Ozone depletion describes two distinct but related phenomena observed

since the late 1970s: a steady decline of about four percent in the total
amount of ozone in Earth's stratosphere (the ozone layer), and a much
larger springtime decrease in stratospheric ozone around Earth's polar
regions.[1] The latter phenomenon is referred to as the ozone hole. In
addition to these well-known stratospheric phenomena, there are also
springtime polar tropospheric ozone depletion events.
The details of polar ozone hole formation differ from that of mid-latitude
thinning but the most important process in both is catalytic destruction of
ozone by atomic halogens.[2] The main source of these halogen atoms in
the stratosphere is photodissociation of man-
made halocarbon refrigerants, solvents, propellants, and foam-blowing
agents (chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs), HCFCs, freons, halons). These
compounds are transported into the stratosphere by winds after being
emitted at the surface.[3] Both types of ozone depletion were observed to
increase as emissions of halocarbons increased.
CFCs and other contributory substances are referred to as ozone-
depleting substances (ODS). Since the ozone layer prevents most
harmful UVB wavelengths (280315 nm) of ultraviolet light (UV light) from
passing through the Earth's atmosphere, observed and projected
decreases in ozone generated worldwide concern, leading to adoption of
the Montreal Protocol that bans the production of CFCs, halons, and other
ozone-depleting chemicals such as carbon
tetrachloride and trichloroethane. It is suspected that a variety of biological
consequences such as increases in sunburn, skin cancer, cataracts,
damage to plants, and reduction of plankton populations in the
ocean's photic zone may result from the increased UV exposure due to
ozone depletion.
NATURAL CYCLES
Nutrient Cycling - the Biogeochemical
Cycles

Nutrient cycles are systems by which substances

(chemical elements or molecules) move through the
biotic (living) compartment of the earthor the
biosphere as well as the three abiotic (non-living)
compartments of the earth: the lithosphere (crust and
upper mantle of the earth), the atmosphere (the gasses
surrounding the earth), and hydrosphere (the water of
the earth). Through this biogeochemical cycling,
nutrients such as oxygen, carbon, nitrogen,
phosphorous, and sulfur are used and recycled. Each of
these cycles is complex. These brief descriptions and
diagrams will provide a general overview of how these
systems work and why they are important.

Figure 2.24: Four Spheres. Source: Todd Berget

Four Spheres
Scientists classify the living and non-living material of the earth into four spheres (Figure 2.24).

The lithosphere includes the entire crust of the earth. Litho is the Greek word for stone. From the highest peak in
Waterton National Park to the rich soil of the Mission Valley, this is all part of the lithosphere.

The hydrosphere includes all of the water of the earth. Hydro is the Greek word for water. The glaciers of Glacier National
Park, lakes, rivers, and streamsand even the moisture in the air is part of the hydrosphere.

The atmosphere is the air around us. Atmo is the Greek word for air. The atmosphere is made up of 79% nitrogen and
almost 21% oxygen: the rest is carbon dioxide and other gasses.

The biosphere is composed of the living organisms. Bio is the Greek word for life. The biosphere includes all life, from the
single-celled organisms in a pond to the mighty grizzly bear, and from tiny lichens to Douglas-fir trees.

These four spheres are interconnected. As an example, a bull trout (part of the biosphere) swims upstream (part of the
hydrosphere) to spawn. Some water from the stream (hydrosphere) trickles through the rock and soil (part of the
lithosphere).

Changes to spheres can be natural (earthquake) or human caused (air pollution), and changes in one sphere often result
in changes in another. Changes can be local (a flood may spread only a few miles) or widespread (the change in ocean
currents from an El Nio event can change the weather across a continent). The four spheres work together to create our
environment and sustain life on earth. Within the environment are the smaller systems called ecosystems.

Oxygen Cycle
Most of the earths oxygen is contained within the rock materials of the earths crust and mantle. A very small amount of
free oxygen exists in either the biosphere or atmosphere. The greatest source of atmospheric oxygen is plant
photosynthesis which produces sugars and oxygen from carbon dioxide and water. Photosynthesizing organisms include
plants on land and in the water. Photosynthesis maintains the level of oxygen in the atmosphere and provides energy to all
life formseither directly (for the plants themselves) or indirectly (as the food source for organisms that consume the
plants, and, ultimately the organisms that consume them). Additional atmospheric oxygen is the result of photolysis, a
breaking down by ultraviolet radiation of atmospheric water and nitrite into component atoms. The atmosphere loses
oxygen as organisms respire and decay, methods by which bacteria and animal life consume oxygen and release carbon
dioxide.

Carbon Cycle
One of the most important cycles on earth, the carbon cycle is the process through which the organisms of the biosphere
recycle and reuse of carbon. Carbon moves through four interconnected reservoirs: the atmosphere, the terrestrial
biosphere (including non-living organic materials and freshwater systems), the oceans, and sediments (including fossil
fuels). Carbon moves between these reservoirs as a result of biological, chemical, physical, and geological processes. The
ocean holds the largest active reservoir of carbon near the earths surface. Forests store 86% of the above-ground carbon
and 73% of the soil carbon. Carbon is released into the atmosphere through plant and animal respiration; the decay of
plant and animal material; the burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gasses; volcanic eruptions; and in
reactions at the surface of the oceans.

Figure 2.25: Carbon cycle. Source: Author- Cunningham, W., et. al. 2007; Publisher - McGraw-Hill, N.Y. with permission of The
McGraw-Hill Companies. Numbers indicate approximate exchange of carbon in gigatons (Gt) per year. Natural
exchanges are balanced but antthropogenic (human caused) sources product a net increase of CO2 in the atmosphere.

Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen, the most abundant element in the atmosphere, is essential to all life. It is necessary for numerous biological
processes, and is a critical component of Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the genetic instructions for all living things and
Ribonucleic acid (RNA), biologically important molecules. Nitrogen is plentiful in the earths atmosphere, but not in a form
plants can use. Nitrogen must be converted from its gaseous form (fixed into nitrogen compounds such as nitrate) to be
utilized by living organisms. The amount of fixed nitrogen determines how much food can be grown in a terrestrial
environment, so it isalong with a combination of other nutrientsa critical consideration in food production.
Figure 2.26: Nitrogen cycle. Source: Author - Cunningham, W., et. al. 2007; Publisher - McGraw-Hill, N.Y. with permission of The
McGraw-Hill Companies.

Phosphorous Cycle
Phosphorous is an essential nutrient for plants and animals, but is not very common in the biosphere. This nutrient is found
in soil and rock, but does not enter the atmosphere. Geologic processes bring phosphorous-laden ocean sediments to
land, and weathering spreads them throughout the terrestrial environment. Plants absorb the phosphates from the soil and
turn them into organic compounds which are consumed through the food chain. Decayed plant and animal matter return
phosphates to the soil or to rock, and weathering also returns them to the ocean. The phosphorous cycle is one of the
slowest of the biogeochemical cycles.
Figure 2.27: Phosphorus cycle. Source: Author - Cunningham, W., et. al. 2007; Publisher - McGraw-Hill, N.Y. with permission of
The McGraw-Hill Companies.

Sulfur Cycle
Sulfur is an important component of proteins and enzymes in plants and the animals that feed on them. Most of the earths
sulfur is found in ocean sediments. It is also found in the atmosphere as a result of evaporation, organism decay, volcanic
eruptions, and as a product of industrial processes. Sulfur returns to the earth as particulate matter or acid deposition to be
absorbed by plants and returned to the cycle.
Figure 2.28: Sulfur cycle. Source: Author - Cunningham, W., et. al. 2007; Publisher - McGraw-Hill, N.Y. with permission of The
McGraw-Hill Companies.

Hydrologic Cycle
The hydrologic cycle describes the movement of water above, on, and below the surface of the Earth. Water can be liquid,
vapor, or ice at various places in the water cycle. Most of the exchange in the water cycle occurs through evaporation from
oceans and precipitation back to oceans. About one-tenth of water evaporation from oceans falls over land, is recycled
through terrestrial systems, and drains in rivers back to the oceans. Solar energy evaporates water and winds distribute
water vapor across the earth. Water condenses and falls as precipitation (rain and snow) to support all terrestrial
ecosystems. Living organisms return moisturethrough respiration or perspirationback into the atmosphere or into lakes
and streams through which it eventually returns to the oceans. Water is responsible for the metabolic processes within
cells, for maintaining the flow of key nutrients through ecosystems, and countless other important life sustaining services.
Figure 2.29: Hydrologic cycle. Source: Author - Cunningham, W., et. al. 2007; Publisher - McGraw-Hill, N.Y. with permission of
The McGraw-Hill Companies.
Air Pollution - Its Nature, Sources, and
Effects

Summer View, mountains in the distance from

Skyline Drive.

John F. Mitchell - NPS Volunteer

Introduction

Air pollution occurs in many forms but can generally be thought of as gaseous and
particulate contaminants that are present in the earth's atmosphere. Gaseous
pollutants include sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), ozone (O3), carbon
monoxide (CO), volatile organic compounds (VOC), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), hydrogen
fluoride (HF), and various gaseous forms of metals. These pollutants are emitted from
large stationary sources such as fossil fuel fired power plants, smelters, industrial
boilers, petroleum refineries, and manufacturing facilities as well as from area and
mobile sources. They are corrosive to various materials which causes damage to
cultural resources, can cause injury to ecosystems and organisms, aggravate
respiratory diseases, and reduce visibility.

Particulates come in both large and small or "fine" solid forms. Large particulates
include substances such as dust, asbestos fibers, and lead. Fine particulates include
sulfates (SO4) and nitrates (NO3). Important sources of particulates are power plants,
smelters, mining operations, and automobiles. Asbestos and lead affect organisms,
while sulfates and nitrates not only cause health problems, but also contribute to acid
rain or acid deposition and a reduction in visibility. Particulate matter, a term sometimes
used instead of particulates, refers to the mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets
found in the air.

Toxic air pollutants are a class of chemicals which may potentially cause health
problems in a significant way. The sources of toxic air pollutants include power plants,
industries, pesticide application, and contaminated windblown dust. Persistent toxic
pollutants, such as mercury, are of particular concern because of their global mobility
and ability to accumulate in the food chain. More research is needed to fully understand
the fate and effects of mercury and the many other toxic pollutants.

Primary pollutants are those that are emitted directly into the air from pollution
sources. Secondary pollutants are formed when primary pollutants undergo chemical
changes in the atmosphere. Ozone is an example of a secondary pollutant. It is formed
when nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are mixed and
warmed by sunlight. Ozone (O3) is a major component of what is often referred to as
smog. The ozone which is present in the troposphere, or the atmosphere that is close to
the ground, should not be confused with beneficial ozone that is located in the
stratosphere or upper atmosphere. This beneficial ozone in the stratosphere helps
protect the earth from harmful ultraviolet light from the sun.

Sources of Air Pollution

Stationary and Area Sources

A stationary source of air pollution refers to an emission source that does not move,
also known as a point source. Stationary sources include factories, power plants, dry
cleaners and degreasing operations. The term area source is used to describe many
small sources of air pollution located together whose individual emissions may be below
thresholds of concern, but whose collective emissions can be significant. Residential
wood burners are a good example of a small source, but when combined with many
other small sources, they can contribute to local and regional air pollution levels. Area
sources can also be thought of as non-point sources, such as construction of housing
developments, dry lake beds, and landfills.

Mobile Sources
A mobile source of air pollution refers to a source that is capable of moving under its
own power. In general, mobile sources imply "on-road" transportation, which includes
vehicles such as cars, sport utility vehicles, and buses. In addition, there is also a "non-
road" or "off-road" category that includes gas-powered lawn tools and mowers, farm and
construction equipment, recreational vehicles, boats, planes, and trains.

Agricultural Sources
Agricultural operations, those that raise animals and grow crops, can generate
emissions of gases and particulate matter. For example, animals confined to a barn or
restricted area (rather than field grazing), produce large amounts of manure. Manure
emits various gases, particularly ammonia into the air. This ammonia can be emitted
from the animal houses, manure storage areas, or from the land after the manure is
applied. In crop production, the misapplication of fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides
can potentially result in aerial drift of these materials and harm may be caused.

Natural Sources
Although industrialization and the use of motor vehicles are overwhelmingly the most
significant contributors to air pollution, there are important natural sources of
"pollution" as well. Wildland fires, dust storms, and volcanic activity also contribute
gases and particulates to our atmosphere.

Unlike the above mentioned sources of air pollution, natural "air pollution" is not caused
by people or their activities. An erupting volcano emits particulate matter and gases;
forest and prairie fires can emit large quantities of "pollutants"; plants and trees naturally
emit VOCs which are oxidized and form aerosols that can cause a natural blue
haze; and dust storms can create large amounts of particulate matter. Wild animals in
their natural habitat are also considered natural sources of "pollution". The National
Park Service recognizes that each of these sources emits gases and particulate matter
into the atmosphere but we regard these as constituents resulting from natural
processes.
Air Pollution at Shenandoah

Sources of air pollution that affect Shenandoah National Park are largely outside of the
park. These include industrial facilities located throughout the mid-Atlantic region and
the Ohio River Valley as well as urban centers in this same region. Because most areas
adjacent to the park are rural and agricultural, it is clear that transport of pollutants from
distant locations is an important element upon which park air quality hinges. Even some
agricultural activities, such as ammonia from the poultry industry and pesticides that are
applied to adjacent fields, may contribute to air pollution in the park. In-park emission
sources are relatively small, but do include motor vehicles, maintenance equipment,
small boilers and generators. The relative contribution from the in-park sources is very
small compared to other sources. In a July 2002 report describing an emissions
inventory for Shenandoah National Park, it was determined that less than 1% of
emissions were produced from in-park sources.

How does air pollution move?

Air transport is the term used to describe the mechanism by which air pollution moves
from an emissions source to a receptor. A source is a location (i.e., smokestack,
chimney, exhaust pipe) from which the pollutant emanates and a receptor is the place
(i.e., soil, vegetation, waterbodies, human lungs) where the pollutant is deposited. The
atmosphere itself is the transporter of pollutants from sources to receptors. If the wind
carries the plume of pollution high enough in the air, it may travel for hundreds of miles
before being brought to earth. This is known as long-range or long-distance transport.
Air Pollution Effects

The air is an important component of the natural system of a park in its own right. The
presence of pollution in the atmosphere results directly in air quality degradation. Air
pollution is also a critical factor affecting the quality of other environmental resources as
well as the human-made structures and facilities in the area. Polluted air can and has
harmed park resources in a variety of ways depending upon the chemistry of the
pollutant, weather and environmental conditions, and the nature or sensitivity of park
resources. Examples of this harm include vegetative discoloration and growth disruption
from ozone, loss of aquatic species from stream acidification, shifts in nutrient
availability from acid deposition, and erosion of building surfaces and rock formations.
Air pollution impairs visibility and contributes to climate change. Air pollution can also be
detrimental to human health.

Additional information about the most significant air pollution related problems at
Shenandoah may be found through the following links:

Acid Deposition
Gaseous Pollutants, Ozone, and Smog
Visibility and Haze
Mercury Deposition