke,kirk,
thorpe,thwaite,toftandothersuffixes(e.g.Whitby,Grimsby,Ormskirk,Scunthorpe,
StokeNewington,Huthwaite,Lowestoft,etc),aswellasthesonendingonfamilynames
(e.g.Johnson,Harrison,Gibson,Stevenson,etc)asopposedtotheAngloSaxonequivalent
ing(e.g.Manning,Harding,etc).

TheVikingsspokeOldNorse,anearlyNorthGermaniclanguagenotthatdissimilartoAnglo
SaxonandroughlysimilartomodernIcelandic(thewordvikingactuallymeansapirateraid
inOldNorse).AccentsandpronunciationsinnorthernEnglandeventodayareheavily
influencedbyOldNorse,totheextentthattheyarelargelyintelligibleinIceland.

Overtime,OldNorsewasgraduallymergedintotheEnglishlanguage,andmany
Scandinaviantermswereintroduced.Inactualfact,onlyaround150Norsewordsappearin AreaoftheVikingruledDanelaw
OldEnglishmanuscriptsoftheperiod,butmanymorebecameassimilatedintothelanguage (fromParadoxPlace)
andgraduallybegantoappearintextsoverthenextfewcenturies.Inall,upto1,000Norse
wordswerepermanentlyaddedtotheEnglishlexicon,amongthem,someofthemostcommonandfundamentalinthelanguage,includingskull,
skin,leg,neck,freckle,sister,husband,fellow,wing,bull,score,seat,root,bloom,bag,gap,knife,dirt,kid,link,gate,sky,egg,cake,skirt,band,
bank,birth,scrap,skill,thrift,window,gasp,gap,law,anger,trust,silver,clasp,call,crawl,dazzle,scream,screech,race,lift,get,give,are,take,
mistake,rid,seem,want,thrust,hit,guess,kick,kill,rake,raise,smile,hug,call,cast,clip,die,flat,meek,rotten,tight,odd,rugged,ugly,ill,sly,
wrong,loose,happy,awkward,weak,worse,low,both,same,together,again,until,etc.

OldNorseoftenprovideddirectalternativesorsynonymsforAngloSaxonwords,bothofwhichhavebeencarriedon(e.g.AngloSaxoncraftand
Norseskill,wishandwant,dikeandditch,sickandill,wholeandhale,raiseandrear,wrathandanger,hideandskin,etc).Unusuallyforlanguage
development,EnglishalsoadoptedsomeNorsegrammaticalforms,suchasthepronounsthey,themandtheir,althoughthesewordsdidnotenter
thedialectsofLondonandsouthernEnglanduntilaslateasthe15thCentury.UndertheinfluenceoftheDanes,AngloSaxonwordendingsand
inflectionsstartedtofallawayduringthetimeoftheDanelaw,andprepositionsliketo,with,by,etcbecamemoreimportanttomakemeaningsclear,
althoughmanyinflectionscontinuedintoMiddleEnglish,particularlyinthesouthandwest(theareasfurthestfromVikinginfluence).

OldEnglishaftertheVikings BacktoTop

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2017611 TheHistoryofEnglishOldEnglish(c.500c.1100)
BythetimeAlfredtheGreatcametothethronein871,mostofthegreatmonasteriesof IMAGE
NorthumbriaandMercialayinruinsandonlyWessexremainedasanindependentkingdom.But
Alfred,fromhiscapitaltownofWinchester,setaboutrebuildingandfosteringtherevivalof
learning,lawandreligion.Crucially,hebelievedineducatingthepeopleinthevernacularEnglish
language,notLatin,andhehimselfmadeseveraltranslationsofimportantworksintoEnglish,
includeBedesEcclesiasticalHistoryoftheEnglishPeople.HealsobegantheAngloSaxon
Chronicle,whichrecountedthehistoryofEnglandfromthetimeofCaesar'sinvasion,andwhich
continueduntil1154.

HeisreveredbymanyashavingsinglehandedlysavedEnglishfromthedestructionofthe
Vikings,andbythetimeofhisdeathin899hehadraisedtheprestigeandscopeofEnglishtoa
levelhigherthanthatofanyothervernacularlanguageinEurope.TheWestSaxondialectof
WessexbecamethestandardEnglishoftheday(althoughtheotherdialectscontinued
nontheless),andforthisreasonthegreatbulkofthesurvivingdocumentsfromtheAngloSaxon
periodarewritteninthedialectofWessex.

ThefollowingparagraphfromAelfrichs10thCenturyHomilyonSt.GregorytheGreatgivesan
ideaofwhatOldEnglishofthetimelookedlike(evenifnothowitsounded):

Eftheaxode,hureeodenamawreehiofcomon.Himwsgeandwyrd,thi
Anglegenemnodewron.acwhe,"RihtlicehisindAnglegehatene,foranehi
englawlitehabba,andswilcumgedafenathionheofonumenglageferanbeon."

Afewwordsstandoutimmediatelyasbeingidenticaltotheirmodernequivalents(he,of,him,
for,and,on)andafewmoremaybereasonablyeasilyguessed(namabecamethemodern
name,comonbecamecome,wrebecamewere,wsbecamewas).Butseveralmorehave
survivedinalteredform,includingaxode(asked),hu(how),rihtlice(rightly),engla(angels), FirstpageofthePeterboroughChronicle(oneof
habba(have),swilcum(such),heofonum(heaven),andbeon(be),andmanymorehave theAngloSaxonChronicles)
disappearedcompletelyfromthelanguage,includingeft(again),eode(people,nation),cw (fromNationalEducationNetwork)
(said,spoke),gehatene(called,named),wlite(appearance,beauty)andgeferan(companions),ashavespecialcharacterslike(thorn)and(edh
oreth)whichservedinOldEnglishtorepresentthesoundsnowspelledwithth.

AmongtheliteraryworksrepresentativeofthislaterperiodofOldEnglishmaybelisted SOUNDCLIP
theBattleofMaldon,anOldEnglishpoemrelatingtheeventsoftheBattleofMaldon
of991(thepoemisthoughttohavebeenwrittennotlongafter)andtheOldEnglish
Hexateuch,arichlyillustratedOldEnglishtranslationofthefirstsixbooksoftheBible, Birhtwold'sSpeechfromTheBattleofMaldon(29sec)
probablycompiledinCanterburyinthesecondquarterofthe11thCentury.lfricof (fromNortonAnthologyofEnglishLiterature)
Eynsham,whowroteinthelate10thandearly11thCenturyandisbestknownforhis Clickherefortranscriptandtranslation
Colloquy,wasthegreatestandmostprolificwriterofAngloSaxonsermons,manyof
whichwerecopiedandadaptedforusewellintothe13thCentury.AnumberofotherChristian,heroicandelegiacpoems,secularandChristian
prose,aswellasriddles,shortverses,gnomesandmnemonicpoemsforrememberinglonglistsofnames,havealsocomedowntousmoreorless
intact.

<<BeforeEnglish MiddleEnglish>>

INTRODUCTION HISTORY TIMELINE LANGUAGEISSUES GLOSSARYOFTERMS SOURCES&LINKS

2011LukeMastin

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