Relay Testing Guide PDF

Electrical, Electronics
Engineering Department
Test, repair and calibrate

protection relays and meters
UETTDRTS08B
(Vol 1 of 3)
Version No 1 2 3 4 5
Date 06/2009 12/10
Refer to: DK DK
Chisholm Institute of TAFE

Berwick campus
03 92124526
Test, repair and calibrate protection relays and meters UETTDRTS08B
This page intentionally left blank
Introduction 7.1
Electromechanical relays 7.2
Static relays 7.3
Digital relays 7.4
Numerical relays 7.5
Additional features of numerical relays 7.6
Numerical relay issues 7.7
References 7.8
2
Contents
Contents ....................................................................................................................................... 3
Electrodynamic Instruments .......................................................................................................... 5
Measurement of Power Factor and Phase Angle ................................................................... 7
Measurement of Frequency ................................................................................................... 8
Phase Sequence Indicators ................................................................................................... 9
Digital Instruments ............................................................................................................... 11
Frequency Counters............................................................................................................. 15
Exercises (Electrodynamic meters) ...................................................................................... 17
Electrical Energy Meters ...................................................................................................... 18
Watthour Meter .................................................................................................................... 18
Security of Watthour Meters ................................................................................................. 19
Instrument Transformers ...................................................................................................... 21
Potential Transformers ......................................................................................................... 22
Current Transformers ........................................................................................................... 22
Exercises (Electrodynamic meters) ...................................................................................... 25
The Cathode Ray Oscilloscope ............................................................................................ 26
Use of the Cathode Ray Oscilloscope in Waveform Measurement....................................... 32
Exercises (The CRO) ........................................................................................................... 42
Power System Analyser ....................................................................................................... 43
Frequency Meters ................................................................................................................ 46
Exercises (Frequency meters) ............................................................................................. 48
Locate and rectify faults in electrical equipment .......................................................................... 50
Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 50
General Principles of Fault Finding ...................................................................................... 51
Review Questions (General Principles of Fault Finding) ....................................................... 57
Fault finding procedures .............................................................................................................. 58
Review Questions ................................................................................................................ 60
Basic Testing Techniques .................................................................................................... 61
The Multimeter ..................................................................................................................... 61
General Meter Rules ............................................................................................................ 61
Meter Precautions ................................................................................................................ 62
Testing Live vs. Dead........................................................................................................... 62
Types of Faults .................................................................................................................... 63
Sectionalizing Circuits with Meters ....................................................................................... 63
Using a Voltmeter ................................................................................................................ 64
Using an Ohmmeter ............................................................................................................. 65
Using an Ohmmeter to find Short Circuits ............................................................................ 66
Using an Ohmmeter to find Open Circuits ............................................................................ 67
Using an Ammeter ............................................................................................................... 68
Review Questions (Testing Techniques) .............................................................................. 69
Troubleshooting Basic Techniques ...................................................................................... 70
Induction motors ...................................................................................................................... 71
History.................................................................................................................................. 71
Principle of operation and comparison to synchronous motors ............................................. 72
Formula................................................................................................................................ 73
Construction ......................................................................................................................... 74
Speed control ....................................................................................................................... 74
Starting of induction motors.................................................................................................. 75
Variable-frequency drives .................................................................................................... 75
Autotransformer starters ...................................................................................................... 76
Single Phase ........................................................................................................................ 76
3
Required Skills and Knowledge

Duration 40hrs
T2.11.26 Test equipment A fundamental
Evidence shall show an understanding of the detailed operation of fundamental test equipment.
T2.11.24 Metering devices and principles
Evidence shall show an understanding of the detailed operation of metering devices and principles:
T2.11.27 Test equipment B protection

Evidence shall show an understanding of the detailed operation of protection test equipment:
T2.11.23 Locate and rectify faults in electrical equipment

Evidence shall show an understanding of procedures for the location and rectification of faults in electrical
equipment.
4
Electrodynamic Instruments
The operation of an electrodynamic 1 instrument depends
upon the electromagnetic force exerted between fixed and
moving coils carrying current. The upper diagram in figure 20
shows a sectional elevation through fixed coils FF and the
lower diagram represents a sectional plan view through
XX.
The moving coil M is carried by a spindle S and the

controlling torque is exerted by hairsprings H, which may
also serve to lead the current into and out of moving coil
M.
The deflecting torque is due to the interaction of the

magnetic fields produced by currents in the fixed and moving
coils.
Figure 20 Electrodynamic or
dynamometer instrument
Figure 21(a) shows the magnetic field due to current flowing through F in the direction indicated
by the dots and crosses, and figure 21(b) shows that due to current in M.
Figure 21 Magnetic fields due to fixed and moving coils

By combining these magnetic fields, it can be seen that when currents flow simultaneously
through F and M, the resultant magnetic field is distorted as shown in figure 21(c) and the effect is
to exert a clockwise torque on M.
Since M is carrying current at right-angles to the magnetic field produced by F:
Deflecting force on each side of M (current in M) x ( density of magnetic field due to current in F)
(current in M) x (current in F)
1
Electrodynamic instruments are also referred to as dynamometer instruments
5
In dynamometer ammeters, the fixed and moving coils are connected in parallel, whereas in
voltmeters they are in series with each other and with the usual resistor.
Figure 22
Electrodynamic voltmeter
In each case the deflecting force is proportional to the square of the current or the voltage.
Therefore, when the dynamometer instrument is used to measure an alternating current or
voltage, the moving coil due to its inertia takes up a position where the average deflecting
torque over one cycle is balanced by the restoring torque of the spiral springs. For that position,
the deflecting torque is proportional to the mean value of the square of the current or voltage, and
the instrument scale can be calibrated to read the r.m.s. value.
Electrodynamic ammeters and voltmeters cost more to make and have lower sensitivity when
compared with moving-iron instruments and are seldom used commercially.
However, electrodynamic wattmeters are very important and are commonly employed to measure
power in a.c. circuits.
The fixed coils F are connected in series with the load as shown in figure 23. The moving coil M is
connected in series with a non-reactive resistor R across the supply, so that the current through M
is proportional to, and practically in phase with, the supply voltage V.
6
V Load
M R
Figure 23 Wattmeter connections
Hence:
Instantaneous force on each side of M (instantaneous current through F)

x (instantaneous current through M)
(instantaneous current through load)
x (instantaneous p.d. across load)
instantaneous power taken by load
average deflecting force on M

average value of the power over a complete number of
cycles
When the instrument is used in an a.c. circuit, the moving coil due to its inertia takes up a
position where the average deflecting torque over one cycle is balanced by the restoring torque of
the spiral springs; therefore the instrument can be calibrated to read the mean value of the power
in an a.c. circuit.
Measurement of Power Factor and Phase Angle

A variation of the fundamental electrodynamometer instrument is used to measure power factor or
phase angle, and is called the crossed-coil type.
Source Load
Figure 24 Power Factor Meter, Single-Phase

In this design, the moving element consists of two separate coils, instead of one, which are
mounted on the same shaft and set at an angle to each other. The lead-in springs or spirals to the
crossed coils are made as light or weak as possible so as to exert practically no torque. In the
7
single-phase instrument, one of the crossed moving coils is connected in series with a resistor
across the line while the other is connected in series with a reactor across the line. The current
flowing through the reactor-connected coil is approximately 90O out of phase with the line voltage.
The field coil is connected in series with the line as an ammeter coil.
In operation, the moving system assumes a position depending upon the phase relationship
between the line current and the line voltage. If the line current is in phase with the line voltage,
the reactor-connected moving coil will exert no torque and the resistor-connected coil will align its
polarities with those of the fixed-coil field. If the line current is out of phase with the line voltage,
the reactor-connected moving coil will exert a restraining or counter torque and the moving
element will assume a position in the field of the fixed coil where the two torques are in balance.
This instrument may be calibrated to indicate either the power factor or the phase angle between
the line voltage and current.
When the instrument is not energised, the pointer has no definite zero or rest position, as do
instruments whose restraining torque is a spring. They are therefore known as free-balance
instruments.
Power factor meters may also be of the induction type. In such a type, for single-phase use, the
fixed element consists of three stationary coils and the moving element comprises an indicator
shaft bearing an iron armature. As in the electrodynamometer type, the operation is based on the
interaction of a rotating and an alternating magnetic field.
Measurement of Frequency
Another variation of the electrodynamometer instrument, called the crossed-field type, is used to
measure frequency.
Figure 25 Frequency meter

Crossed field, or stationary, coils are connected to the line through inductive and capacitive circuit
elements so that the relative strengths of the fields become a function of the frequency.
8
An iron vane attached to the freely rotatable pointer shaft will align itself with the direction of the
resultant field and the instrument will indicate the frequency. This type of frequency meter is also
a free-balance instrument.
With the advances realised in electronics, this type of meter has been replaced by modern digital
indicating instruments.
Phase Sequence Indicators

Although it is not necessary to establish the phase sequence for many purposes in the electrical
industry, there are occasions when it is necessary. To ensure the correct rotation of three-phase
motors, and when meters are being used to measure varhours or vars, the phase sequence must
be known in order to make correct connections for forward rotation of the motor or of the meter
disc.
Any phase-sequence identification, either letters or numbers, may be used. Typically, the
numbers 123 are commonly used. These phase identifications may not necessarily indicate the
actual phases emanating from the generating station, but do indicate the sequence in which
phase voltages reach their maximum values in respect to time. By common consent, counter-
clockwise phase rotation is used in phasor diagrams.
E10
E30 E20
Figure 26 Phasor diagram

There are various types of phase-sequence indicators available, from a lamp-reactor device to a
small three-phase motor device. One type of phase-sequence indicator that operates similarly to
a three-phase motor contains, as a rotor, a revolving disc connected so as to rotate in pre-
determined directions for 123 or 321 phase sequence.
A lamp-reactor, phase-sequence indicator can be constructed using two lamps and a watthour
meter voltage coil (figure 27). If the common point of a Y-connected load is not grounded, it is free
to shift from neutral. When the load consists of one reactor and two resistive components (such
as lamps) the common shifts toward the phase which lags the phase connected to the reactor.
This results in less voltage across, and consequently, less brightness from the lamp connected to
the lagging phase and more voltage across and brighter light from the lamp connected to the
leading phase.
9
1 3
2 2
3 1
L L L L
Brighter Brighter
Figure 27 Phase connected to brighter lamp leads connected to the coil
A phase-sequence indicator can be constructed for a service consisting of two phases and the
neutral of a Y-bank. This device uses two resistors, a capacitor, and a neon lamp as shown in
figure 28. The neon lamp lights only when the capacitor is connected to the lagging phase. This
method also involves a shift of a common point. The neon lamp has such a high impedance that
the point O (figure 29) can be said to be floating and so is free to shift so that either 120 volts or 0
volts exist between O and N, depending on the connection of the phase-sequence indicator.
E21
1 EO1
EN1, E20
Lit R1 I
I
N
O ENO
Neon R2 ENO = EN2 + E2O

R
R2 = 1
XC 2
X C = 0.866 R 1 EN2
2
E21
1
XC E2O
Dark R2 I EN1, E01
N I
O
Neon R1
R1 ENO = EN2 + E2O = 0
R2 =
2
X C = 0.866 R 1
2 EN2
Figure 28 Use of phase sequence indicator; neon lights only when XC is connected to the lagging
phase
10
Digital Instruments
In modern instruments, the moving-pointer display has largely been replaced by a digital display.
Typically, the display will consist of four-digits as the cost increases significantly if more than four
digit accuracy is required.
So that the value to be measured can be displayed in such a manner, it has to be converted from
its original analogue format to a digital representation of the original value. This is achieved using
an analogue to digital converter (ADC).
The ADC accepts the analogue signal as its input and produces a digital output code which
represents the original analogue signal. The input signal may first be passed through a
conditioning circuit to remove unwanted interference such as electrical noise.
The block diagram shown in figure 29 illustrates the basic ADC.

Start
Command Clock
Analogue
Input
VA Comparator Control unit
D/A
Converter Register
VDA
Digital Result
Figure 29 Block diagram of Successive Approximation A/D converter
There are a number of different types of ADC; however, one of the more common types is the
Successive Approximation converter. Its basic operation depends on the difference between
two analogue signals being compared. One of the analogue signals is the analogue input from the
signal being measured; the second analogue input is the output from a Digital/Analogue converter
(DAC) which is part of the instrument. When the output from the DAC exceeds the analogue
input, the digital representation being displayed is very close to the actual value of the analogue
input.
The sequence of events when the A/D converter is switched on is:
1. The start command goes high and causes the A/D conversion to commence operation.
2. The clock speed determines the rate at which data are sent by the control unit to the
register.
3. The register holds a binary number which is passed on to the D/A converter. The output
from the D/A converter is an analogue signal which is applied to the comparator.
11
4. The input signal to the A/D converter is also fed into the comparator, so the comparator is
comparing the input signal with that provided from the D/A converter.
5. If VDA < VA, the comparator output is HIGH.
If VDA = VA, the comparator output is LOW.
If VDA > VA, the comparator output is LOW.
If the comparator output is LOW, the comparator stops the process of modifying the binary
number stored in the register. This is likely to occur when VDA is approximately equal to VA.
At this stage the digital number in the register is also the digital equivalent of the input signal
VA.
6. If the comparator output is HIGH, the comparator continues the process of modifying the
binary number stored in the register until the point is reached when the comparator output is
LOW.
The comparator function can be easily performed by an op-amp used in its high-gain differential
mode. The gain is important because we are seeking zero difference between the signals being
compared. A zero difference cannot be amplified so we need a small difference to produce an
output. As we want to obtain the required output from the smallest possible input difference, a
high gain is required.
Typically, an op-amp will have a differential input mode of 10 000 or greater, although devices
specifically manufactured as a voltage comparator will typically have a differential gain in the
vicinity of 200 000.
Example
A comparator has the following output/input characteristic:
+10V
V1 V2
1 mV +1 mV
G = 10 000
10V
Determine:
a) the threshold voltage;

b) the output voltage for V1 = 6.546 V and V2 = 6.544 V;
c) the output voltage for V1 = 3.1255 V and V2 = 3.1250 V.
a) From the output characteristic, VOUT saturates at +10 V when V1 V2 1 mV,

Saturation voltage = 1 mV.
b) V1 V2 = 6.546 6.544 = 2 mV: this is greater than the threshold voltage, VOUT = +10
V
c) V1 V2 = 3.1255 3.1250 = 0.5 mV: this is less than the threshold voltage,
VOUT = G(V1 V2) = 10 000 x 0.5 x 10-3 = 5 V.
12
The output from the DAC is in the form of a step-by-step ramp; for this reason the converter is
known as a digital-ramp A/D Converter. The block diagram for a digital-ramp converter is shown
in figure 30. In the previous explanation, it was assumed that the register was set to zero; this
need not have been the case, so the start pulse is used to reset the counter register to zero.
1
0
VA
VDA +
VA
Clock
Clock
0
D/A Counter
Converter
Reset
Start
Figure 30 Digital ramp A/D converter

If VA has some positive value, then operation of the converter is described as follows:
1. The start pulse is applied. The start pulse disables the clock input of the counter and
resets the counter outputs to zero.
2. VDA = 0 when the counter is set to zero. The comparator output goes high.
3. Only after the start pulse goes low is the AND gate enabled allowing pulses to reach
the counters clock input.
4. Each clock pulse advances the counter output by one. As the counter is directly
connected to the D/A converter, its output increases in steps determined by its
resolution (ie, the output step-voltage increase for each digit increase at the input).
5. This process continues until VDA > VA by a voltage difference equal to or greater than
the threshold voltage of the comparator. At this step, the comparator output becomes
low and inhibits any further clock pulses to the counter. The counter has stopped at a
count that provides the digital representation of VA. at this point the conversion process
has been completed.
Using an example to explain the process will better aid understanding.
13
Example
An A/D converter has a clock frequency of 1 MHz. The full-scale output of the D/A converter is
8.190 V with a 12-bit input. The comparator threshold voltage is 1 mV.
If VA = 4.528 V, determine:
a) The digital number obtained from the counter;

b) The conversion time;
c) The counter resolution.
a) The D/A converter has a 12-bit input, thus the total number of steps is 212 1 = 4095.
Since the full-scale output is 8.192 V, the step size is
8.192
= 2 mV
4095
This means that VDA increases in steps of 2 mV. Given that VA = 4.528 V and that the
threshold voltage is 1 mV, it follows that VDA must be 4.529 V or more before the
comparator will switch to low. This will require the voltage to rise further to 4.530 V, hence
the number of steps required is
4.530 V
= 2265
2 mV
At the end of the conversion, the counter will hold the binary data equivalent of 2265, or
100011011001
b) To complete the conversion 2265 steps are required. The clock frequency is 1 MHz, so
the pulse rate is 1 pulse per s. The time taken for 2265 pulses is:
2265 x 1 s = 2265 s or 2.265 ms
c) The resolution is given by the step size of the D/A converter which is 2 mV. This can also
be expressed as a percentage which is:
2 mV
x 100 = 0.024%
8.192 V
From this example it can be seen that the best approximation obtainable is the nearest 2 mV
which is that of the resolution. This can also be considered as the largest potential error. This
inherent error is termed the quantization error.
The quantization error can be reduced by increasing the number of bits in the D/A converter. The
overall error of the A/D converter will include the quantization error and the error introduced by
other components. The speed of this type of converter is quite slow and has largely been
replaced by devices using a different type of included D/A converter such as a Successive
Approximation Register; however, the overall principle remains the same.
14
Frequency Counters
Industrialized countries rely heavily on modern power supply systems. Power system analysis is
required for a large number of different purposes including:
System design and control to maintain frequency within 5% of nominal value.
Frequency measurement is very important when monitoring the state of a power system. Prior to
the introduction of remotely located control centres, staff operating terminal switching stations had
the authority to commence load-shedding should the system frequency drop below a certain
value, typically 48.5 Hz in a 50 Hz system. Accurate measurement of frequency was imperative to
avoid indiscriminate load-shedding that would disrupt system operation.
Originally, frequency measurement would be taken using an electrodynamometer type of

instrument as previously described. However, integrated electronic devices have made frequency
and time measurement far simpler using a range of cheap digital logic devices. Figure 31 shows
the block diagram of a simple frequency counter.
Display
Strobe
Memory
Input Input Signal

Processor Decade
counters
Reset
Gate
Time base
Figure 31 Basic block diagram of a frequency counter

Although referred to as simple, this basic counter is capable of great precision if the parts are
constructed properly.
The frequency counter operates on the principle of gating the input frequency into the counter for
a predetermined time. As an example, if an unknown frequency were gated into the counter for an
exact one second, the number of counts allowed into the counter would be precisely the
frequency of the input waveform.
Digital logic systems operate using square waveforms. The Input Signal Processor is responsible
for conditioning the waveform received at its input and producing a square wave at its output that
has the same frequency as the input waveform. The pulses received from the input signal
processor at the gating device, the AND gate shown in the block diagram, are then passed
through the gate for a period of one second.
The number of pulses is counted by the decade counters and the count of the total number of
pulses received during the one second period is passed to the memory device. The memory
device isolates the decade counters from the display so that the last value measured is constant
on the display. The decade counters are then reset to zero and a new count sequence initiated.
For the simple system described, the display would be updated every second.
The time base of a counter being used to measure system frequency is derived from an accurate
quartz-crystal based oscillator. The oscillator operates at a much higher frequency than the power
15
system frequency and its output is divided down until the required time base period is reached.
The time base also produces very short duration pulses to strobe the data from the counters to
memory and to reset the counters to zero.
More advanced counters use a double-gating system where two frequencies are counted. One of
the frequencies is the power line frequency being measured; the second frequency is ten to one
hundred times higher. By comparing the two frequencies over the same period, a more accurate
measurement of the power frequency can be obtained and displayed. Such a frequency counting
system can display the frequency of interest to an accuracy of 0.1 or 0.01 Hz.
Frequency and time measurements made by an electronic counter are subject to several
inaccuracies inherent in the instrument itself.
Gating Error
For frequency measurement the main gate is opened and closed by an output pulse from the
oscillator. The gating pulse is not synchronised with the input signal; they are two separate, totally
unrelated signals. Depending when the gate signal opens in relation to the input signal, one or
more pulses of the input signal may be missed and not included in the total count. For an input
frequency of 50 Hz, if one count is missed, then the error is 50 1 count, an inaccuracy of 2%.
Period measurements are preferred over frequency measurements at lower frequencies.
Time-base Error
Inaccuracies in the time base also cause errors in the measurement. In frequency measurements
the time base determines the opening and closing of the signal gate and it provides the pulses to
be counted. Time base errors consist of oscillator calibration errors, short-term crystal stability
errors, and long-term crystal stability errors.
Crystal oscillators can be calibrated against standard frequencies transmitted by a standards

radio station.
Short-term crystal stability errors are caused by momentary frequency variations due to voltage
transients, shock and vibration, cycling of the crystal oven, electrical interference, etc. such errors
can be minimised by taking frequency measurements over longer gate times and multiple-period-
average measurements.
Long-term stability errors are a function of aging and deterioration of the crystal. As the crystal is
temperature-cycled and kept in continuous oscillation, internal stresses induced during
manufacture are relieved. Generally these phenomena will cause an increase in the oscillator
frequency. Long-term stability error is usually a very small component of the overall error.
Trigger Level Error

In time-interval and period measurements the signal gate is opened and closed by the input
signal. The accuracy with which the gate is opened and closed is a function of the trigger level
error. In the usual application the input signal is amplified and shaped, and it is then applied to a
Schmitt trigger circuit that supplies the gate with its control pulses. The input signal may contain
unwanted components of noise which is amplified along with the signal. The time at which the
triggering of the Schmitt circuit occurs is a function of the input signal amplification and its signal-
to-noise ratio. In general, trigger-level errors are reduced by using large signal amplitudes and
fast rise times.
16
Exercises (Electrodynamic meters)

1. An A/D converter has a clock frequency of 50 kHz. The full-scale output of the D/A converter
is 8.192 V with a 14-bit input. The comparator threshold voltage is 1 mV.
If VA = 4.336 V, determine:
a) The digital number obtained from the counter;

b) The conversion time;
c) The counter resolution.
(10000111100000, 173.44 ms, 0.5 mV or 0.0061%)
17
Electrical Energy Meters
Watthour Meter
The watthour meter is widely used for commercial measurement of electrical energy. Figure 32
shows the elements of a single-phase watthour meter in schematic form.
Figure 32 Elements of a single-phase watthour meter

The current coil is connected in series with the line, and the voltage coil is connected across the
line. Both coils are wound on a metal frame of special design, providing two magnetic circuits. A
light aluminium disc is suspended in the air gap of the current-coil field, which causes eddy
currents to flow in the disc. The reaction of the eddy currents and the field of the voltage coil
creates a torque (motor action) on the disc, causing it to rotate. The developed torque is
proportional to the field strength of the voltage coil and the eddy currents in the disc which are in
turn a function of the field strength of the current coil.
The number of rotations of the disc is therefore proportional to the energy consumed by the load
in a certain time interval, and is measured in terms of kilowatthours (kWh).
The shaft that supports the aluminium disc is connected by a gear arrangement to the clock
mechanism on the front of the meter, providing a decimally calibrated readout of the number of
kWh.
Damping of the disc is provided by two small permanent magnets located opposite each other at
the rim of the disc. Whenever the disc rotates, the permanent magnets induce eddy currents in it.
These eddy currents react with the magnetic fields of the small permanent magnets, damping the
motion of the disc. A typical single-phase watthour meter is shown in figure 33.
18
Figure 33 Watthour meter for industrial or domestic application

Calibration of the watthour meter is performed under conditions of full rated load and 10% of rated
load. At full load, the calibration consists of adjustment of the position of the small permanent
magnets until the meter reads correctly. At very light loads, the voltage component of the field
produces a torque that is not directly proportional to the load. Compensation for the error is
provided by inserting a shading pole or plate over a portion of the voltage coil, with the meter
operating at 10% of rated load. Calibration of the meter at these two positions usually provides
satisfactory readings at all other loads.
The floating shaft watthour meter uses a unique design to suspend the disc. The rotating shaft
has a small magnet at each end. The upper magnet of the shaft is attracted to a magnet in the
upper bearing, and the lower magnet of the shaft is attracted to a magnet in the lower bearing.
The movement thus floats without touching either bearing surface, and the only contact with the
movement is that of the gear connecting the shaft with the gear train.
Measurements of energy in three-phase systems are performed using poly-phase watthour

meters. Each phase of the watthour meter has its own magnetic circuit and its own disc, but all
the discs are mounted on a common shaft. The developed torque on each disc is mechanically
summed and the total number of revolutions per minute of the shaft is proportional to the total
three-phase energy consumed.
Security of Watthour Meters

Since the primary reason for the industrial and domestic use of watthour meters is to measure
how much energy is used by supply authority customers, the integrity of the meter becomes an
issue. The meter must comply with all local standards requirements regarding accuracy and
safety of the metering installation. It must also be tamper-proof so that the readings taken on a
regular basis are a reliable measurement of the amount of energy used by the customer.
19
For this reason, the cover fastening screws of the meter are usually sealed in some way so that it
can be easily identified if the meter has been tampered with. Typically, the sealing process used
is to thread a special type of wire through the pre-drilled heads of the cover fastening screws and
a lug placed on the meter for this purpose. The wire is then threaded through a lead seal which is
crimped using a special set of crimping pliers.
The crimping pliers are individually numbered so that the supply authority can identify who the last
person was that performed any work on the metering installation.
Figure 34 Seal locations on a watthour meter

Figure 34 shows where the tamper-proofing seals are located on an Email single-phase watthour
meter. The seals on the side of the meter are to protect against anyone tampering with the
internal adjustments of the meter mechanism, and the seal at the bottom of the meter is protect
against any tampering with the electrical connections to and from the meter.
More modern metering equipment has replaced the analogue dials with an electronic digital
display. Many supply authorities in various countries around the world have started to use meters
that have a small transmitting device installed so that the meter can be read remotely.
20
Instrument Transformers
Instrument transformers are used to measure a.c. at generating stations, transformer stations
(terminal stations and substations), and at transmission lines, in conjunction with a.c. measuring
instruments (voltmeters, ammeters, wattmeters, VARmeters, etc). Instrument transformers are
classified according to their use and are referred to as current transformers (CT) and potential
transformers (PT).
Instrument transformers perform two important functions: They serve to extend the range of the
a.c. measuring instrument; they also serve to isolate the measuring instrument from high
voltages.
The range of a d.c. ammeter may be extended by using a shunt that divides the current being
measured between the meter and the shunt. This method is satisfactory for d.c. circuits, but in
a.c. circuits current division depends not only on the resistances of the meter and the shunt but
also on their reactances. A CT provides the required range extension through its transformation
ratio and in addition produces almost the same reading regardless of the meter constants
(resistance and reactance) or, in fact, of the number of instruments (within limits) connected in the
circuit.
Isolation of the measuring instrument from the high voltage source is important when it is
considered that a.c. power systems operate at voltages up to several hundreds of kilovolts. It
would be impractical to bring the high voltage lines directly to an instrument panel in order to
measure voltage or current, not only because of the safety hazards involved but also because of
the insulation problems connected with high voltage lines running closely together in a confined
space.
When an instrument transformer is used, only the low voltage wires from the transformer
secondary are brought to the instrument panel and only low voltages exist between these wires
and ground, thereby minimizing safety hazards and insulation problems.
It should be noted that one terminal of the secondary winding is always connected to ground to
eliminate the danger of a fatal shock when touching one of the secondary leads. Although the
secondary appears to be isolated from the primary, the distributed capacitance between the two
windings makes and invisible connection which can produce a very high voltage between the
secondary winding and ground. By grounding one of the secondary terminals, the highest voltage
between the secondary lines and ground is limited to the secondary voltage of the transformer
(PT or CT).
21
Potential Transformers
Figure 35 High voltage potential transformer

Figure 35 show a potential transformer. The PT is used to transform the high voltage of a power
line to a lower value suitable for direct connection to an a.c. voltmeter or the potential coil of an
a.c. wattmeter. The usual secondary transformer voltage is 120V. Primary voltages are
standardized to accommodate a wide range of transmission line voltages including (but not limited
to) 2.4 kV, 7.2 kV, 11 kV, 13.8 kV, 22 kV, 44 kV, 66 kV and 220 kV.
The PT is rated to deliver a certain power to the secondary load or burden. Different load
capacities are available to suit individual applications; a general capacity is 200 VA at a frequency
of 50 to 60 Hz.
The PT must satisfy certain design requirements that include accuracy of the turns ratio, small
leakage reactance, small magnetising current, and minimal voltage drop. As the transformer may
be connected to very high primary voltages, the insulation between the primary and secondary
windings must be able to withstand large potential differences, and the dielectric requirements are
very high. In the usual case, the high voltage coil is of a circular pancake construction, shielded to
avoid localised dielectric stresses.
The low voltage coil or coils are wound on a paper form and assembled inside the high voltage
coil. The assembly is thoroughly dried and oil impregnated. The core and coil assembly is them
mounted inside a steel case, which supports the high voltage terminals (porcelain bushings). The
case is then filled with insulating oil.
Current Transformers
The current transformer (CT) sometimes has a primary and always has a secondary winding. If
there is a primary winding, it has a small number of turns. In most cases, the primary is only one
turn or a single conductor connected in series with the load whose current is to be measured. The
secondary winding has a larger number of turns and is connected to a current meter or a relay
coil. Often the primary winding is a single conductor in the form of a heavy copper or brass bar
running through the core of the transformer. Such a CT is called a bar-type current transformer.
The CT secondary winding is usually designed to deliver a secondary current of either 1 A or 5 A.

As in the case of conventional transformers, the current ratio is inversely proportional to the turns
ratio. An 800/5-A bar-type current transformer would have 160 turns on the secondary coil.
22
(a) 600 V bar-type CT (b) High-voltage gas filled CT

Figure 36 Current transformers
The insulation between the primary and secondary windings must be great enough to withstand
the full line-to-neutral voltage, including line surges. The primary winding of the current
transformer is connected directly in the load circuit. When the secondary winding is open-
circuited, the voltage developed across the terminals may be very high (because of the step-up
voltage ratio) and could easily break down the insulation between the secondary windings. The
secondary winding of a current transformer should therefore always be short-circuited, or
connected to a meter or relay coil.
A current transformer should never have its secondary open while the primary is carrying current;
it should always be closed through a current meter, relay coil, wattmeter current coil, or simply a
short.
A current transformer is a high-precision transformer in which the ratio of primary to secondary

current is a known constant that changes very little with the burden. The phase angle between the
primary and secondary current is very small, usually much less than one degree. The highly
accurate ratio and small phase angle are achieved by keeping the exciting current small.
Because CTs are only used for measurement and system protection, their power rating is very
small; generally between 15 VA and 200 VA.
When the line current exceeds 100 A, a toroidal current transformer can be used. Although similar
to a bar-type current transformer, the toroidal CT does not come with the centre conductor
already in place. The toroidal CT is usually built in to a high voltage bushing for use in high
voltage transformation and switching equipment. It consists of a laminated ring shaped core that
carries the secondary winding. The primary is composed of a single conductor that passes
through the centre of the ring. The position of the primary conductor is unimportant as long as it is
more or less centred.
23
Toroidal CTs are simple and inexpensive and are widely used in low-voltage and medium-voltage
indoor installations.
(a) Toroidal Transformer connected to (b) Toroidal transformer surrounding a

measure the current in a line conductor inside a bushing
Figure 37 Toroidal current transformers
Example
A current transformer has a rating of 50 VA, 400 A/5 A, 36 kV, 50 Hz. It is connected into an a.c.
line having a line-to-neutral voltage of 14.4 kV. The ammeters, relays and connecting wires on the
secondary side possess a total impedance (burden) of 1.2 . If the transmission line current is
280 A, calculate:
a) The secondary current
NP IS 5
= = =1
N S I P 400 80
N P 280
IS = IP = = 3.5 A
NS 80
b) The voltage across the secondary terminals
VS = I S RS = 3.5(1.2 ) = 4.2V
c) The voltage drop across the primary
NP 5
V P = VS = 4.2 = 0.0525V = 52.5mV
NS 400
(3.5 A, 4.2 V, 52.5 mV)
24
Exercises (Electrodynamic meters)

1. A potential transformer rated 14 400 V/115 V and a current transformer rated 75/5 A
are used to measure the voltage and current in a transmission line. If the voltmeter
indicates 111 V and the ammeter reads 3 A, calculate the voltage and current in the
line.
(13 900 V, 45 A)
2. Why must the secondary of a current transformer never be open-circuited?
3. Explain why the secondary winding of a CT or PT must be grounded.
4. A CT has a rating of 100 VA, 2000 A/5 A, 60 Hz, 138 kV. It has a primary to secondary
capacitance of 250 pF. If it is installed on a transmission line where the line-to-neutral
voltage is 138 kV, calculate the capacitive leakage current that flows to ground.
(13 mA)
5. A toroidal transformer (figure 37(a)) has a ratio of 1000 A/5 A. the line conductor carries
a current of 600 A.
a. Calculate the voltage across the secondary winding if the ammeter has an
impedance of 0.15 .
b. Calculate the voltage drop the transformer produces on the line conductor.
c. If the primary conductor is looped four times through the toroidal opening,
calculate the new current ratio.
(0.45 V, 2.25 mV, 250 A/5 A)
25
The Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

The Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) is employed to display the waveforms of alternating
voltages and currents and has many applications in electrical testing. Figure 38 shows the
principal features of the modern cathode-ray tube.
Figure 38 A cathode-ray tube

C represents an indirectly heated cathode and G is a control grid with a variable negative bias b
means of which the electron emission of C can be controlled, thereby varying the brilliancy of the
spot on the fluorescent screen S.
The anode discs A1 and A2 are usually connected together and maintained at a high potential
relative to the cathode, so that the electrons passing through G are accelerated very rapidly.
Many of these electrons shoot through the small apertures in the discs and their impact on the
fluorescent screen S produces a luminous patch on the latter.
This patch can be focused into a bright spot by varying the potential of the focusing electrode F,
thereby varying the distribution of the electrostatic field in the space between discs A1 and A2.
Electrode F may consist of a metal cylinder or of two discs with relatively large apertures. The
combination of A1, A2 and F may be regarded as an electron lens and the system of electrodes
producing the electron beam is termed an electron gun. The glass bulb B is thoroughly evacuated
to prevent any ionization.
The electrons after emerging through the aperture in disc A2, pass between two pairs of parallel
plates, termed the X and Yplates and arranged as in figure 39(a). One plate of each pair is
usually connected to anode A2, and to earth, as in figure 38.
Suppose a d.c. supply to be applied across the Y-plates, as in figure 39(b), then the electrons
constituting the beam are attracted towards the positive plate M and the beam is deflected
upwards. If an alternating voltage were applied to the Yplates, the beam would be deflected
alternately upwards and downwards and would therefore trace a vertical line on the screen.
Similarly, an alternating voltage applied to the Xplates would cause the beam to trace a
horizontal line.
26
Figure 39(b)
Figure 39(a)
Electrostatic deflection of an electron
Deflecting plates of a cathode-ray tube
beam
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

Most oscilloscopes are general-purpose instruments and the basic form of their operation is
illustrated in figure 40. For simplicity, we shall restrict our interest to displaying one signal,
although most oscilloscopes are capable of displaying two.
Figure 40 Basic schematic diagram of a CRO

The input signal is amplified by the Y-amplifier, so called because it causes the beam to be driven
up and down the screen of the cathoderay tube in the direction described as the Y-direction by
mathematicians.
The time base serves to move the beam across the screen of the tube. When the beam moves
across the screen, it is said to move in the Xdirection. It would not be appropriate if the
movements in the X and Ydirections were not coordinated; hence the time base may be
controlled by the output of the Y-amplifier. This interrelationship is quite complex and therefore
requires further explanation.
However, before proceeding, we require another major component which is the power supply.
This serves to energize the grid and anode systems of the cathoderay tube, as well as to
27
energize the brilliance, focus and astigmatism controls of the beam. The power supply also
energizes the amplifiers for the control of the beam.
Assuming that you are already familiar with the operation of the cathoderay tube, it remains to
consider those parts of the overall instrument which give rise to controls that we must operate in
order to use the oscilloscope. A more complete schematic diagram therefore is shown in figure
41.
The circuitry of an oscilloscope has to be capable of handling a very wide range of input signals
varying from a few millivolts to possibly a few hundred volts, while the input signal frequency may
vary from zero (d.c.) up to possibly 1 GHz, although an upper limit of 10 50 MHz is more
common in generalpurpose instruments.
We have already noted that the input signal drives the display beam in the Ydirection. The height
of the screen dictates the extent of the possible deflection. The output of the Yamplifier therefore
has to be of a sufficient magnitude to drive the beam up and down the screen in order to give as
large a display as possible without the display disappearing off the edge of the screen.
Nevertheless, the Yamplifier operates with a fixed gain and it is necessary to adjust the
magnitude of the input signal to the amplifier, this being done with an attenuator. An attenuator is
a network of resistors and capacitors, and its function is to reduce the input signal.
Figure 41 Schematic diagram of cathode ray oscilloscope

This may seem to be a peculiar function, but the hardest task required of the amplifier is to
increase the voltage of a small signal in order to obtain a display across the greatest extent of the
28
screen. This determines the amplifier gain, but, unless something is done about it, greater input
signals would cause the display to extend beyond the screen. These greater signals, however,
can readily be cut down to size by an attenuator, thus leaving the Yamplifier to continue to
operate with its gain fixed to suit the smallest signal.
The attenuator has a number of switched steps, the lowest normally being 0.1 V/cm and the
highest being 50 V/cm. For instance, if we set the control to 10 V/cm and apply an input signal of
50 V peak-to-peak, it follows that the height of the display on the screen is 50/10 = 5 cm. As many
screens give a display 8 cm high, this is the best possible scale, and such a display would
disappear at the top and bottom of the screen.
Associated with the vertical scale control, we also have a V-shift control which permits us to
centralize the display vertically on the screen.
In oscilloscopes, the Vamplifier may consist of a single stage in a very basic model, but
generally a number of stages are incorporated, especially in those oscilloscopes used for
measurements as opposed to simple waveform displays.
The Xamplifier is normally identical to the Yamplifier and has an X-shift control comparable to
the Y-shift control. In each case, the shift can be achieved by adjusting the bias voltage to the
amplifier, thus causing a shift of the mean output voltage.
The most usual mode of oscilloscope operation has the X-amplifier fed from a time-base
generator, the function of which is to drive the beam at a speed across the screen and, when it
reaches the right-hand side of the screen, the beam is then made to fl back to the left-hand side
and start out again across the screen. To produce such an output, the input signal to the
Xamplifier must take the form of a sawtooth waveform, which is illustrated in figure 42(a). As the
signal steadily increases, the beam is moved across the screen. When the signal reaches its
peak, ideally it should drop to zero, thus instantaneously returning the beam to the beginning of its
travel. In practice, there are two (possibly three) differences between the ideal waveform and that
actually experienced.
(a) Idealized waveform (b) Practical waveform

Figure 42 Xamplifier sawtooth waveforms
The ramp of the waveform is not linear but is derived from an RC circuit transient. Provided that
the time constant of the RC circuit is yen much greater than that of the time required for the
beam to scan across the screen, the ramp is almost linear. The difference has been exaggerated
in figure 42(b) for clarity.
When the waveform reaches its peak, it is not possible, for reasons which we have observed in
our studies of transients, for the signal to suddenly return to zero; thus there is a short period
during which the voltage decays. This is called the fly back time, because it is the period during
which the beam flies back to the start of its travel.
29
The flyback time is made as short as possible, partly to save the display time lost and partly to
reduce the trace of the beam returning across the screen. To help eliminate this unwanted
display, the beam current is reduced during the fly back time by means of a fly back suppression
pulse.
There may be a short interval between the end of the flyback period and the following scanning
period. This is necessary when the time base is controlled from an external trigger source, which
is described later. The short delay ensures that the scan starts at the same point in the display
waveform, thus causing the display to appear stationary on the screen. In most applications, the
time base is controlled by a pulse generator synchronized to the signal from the Yamplifier, and
there is no need to have a delay between the end of the flyback period and the beginning of the
scanning period.
The signal to the Xamplifier comes from the timebase generator which may operate in any of
the following modes:
1. self-oscillating
2. self-oscillating and synchronized
3. externally triggered
In the purely selfoscillating arrangement, the timebase voltage rises to a preset value, at which
instant the beam has reached the right-hand extremity of its travel. When the preset value is
reached, the fly back is automatically initiated and, as soon as the original value at the beginning
of the scan is obtained, the generator starts generating the next sweep across the screen. The
problem with the self-oscillating arrangement is that it works independently of the input signal;
thus in the first sweep it may start when the input signal is at a positive maximum value, yet the
next sweep starts at a negative maximum, thus giving a completely different trace. This sort of
variation at best gives rise to an apparently moving display and at worst to two or three displays
which are superimposed on one another.
To overcome this problem, it is necessary to synchronize the timebase generator to the

frequency of the supply. In a self-oscillating and synchronized system, the initiation of the flyback
is controlled by a synchronization signal from the Yamplifier. Because the flyback is controlled by
the synchronizing signal, it follows that the synchronizing signal also controls the start of the
sweep of the beam. In some oscilloscopes, this arrangement is full automatic, but in many of the
cheaper generalpurpose oscilloscopes, there is a stabilizing control which sets the level of
signal display at which the flyback is initiated.
It is necessary to appreciate the reason why this arrangement operates from the finish of the
display and not from the beginning. The time-base generator causes the beam to sweep across
the display at regular intervals. Let us assume that this is taking place with a frequency 50 Hz and
also let us assume that the frequency of the signal to be displayed is 150 Hz. During the sweep
time, the input signal undergoes three cycles; thus we would hope to see these three cycles being
displayed. In practice, a bit of one cycle would be lost because not all of the time is available for
display, the remaining time being taken up by the flyback period. However, the main problems arc
to commence the trace at the same point in the input signal each time. Let us assume that we
wish to start when the input signal is positive and rising. Ideally this would coincide with the
instant at which the sweep was due to commence; thus three cycles (almost) would be displayed,
followed by the fly back, and everything would be ready for the next sweep to commence
displaying the following three input signal waves.
However, what happens if we just miss the start of an input signal wave? If we wait for the next
instant of the signal being positive and increasing, then we have to wait for almost a complete
30
cycle, which would be lost to the display. And, even more awkward, what happens if the
frequency of the signal to be displayed is 152 Hz? After all, as the signal frequency increases we
expect to see more than three cycles, so that if the frequency is 200 Hz, for example, we expect
the display of four cycles.
The answer is not to wait for the chosen instant but rather to get on with the display up to the time
of the chosen instant. In this way, we do not miss anything by waiting (although we shall miss that
short period of display during the flyback) but, having reached the chosen instant, the beam is
caused to fly back and to recommence the sweep with the minimum delay. It now starts no matter
what is happening, and continues again up to the chosen point at which the flyback is again
initiated. In this way we can display any number of cycles or fractions of a cycle in excess of one
cycle.
The stabilizing control has to be adjusted appropriately to synchronize the flyback of the time-
base generator to the output of the Y-amplifier. In most cases, this can be readily achieved, but
sometimes the quality of the signal to be displayed is not sufficiently reliable, in which case the
time-base generator must be controlled from an external source, which provides a suitable trigger.
In this ease, the trigger initiates each individual time-base sweep, and the flyback then follows
automatically when the time-base signal has reached a preset value. In this case, the time-base
generator remains inactive until the trigger releases another sweep. This means that possibly a
significant part of the display can be omitted. For this reason, some oscilloscopes are provided
with gain controls to the Xamplifier where the display can be expanded and we can examine the
display in greater detail.
If we wish to make time or frequency measurements, the timebase control must have a
calibration setting at which the display time coincides with the control markings. For instance, if
the timebase control is set to 10 s/cm, then the Xamplifier control is set to the calibration mark
and we know that each centimetre of the display in the Xdirection represents 10 s of time. A
typical range of timebase control settings is 0.5 s/cm to 1 s/cm.
There are several applications of the oscilloscope in which we do not require the time-base
generation at all, but instead we drive the Xamplifier from another signal source in a similar
manner to the operation of the Yamplifier. For this reason, many oscilloscopes afford direct
access to the Xamplifier.
The input impedance of most general-purpose oscilloscopes is 1 M shunted by a capacitance of

20 50 pF according to the model used. The effect of the capacitance becomes significantly
effective only at high frequencies, i.e. in excess of 1 GHz. Such a high input impedance makes
the oscilloscope suitable for many measurement techniques, since the oscilloscope scarcely
modifies the network into which it has been introduced.
Mention has already been made of the calibration of oscilloscopes, and many have builtin
calibration circuits. Generally these give a square or trapezoidal waveform of known peak-to-peak
magnitude and cycle duration. This calibration signal is fed into the oscilloscope and the gain of
the Yamplifier is adjusted to give the appropriate vertical display. Similarly, the gain of the X-
amplifier is adjusted to give a signal display of appropriate length. These adjustments are usually
made by potentiometers with a screw adjustment operated by a screwdriver. In this way,
calibration adjustment cannot be confused with the other controls of the oscilloscope.
This brief description of the operation of the principal components has indicated the main controls
that we require to use when displaying and measuring waveforms and phase differences by
means of the oscilloscope.
.
31
Use of the Cathode Ray Oscilloscope in Waveform Measurement

A discussion of the use of the oscilloscope falls naturally into two parts: the use of the instrument
itself, and the methods of connecting the instrument to the circuits in which the measurements are
to be made. For ease of introduction, let us assume that the signals applied to the oscilloscope
are suitable.
Once the connections between the source of the signal and the oscilloscope have been made,
the oscilloscope should he switched on and given time to warm up. Generally a trace will appear
on the screen, but should this not occur, some useful points to check are that the vertical and
horizontal shift controls are centralized, that the brilliance control is centralized, that the trigger is
set to the automatic position (where appropriate) and that the stabilizing control is varied to
ensure that the display time base is operated. Normally these checks ensure that the display
appears, but if these do not work, then you have to check out the full procedure in accordance
with the manufacturers operating manual.
Once the display has been established, adjust the brilliance to obtain an acceptable trace which is
not brighter than necessary. Too bright a trace, especially if permitted to remain in the one
position for a considerable period of time, can damage the fluorescent material on the screen,
hence the reason for minimizing the brilliance. It also does no harm to check that the beam is
focused and that there is minimum astigmatism. These do not vary much with operation but
sometimes the controls are adjusted incorrectly.
The display is next centralized vertically and the scale control adjusted to give the highest
possible display that can be contained within the screen.
Having the display clearly in view, it may be that the trace is stationary, but it could also be
slipping slowly in a horizontal direction. In the latter case, the stabilizing control requires to be
adjusted until the trace is locked in position and remains stationary.
Unless you have some unusual observations to make on the waveform, the Xgain amplifier
should be set to the calibration position and the Xshift control readjusted to centralize the display
horizontally. This display may contain only part of the waveform or a great many waveforms; this
is changed by adjusting the time-base control until the desired number of waveforms are
displayed.
This again is a brief description of the settingup procedure of the oscilloscope and it serves only
to highlight the common form of operation. Different models of oscilloscope vary in detail, but the
procedure is essentially that indicated. However, words cannot substitute for the practical
experience of operating oscilloscopes, and you will readily obtain a better appreciation of the
oscilloscope from a few minutes experimentation with one in a laboratory.
To aid observation of the display on an oscilloscope, a set of squares is marked on the

transparent screen cover. This marking is termed a graticule and is illustrated in figure 43.
32
Figure 43 Cathode-ray oscilloscope graticule

Graticules are marked out with a 1 cm grid and are presently 10 cm across by 8 cm high. Older
models had graticules 8 cm by 8 cm or sometimes 10 cm by 10 cm. To avoid parallax error, you
should always observe the trace directly through the graticule and not from the side.
Let us now consider the interpretation of the basic forms of display, which are sine waxes, square
waves and pulses. A typical sine waveform display as seen through a graticule is shown in figure
44. To obtain this display, let us assume that the vertical control is set to 2 V/cm and the time-
base control to 500 s/cm.
The peak-to-peak height of the display is 4.8 cm, hence the peak-to-peak voltage is 4.8 x 2 = 9.6
V. This may be a direct measurement of a voltage or the indirect measurement of, say, a current.
In the latter case, if a current is passed through a resistor of known resistance, then the current
value is obtained by dividing the voltage by the resistance.
You will note that the voltage measured is the peaktopeak value. If the signal is sinusoidal, then
the r.m.s. value is obtained by dividing the peaktopeak value by 22, which in this instance
gives an r.m.s. value of 3.4 V.
33
Figure 44 Sine wave display on an oscilloscope

The oscilloscope, therefore, can be seen to suffer the disadvantage when compared with
electronic voltmeters that it is more complex to operate and to interpret. However, we are
immediately able to determine whether we are dealing with sinusoidal quantities, which is not
possible with other meters and which is essential to interpreting the accuracy of the measurement
of alternating quantities. The oscilloscope is therefore an instrument whereby we observe the
waveform in detail and measurements of magnitude of the signal are essentially those of
peaktopeak values.
Returning to the display shown in figure 45, the length of one cycle of the display is 8.0 cm, hence
the period of the waveform is:
8.0 x 500 x 106 = 4.0 x 103 s = 4.0 ms
It follows that the frequency of the signal is:
1
= 250 Hz
4.0 x 10 -3
In each case, the accuracy of measurement is not particularly good. At best, we cannot claim an
accuracy of measurement on the graticule that is better than to the nearest millimetre; thus the
accuracy at best is about 2 per cent.
If we wish to determine the values of a waveform, such as the average and r.m.s. values of
nonsinusoidal waveforms or the marktospace ratio of a pulse waveform, it is better to take a
photograph of the trace. This is easily done as most oscilloscopes have camera attachments
which take photographs of the type that are developed within a minute. Such photographs can be
examined at leisure, whereas maintaining a trace for such a length of time on the cathode-ray
tube could damage the screen, a point that has already been mentioned.
Typical traces for square waveforms and pulses are shown in figure 45.
34
(a) Square wave (b) Pulse

Figure 45 CRO displays for square waves and pulses
Example
The trace displayed by a CRO is shown in figure 45(a). The signal amplitude control is set to 0.5
V/cm and the time-base control to 100 s/cm. Determine the peaktopeak voltage of the signal
and its frequency.
Height of display is 4.8 cm. This is equivalent to 4.8 x 0.5 = 2.4 V. The peaktopeak voltage is
therefore 2.4 V.
The width of the display of one cycle is 7.0 cm. This is equivalent to a period of 7.0 x 100 x 106 =
700 x l06 s. It follows that the frequency is given by 1/(700 x 106) = 1430 Hz.
Example
An oscilloscope has a display shown in figure 45(b). The signal amplitude control is set to 0.2
V/cm and the time-base control to 10 s/cm. Determine the mark-to-space ratio of the pulse
waveform and the pulse frequency. Also determine the magnitude of the pulse voltage.
The width of the pulse display is 0.8 cm and the width of the space between pulses is 3.2 cm. The
marktospace ratio is therefore 0.8/3.2 = 0.25.
The width of the display from the commencement of one pulse to the next is 4.0 cm. This is
equivalent to:
4.0x 10 x l06 = 40 x 106 s
being the period of a pulse waveform. The pulse frequency is therefore given by
1
= 25 000 Hz = 25 kHz
40 x 10 -6
The magnitude of the pulse voltage is determined from the pulse height on the display, this being
4.2 cm. The pulse voltage is therefore 4.2 x 0.2 = 0.84 V.
35
At the start of this section, we had to assume that the signals applied to the oscilloscope were
suitable. Now we must determine in what way a signal may be thought of as suitable for an
oscilloscope.
Most oscilloscopes operate with the body or chassis of the instrument at earth potential. Also,
most oscilloscopes are connected to the signal source by means of a coaxial cable, the outer
conductor of which is connected to the body of the oscilloscope and is therefore at earth potential.
It follows that one of the connections from the oscilloscope will connect one terminal of the signal
source to earth.
The effect of this observation can be illustrated by considering the test arrangement shown in
figure 46. A resistor and a capacitor are connected in series and supplied from a signal generator.
It is usual that one terminal of the signal generator is also at earth potential; thus the connection
diagram shown in figure 47 is suitable for the circuit and for the oscilloscope. It is suitable
because the earth point of the oscilloscope is connected to the earth point of the generator and
they are therefore at the same potential.
Oscilloscope
Signal
generator
Figure 46 An experiment involving an oscilloscope

The oscilloscope displays the waveform of the voltage across the capacitor. However, what if we
wished to display the waveform of the voltage across the resistor? We appear to have two
choices: either we reconnect the oscilloscope across the resistor, or we reconnect the test circuit
to the signal generator. Let us reconnect the oscilloscope as shown in figure 47.
Oscilloscope
Signal
generator
Figure 47 Unsuitable reconnection of the oscilloscope

Although the signal into the oscilloscope is now that of the voltage across the resistor, the test
circuit has been seriously changed. The earth connection from the oscilloscope to the junction
between the resistor and the capacitor causes the capacitor to be shortcircuited, i.e. the current
from the signal generator passes through the resistor, into the earth connection of the
oscilloscope and back to the generator through the earth connection of the generator.
In this particular test, this problem can easily be overcome by interchanging the components of
the test circuit as shown in figure 48. You should also notice that the connection from the earth
terminal of the oscilloscope to the test circuit is not actually required, since it duplicates the
36
connection available through earth. As the connection also provides a screen for the coaxial
cable, thereby minimizing interference from other sources, it is good practice to retain the second
connection.
Oscilloscope
Signal
generator
Figure 48 Suitable reconnection of the oscilloscope

The reconnection of the test circuit was possible in this instance because of the simplicity of the
circuit. If the circuit had been more complicated, such as that shown in figure 49, reconnection
would not have been possible. For instance, the amplifier transistor could not be reconnected in
order to observe the voltage across the basecollector junction.
HT supply
Oscilloscope
Signal
generator
Figure 49 Transistor amplifier investigation by an oscilloscope
In such cases, there are four possible methods whereby this form of difficulty may be overcome.
(a) Isolation of the source from earth
This is generally the simplest solution to achieve. If the source is energized from a battery, no
connection is made to earth; hence the network that is supplied can take up any potential it
wishes, and the only connection to earth is that of the oscilloscope. In such an instance, the
battery source is isolated from earth and there is no return path for current trying to leak away
from the network.
Many signal sources are energized from the mains supply, in which case they are connected to
earth for safety by the third wire of the supply flex. They are also indirectly connected to earth by
the neutral wire, since the neutral wire of a mains supply is connected to earth back at the supply
substation. However, when such instruments are used in a laboratory, special supply
arrangements may be provided whereby the frame of the source is not earthed and the 240 V
supply is isolated from earth by means of an isolating transformer. In effect this has the same
result as that of the source, which was battery operated, there being no return path to the source
for any current trying to leak away from the network.
37
Such isolation procedures make for good safety practice in laboratories and workshops. If there is
a return path through earth and two pieces of equipment in close proximity during testing are at
different potentials, there is a risk of shock to a person touching both. The discontinuity of the
earth connection minimizes such a risk in these operating conditions.
For the arrangement shown in figure 49, if the signal generator were not connected to earth, it
would be quite possible to connect the oscilloscope across the basecollector junction of the
transistor without affecting the operation of the circuit.
(b) Isolation of the load from the source
This can be achieved by an isolating transformer, but the use of a transformer limits the
applications to those of alternating current. An example of an experiment involving an isolating
transformer is shown in figure 50. The transformer windings each have the same number of turns,
thus the input and output of the transformer are essentially the same. However, the secondary
winding and the load which it supplies are free of connection to earth; therefore the introduction of
the earth-connected oscilloscope does not interfere with the operation of the network.
Isolating
transformer Oscilloscope
Signal
generator
Figure 50 Experiment involving the isolation of the load from the source
(c) Double-beam oscilloscope with difference-of-signals facility
This facility is not available in most generalpurpose oscilloscopes, although most oscilloscopes
are double-beam instruments. A double-beam oscilloscope has two beams and therefore can
display two traces at the one time. Thus, going back to the experiment shown in figure 46, one
beam could have displayed the voltage across the capacitor while the other displayed the supply
voltage. It is the difference of these two displays which gives the voltage across the resistor, and
better oscilloscopes have this facility built into them.
It follows that for the test arrangement in figure 49, the basecollector voltage could be obtained
by connecting one input to receive the collectortoearth voltage and the other input to receive
the basetoearth voltage. The controls could then be set to show the difference of these signals,
which would be the basecollector voltage.
(d) Isolation of the oscilloscope from earth
This arrangement is not generally favoured, partly because of the high voltages involved within an
oscilloscope, but can be employed when none of the other methods is suitable. For instance, if we
wish to observe the voltage across a component of a circuit which cannot be isolated readily from
earth, e.g. part of a power circuit, and which is at a considerable potential to earth at both
terminals, it is better to isolate the oscilloscope and to set it up prior to the application of power to
38
the principal circuit. Under such conditions, it is not possible to adjust the oscilloscope during the
test as it then takes up the potential of the power circuit. It is possible to take records of its display
by camera, this being remotely controlled. This form of operation is an advanced part of
engineering technology and should only be carried out under the supervision of an experienced
electrical engineer.
Lissajous Patterns
Jules Antoine Lissajous was a French physicist who lived from 1822 to 1880. Like many
physicists of his time, Lissajous was interested in being able to see vibrations. He started off
standing tuning forks in water and watching the ripple patterns, but his most famous experiments
involved tuning forks and mirrors. For example, by attaching a mirror to a tuning fork and shining
a light onto it, Lissajous was able to observe, via another couple of mirrors, the reflected light
twisting and turning on the screen in time to the vibrations of the tuning fork. When he set up two
tuning forks at right angles, with one vibrating at twice the frequency of the other, Lissajous found
that the curved lines on the screen would combine to make a figure of eight pattern.
Phase angle measurement

A Lissajous pattern can be used to measure the phase angle between two sinusoids of the
same frequency. The following procedure provides details on how to generate the Lissajous
pattern and measure the phase angle using a cathode-ray oscilloscope.
Figure 51 Lissajous pattern

a. Connect Vin to the X channel of the scope, and Vout to the Y channel.
b. Set the oscilloscope to Main/Delayed and choose the X-Y mode.
c. Set the VOLTS/DIV on the X and Y channels so that the Lissajous pattern is as large as
possible, but is completely visible on the CRT. At frequencies other than resonance, the
Lissajous pattern will be similar that of figure 52.
d. Verify that the Lissajous pattern is still centred on the oscilloscope CRT. If not, use the
position controls to centre the pattern on the CRT.
e. Measure the two distances A and B in figure 51 using the cursor controls. The dimension A
is the distance between the two intersections of the Lissajous pattern and the Y axis. B is
the vertical distance between the top and the bottom of the pattern.
f. Compute the phase angle from Eq. 1.
A
= sin 1 Equation 1
B
39
The sign of the phase angle cannot be determined directly from the Lissajous pattern. To find
the sign of , set the scope in normal time-base mode (not X-Y), and identify whether the output
waveform leads or lags the input.
Locate the positive-going zero crossing for the input signal and the nearest positive-going zero
crossing for the output signal. If the output zero crossing occurs after the input, as shown in figure
52, the output is said to lag the input, and is negative. If the output waveform crosses zero
before the input waveform does, the output is said to lead the input, and is positive.
Figure 52
At resonance, the reactance X is zero and the impedance is purely resistive. Since the imaginary
portion of the impedance is zero, Im{Tv(j)} = 0 and for this circuit the phase angle = 0. All
frequencies above resonance have the same sign, and frequencies below the resonant point
have the opposite sign.
Some illustrations of various frequency/phase differences are shown in figure 53.
fY = fX
= 0o
40
fY = fX
= 45o
fY = fX
= 90o
fY = fX
= 135o
2fY = fX
= 45o
Figure 53 Frequency/phase differences using Lissajous patterns
41
Exercises (The CRO)

1. Describe how the Yplates of a cathoderay oscilloscope would be connected to give
a trace of:
(a) the alternating voltage applied to a circuit component (such as a coil);

(b) the current through the component.
What voltage waveform would normally be applied to the X-plates of the oscilloscope
for this purpose?
2. Draw a block diagram showing the principal parts of a cathoderay oscilloscope

amplifier arrangement. What is the purpose of synchronization in an oscilloscope and
why is it essential to the process of waveform display in a cathoderay oscilloscope?
3. Explain with the aid of a circuit diagram showing the connections made to the cathode-
ray oscilloscope, how it may be used to determine the r.m.s. value of an a.c. signal
which is:
(a) sinusoidal;
(b) nonsinusoidal.
4. Given the CRO display shown below, what is the phase difference between the two
input waveforms?
42
Power System Analyser

Power Systems Analysers have evolved significantly over recent years. Originally, power systems
may have some type of monitoring equipment installed at strategic locations around a system and
various parameters would be recorded using recording instruments onto a spool of time and
parametercalibrated graph paper. Such systems were quite limited with regards as to what could
be recorded and the resulting spools of information would be sent into a central location on a
regular basis for analysis.
Data, such as power, reactive VA, line current and voltage and frequency could be recorded for
later analysis. Locations where such devices might be placed usually were limited to terminal
stations where feeders from generation stations were connected into major load centre supply
systems.
Modern power systems analysers are electronic devices permanently connected to any point of
interest and the data from them is relayed back to a central monitoring point for instant analysis
by systems control staff. SCADA systems play a major part in such data measurement,
transmission and recording systems.
However, small, handheld, power systems analysers are also readily available that can measure,
record, display and download recorded data to a connected computer. An example of such an
instrument is the AEMC Instruments Three-Phase power Quality Analyser, PowerPad Model
3945.
The PowerPad has 4 Mbytes of memory to store data and six direct access functions that allow
the operator to view:
Waveforms
Display volts, amps, total harmonic distortion and crest factor by phase or for all phases.
Harmonics
Display harmonics out to the 50TH for volts, amps and VA. Individual harmonics are displayed as a
percentage and in real value. Harmonic direction and sequencing can also be displayed.
Transients
Set, capture and display transients by selecting the threshold and the number of transients to
display.
Alarms
Up to 4096 alarm events can be configured. Each captured alarm event will show the phase, the
variable and the value, as well as the time and duration.
Record
Trend data can be recorded at selectable rates from one sample per second to one sample every
15 minutes. As many as 22 different variables on all phases can be recorded for later viewing.
Power and Energy

Watts, VARs and VA by phase and total can be displayed. The totals can then be used to
determine whether the load is capacitive or inductive.
43
The PowerPad is quite small as can be seen in the picture in figure 54.
Figure 54 AEMC Instruments PowerPad
44
The PowerPad has a number of functional displays so that the user can view information in a
preferred manner. The snapshots shown below illustrate some of the available display modes.
Waveform mode
Phasor diagram
Power and Energy mode
Figure 55 PowerPad screen displays

Although the instrument has many more information displays then shown in figure 55, the
functional displays shown do illustrate the power and diversity of such an instrument.
A power analyser encapsulates all the basic test equipment required to successfully test and
analyse a power system into a single instrument for convenience.
45
Frequency Meters
All alternating voltage sources are generated at a set frequency or range of frequencies. A
frequency meter provides a means of measuring this frequency. Two common types of frequency
meters are the vibrating-reed frequency meter and the moving-disk frequency meter.
Vibrating-Reed Frequency Meter

The vibrating-reed frequency meter is one of the simplest devices for indicating the frequency of
an ac source. Vibrating-reed frequency meters are usually in-circuit meters. They are used on
power panels to monitor the frequency of ac. A simplified diagram of one type of vibrating-reed
frequency meter is shown in figure 56.
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 56 Vibrating reed frequency meter

The current whose frequency is to be measured flows through the coil and exerts maximum
attraction on the soft-iron armature TWICE during each cycle (figure 56(A)). The armature is
attached to the bar, which is mounted on a flexible support. Reeds having natural vibration
frequencies of 90, 92, 94, and so forth, up to 110 hertz are mounted on the bar (figure 56(B)). The
reed having a frequency of 90 hertz is marked 45 hertz; the one having a frequency of 96 hertz is
marked 48 hertz; the one having a frequency of 100 hertz is marked 50 hertz; and so forth.
When the coil is energized with a current having a frequency between 45 and 55 hertz, all the
reeds are vibrated slightly; but, the reed having a natural frequency closest to that of the
energizing current (whose frequency is to be measured) vibrates more.
The frequency is read from the scale value opposite the reed having the greatest vibration.
46
In some instruments the reeds are the same lengths, but are weighted by different amounts at the
top so that they will have different natural rates of vibration.
An end view of the reeds is shown in the indicator dial of figure 56(C). If the current has a
frequency of 50 hertz per second, the reed marked "50" hertz will vibrate the greatest amount, as
shown.
Moving-Disk Frequency Meter

Moving-disk frequency meters are most commonly out-of-circuit meters. They can be used to spot
check the frequency of power sources or equipment signals.
A moving-disk frequency meter is shown in figure 57. One coil tends to turn the disk clockwise,
and the other, counter-clockwise. Magnetizing coil A is connected in series with a large value of
resistance. Coil B is connected in series with a large inductance and the two circuits are supplied
in parallel by the source.
Figure 57 Simplified diagram of moving-disk frequency meter

For a given voltage, the current through coil A is practically constant. However, the current
through coil B varies with the frequency. At a higher frequency the inductive reactance is greater
and the current through coil B is less; the reverse is true at a lower frequency. The disk turns in
the direction determined by the stronger coil.
47
A perfectly circular disk would tend to turn continuously. This is not desirable, and so the disk is
constructed so that it will turn only a certain amount clockwise or counter-clockwise about the
centre position, which is commonly marked 50 hertz on commercial equipment. To prevent the
disk from turning more than the desired amount, the left half of the disk is mounted so that when
motion occurs, the same amount of disk area will always be between the poles of coil A.
Therefore, the force produced by coil A to rotate the disk is constant for a constant applied
voltage. The right half of the disk is offset, as shown in the figure. When the disk rotates
clockwise, an increasing area will come between the poles of coil B; when it rotates counter-
clockwise, a decreasing area will come between the poles of coil B. The greater the area between
the poles, the greater will be the disk current and the force tending to turn the disk.
If the frequency applied to the frequency meter should decrease, the reactance offered by L
would decrease and the field produced by coil B would increase. The field produced by coil A
would remain the same. Thus, the force produced by coil B would tend to move the disk and the
pointer counter-clockwise until the area between the poles was reduced enough to make the two
forces equal. The scale is calibrated to indicate the correct frequency.
If the frequency is constant and the voltage is changed, the currents in the two coils-and therefore
the opposing forces-change by the same amount. Thus, the indication of the instrument is not
affected by a change in voltage.
Exercises (Frequency meters)

1. What are two types of frequency meters?
2. Briefly describe the operation of a vibrating-reed frequency meter.
3. What is the frequency shown by each of the frequency meters below?
(a) (b)
48
3. Continued:-
49 50 51
48 52
47 53
46 54
45 55
(c)
59 60 61
58 62
57 63
56 64
55 65
(d)
49
Locate and rectify faults in electrical equipment

Introduction
The introduction of competition into the power generation and distribution industry has resulted in
the need to improve the quality of services in meeting customer demands for power. This
competition has resulted in the need to operate at higher service levels, under tighter operating
costs, and with few people. Consequently plant and associated administrative systems have
control systems that are becoming increasingly more sophisticated and complex.
Both operational and maintenance staff must understand these systems, processes, equipment,
and related disciplines if faulty equipment or poor service are to be kept to a minimum.
The purpose of this module is to develop your fault finding and diagnostic skills through
developing your problem solving abilities. These problem solving abilities will be developed with
the aid of a number of tools and techniques covered in the Quality Concepts module.
This module has a number of sections and includes short answer reviews questions at the end of
each section which you must complete.
50
General Principles of Fault Finding

In this section we look at the general principles of fault finding through the application of
diagnostic reporting. These principles apply in all disciplines regardless of whether they are civil,
electrical, mechanical etc. In later sections you will apply these principles to actual work
situations.
Principals of Systematic Fault Diagnosis

Diagnosis of faults requires a logical and disciplined approach. Frequently, past experience or
detailed knowledge will help. Also an intuitive approach can be used but must be accompanied by
a deductive technique.
Faults can be classified as:

o Positive fault sustained fault
o Intermittent fault irregular, harder to find
Tools for the Job

Your standard of work is related to the quality and completeness of the tools available to you.
Traditionally this has been:

o Trade skill
o Knowledge of plant
o Problem solving ability
Today your ability to diagnose and repair faults largely depends on levels of documentation and
test results.
Documentation
Documentation should be:
o Aimed at the level of the maintenance
o Structured in a standard format
o Logical, precise and factual no irrelevant material
Test Facilities
Facilities for testing equipment are often limited. However it is desirable that plant users specify
(when able to) what is required to make the system maintainable by means of diagnostic
methods. Plant manufacturers will often build test points into the system. To do so later becomes
very expensive. Built in test facilities are generally for first line maintenance staff, such as lamps,
pressure gauges, multi meters etc.
The Logical Diagnostic Process

Experience shows, paradoxically, that the faster a maintainer acts to identify a fault the more
likely that he/she:
a) fails to find it
b) disguises it
c) makes it worse
51
The first golden rule of fault diagnosis therefore is:
STOP AND THINK
Consider the problem then collect and evaluate the facts.

The fundamental steps in the logical diagnostic process for all type of equipment are:
(1) Symptom analysis (2) Equipment Inspection

(3) Fault stage location (4) Circuit checks
(5) Repair or replace (6) Perform test
STEP 1: SYMPTOM ANALYSIS

1. Question operator
2. Observation
3. Inspect monitors
4. Run equipment
STEP 2: INSPECT EQUIPMENT

1. Take a closer look
2. Utilise natural senses
3. Continue collecting evidence
4. Evaluate findings
STEP 3: FAULT STAGE LOCATION

1. Consult or construct Fault
STEP 5: REPLACE OR REPAIR
System Diagram
2. Determine system structure 1. Draw new part and fit same
and test strategy OR
2. Repair on site
3. Systematic testing
4. Locate faulty stage and
cause
STEP 6:
Conduct performance checks
Have you
Yes
located the
faulty unit?
Is it
No
satisfactory?
No
STEP 4: CIRCUIT CHECKS Yes

Continue investigation using same
test strategy until defective unit and
cause located Return to service
Figure 1. Diagnostic process flow chart

52
The table below shows the actions to be taken at each step and the key considerations are set
out, emphasising the importance of not making assumptions or forming conclusions without
checking the evidence
The second golden rule of fault diagnosis is therefore:
NEVER ASSUME - ALWAYS CHECK
STEP 1: SYMPTOM ANALYSIS

Action Key question Subsidiary question
Question the operator What happened? When did it happen?
Under what circumstances?
How long has the condition
existed?
How long had the equipment Has it just been switched on?
been running? Has it been on/off for a long
period?
Did you note anything Any mains trip?
unusual? Any audible/visible alarm?
Erratic operation?
Bang, flash, spark or smoke?
Was control sequence Anything abnormal about
observed to be correct? sequence of operation?
Any particular difficulty in
operating controls?
Observation Anything unusual to be Any obvious signs of

seen? tampering?
Any obvious signs of
damage?
Any panels removed,
cubicles open?
Any hoses disconnected or
oil leakage?
Any fouling of moving parts?
Any cables broken, frayed or
burnt?
Inspect monitoring devices All indications normal? Power on?

Tank level?
Pressure?
Filters?
Alarms and interlocks?
Printouts and displays?
53
Action Key question Subsidiary question

Run the equipment What happens/does not Permanent condition?
happen? Intermittent condition?
Fast/slow?
Symptomatic?
Is it reproducible?
Effect on output?
Hazardous?
Likely to cause damage?
All conditions of operation?
STEP 2: EQUIPMENT INSPECTION

Action Commentary/relevant questions
Utilising the natural Continue the observation process:
senses, take a more Look for: Disconnected plugs/sockets
detailed look at the Incorrect control settings
equipment Motor/pump running
Signs of arcing/burning
Valve heaters glowing/not glowing
Tripped circuit breakers
Missing components (eg bulbs)
Touch for: Overheated components

Indications of mechanical movement
Warm oil lines
Vibration
Listen for: Any unusual sounds

Audio outputs
Relay operation
Sniff for: Smells of burning, gas leaks, fluid leaks
Evaluate findings Do they eliminate/substantiate possible faults?

Do they provide useful pointers to faulty area?
Do they reinforce/contradict?
54
STEP 3: FAULTY STAGE LOCATION

Consider the equipment as How well does the maintainer know the equipment?
an entity Is functional documentation available?
(a) If so, consult it
(b) If not, construct a top level and possibly a second
level diagram. Study it and decide upon testing
strategy before proceeding further
What sort of structure is it?

What is the way to tackle testing?
What test equipment is needed?
What test/performance parameters may be expected and
under what conditions of operation?
Is permit to work required?
What safety precautions must be observed?
Consider systematic Using the technique best suited to the system structure:
testing (i) Conduct checks at appropriate test points, using
built-in or portable test instruments
(ii) Compare results obtained with expected
values/performance criteria with respect to inputs
and feedback.
Isolate suspect stage
Look for underlying cause
(a) If suspect stage is a replaceable unit, conduct
replacement procedure(Step 5)
(b) If suspect stage is not replaceable unit, proceed to
Step 4
STEP 5: REPLACEMENT OR REPAIR

Run the equipment Obtain replacement item from stores.
Fit new item, taking care:
(i) to fit correctly
(ii) to avoid disturbing adjacent parts
(iii) to return defective item to workshop suitably
labelled
55
Examples of Checks Against False Assumptions

Close/open switch Do not assume contact made
Operate control Do not assume control signal sent or received
Solenoid valve lamp indicator glows Solenoid may be burnt out or valve spool may be
sticking
Obtain replacement part Do not assume it is serviceable or is the correct
part
Alarm trips It may be a false indication
Motor runs in hydraulic system but no Pump may be unserviceable or coupling sheared
fluid flow
Gas valve turned to open position Flow of gas at outlet cannot be presumed. Safety
interlocks may inhibit gas flow
Pneumatic flow control opened/closed Correct action depends on type of control. Some
close clockwise, others anti-clockwise
Take over fault diagnosis from another Do not assume that everything has been checked
person just because they told you so; unless you are
certain that the other person is absolutely reliable,
check for yourself
Operator complains that the machine There may be fault, but it is also possible that
will not work controls have been incorrectly set, or safety
interlocks activated
Examination of circuit diagram or The possibility exists that it may not be correct;
drawing modifications may have been embodied without a
revised drawing being raised
Pressure-relief valve controlled by Malfunction of relief valve may be to blame, but
solenoid-operated valve; relief valve excessive wear of solenoid valve spool can permit
fails to operate even though solenoid fluid leakage and consequential partial- or even
valve is in the loaded condition non-loading of the relief valve
Replacement of defective components Do not assume that the reference number on a
component is the correct one for a replacement
item. It may be that the part has been previously
replaced by the nearest equivalent. Check the
parts list.
Check of functional block reveals no Do not assume that there is necessarily a fault
output or incorrect output within the preceding function; fault may be in one
of the subsequent blocks, producing an incorrect
feedback to the block under test.
Fluid level gauge reads full This could be seriously misleading.
Staining of the glass over a period of time, and
what may seem to be a full tank may in fact be a
badly marked sight glass.
Complete Fault Location Techniques activity, Questioning Techniques activity and Drawing
Valid Conclusions activity appendix A
56
Review Questions (General Principles of Fault Finding)

1. What is the first golden rule of fault finding?
2. List in order the 7 steps in fault diagnosis
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
3. Give some examples of what actions you may take when carrying out an equipment inspection.
4. List 3 types of Fault diagnostic charts
1)
2)
3)
5. What is the second golden rule of fault finding?
57
Fault finding procedures

Having established the symptoms of a fault it is then necessary to conduct tests to confirm the
symptoms and to attempt to determine the location of the fault within the equipment. A sound
knowledge of the technical concepts and the operation of the system may assist in locating the
fault but some times the testing will be extensive and an overall procedure should be adopted.
Fault Finding Procedures
Non-sequential Sequential
Non-systematic Systematic
Reliability based Functional structure based
Input to output
Output to input
Half-split
Figure 8. Fault finding procedures
Non-sequential systems use the collection of a lot of test data by operating the equipment with a
range of different inputs and measuring outputs. By checking these against known conditions the
component at fault may be determined. This method is particularly suited to fault finding digital
and computer based systems using automated test equipment.
Sequential systems use a sequence of tests of the function of different parts of the equipment.
They can be non systematic; that is applied randomly based on the whim of the technician. This is
where experience and technical knowledge can assist but will not reliably lead to quick resolution.
A systematic approach is preferred
One type of systematic approach is to first test the least reliable component or block within the
equipment. If this is ok, then test the next least reliable block. This system requires a lot of
information to be available to indicate which block should be tested first. Again experience may
play a part.
The system based on functional blocks can then be classified on the order of testing within the
equipment. The first two input to output and output to input are fairly self- explanatory. The
third can be shown to locate the fault with fewer tests
58
The half split technique says split the system in half and test at the centre. This will locate the
fault in either the first half or second half of the system. This section should then be split and a
test conducted in the middle of that part. Continuing in this way will locate the faulty block with
fewer tests.
Input Output
Test here first

If OK, then it is in the second half
So test here second
If not OK, then the fault is between the first

and second test points
Figure 9. Half-split fault finding technique
These techniques are simple to apply to systems that are linear, that is, where the signal passes
from one block to the next all the way through. Systems like this are actually not that common.
The direct application of these techniques to divergent or convergent systems or for systems with
feedback is bit more complicated and relies a lot more on the technical expertise and experience
of the technician.
1 3 7
B D
4
8
A E G 10
5
C F
2 6 9
Divergent System Convergent System
Figure 10. Divergent and Convergent systems
In the divergent system if the outputs at 3, 4 and 5 are ok then blocks A and B must be ok, the
connections between the blocks ok, and the fault must be in block C
In the convergent system an incorrect output at 10 does not indicate a fault in block G and the
conditions at 7, 8 and 9 must be tested.
59
Review Questions
Examine the following statements and state whether the conclusions are True, False or
Indeterminate.
Statement 1: An electric motor requires electrical power to run.

Statement 2: This motor currently has no electrical power supply.
Conclusion: This motor will not run
Answer:
Statement 1: An electric motor requires electrical power to run.

Statement 2: This motor will not run.
Conclusion: This motor currently has no electrical power.
Answer:
60
Basic Testing Techniques
The Multimeter
Once you have determined the most probably cause of a fault, you must either prove it to be the
problem or not. This can sometimes be done by careful inspection but in many cases the fault will
be such that you cannot identify the problem component by observation and analysis alone.
Here, test instruments can be used to help narrow the problem area and identify the problem
component.
General Meter Rules
There are many types of test instruments used for troubleshooting. Some are specialized
instruments designed to measure various behaviours of specific
equipment. There are other types of test instruments such as multimeters which are more
general in nature and can be used for most electrical measurement . A typical
multimeter can measure AC and DC Voltages, Resistance and Current.
Before you use a meter to make a test you should know what the meter will read if the circuit is
operating normally. You should make your prediction of the reading expected, based on the
circuit schematic. If the reading is anything other than your predicted value, you know that this
part of the circuit is being affected by the fault.
You should always check the meter before using it to troubleshoot.

For a voltmeter, test the meter on a known voltage source before using. Your
meter should read the correct voltage.
For an ohmmeter, touch the meter leads together. The display should read 0
ohms or very near this. With the leads apart it should read OL (infinity).
61
Meter Precautions
Here are some more Dos and Donts for using a meter.
Be familiar with its features. Read the instruction manual before using.
Ensure it is safe to use no obvious damage to the meter or the meter leads.
Be sure the test leads are in the correct sockets and the rotary switch is in the
correct position for the desired measurement.
Never measure resistance in a circuit when power is applied.
Never apply more than the rated voltage between any input jack and ground.
Keep your fingers behind the finger guards on the test probes when making
measurements.
To avoid false readings, which could lead to possible electric shock or personal
injury, replace the battery as soon as the battery indicator appears.
Testing Live vs. Dead
One of the first things you must decide is whether the circuit can be alive or must be dead while
testing.
Performing certain tests while a circuit is alive can be very helpful. However, some companies
have policies that ban (or restrict) testing live circuits while troubleshooting. Before doing any
testing make sure you check your companys policy. This module does contain certain
techniques used to test a de-energised circuit.
62
Types of Faults
Faults can generally be categorized into either open circuits or short circuits.
Open circuits occur when there is a break in the circuitry. This could be a broken wire, loose
connection, burned out component, etc.
Short circuits occur when two or more components, which should be isolated, come in contact
with each other. For example, the insulation on wiring could decay and the conductors short
together or short to ground.
Sectionalizing Circuits with Meters
Sometimes you will be faced with a problem that there are few useful observations and the
problem area is a large portion of the circuit. It may not be feasible to begin testing all the
components in the problem area.
You should still start with the component you identified as the most probable cause. If this
component is not the actual cause, the meter readings will provide you with information that
reduces the size of the problem area and points you in the direction of the fault. This is called
sectionalising. The meter techniques described in this section use this concept in determining
where to test.
63
Using a Voltmeter
Voltmeters are the best tool to use for finding open circuits if you can safely turn the power
on. Once you know it is an open circuit and have determined the general area of the fault, get
your voltmeter out and check that it is working on a known source.
Connect the negative lead to a known reference. The negative (neutral or

ground if on AC) supply is preferable. Test through the affected circuit with
your other lead, making sure all necessary switches are closed. The
wire or device between the last point you test full voltage and the first place
you dont get full voltage is where the open circuit is located.
Dont forget about checking the neutral path. When you get full voltage at the
positive terminal of a device that is supposed to be operating and isnt,
dont stop! Carry on through the return path (Negative or neutral).
64
Using an Ohmmeter
When using an ohmmeter you must first shut off and lock out the power supply.
Using a connection wiring diagram, determine the location of the component which you feel is the
most probable cause. Next disconnect a wire from the component which will eliminate possible
parallel paths and then test for continuity. You should be careful to identify any wires you
disconnect and be sure they are reconnected in the proper locations. When making your tests
you should connect one meter lead to either side of the open point and then test across the
component, or to ground.
Some Ohmmeter Connection Options
65
Using an Ohmmeter to find Short Circuits
Short circuits allow voltages and currents to flow in the wrong parts of a circuit, which causes
malfunctions. These tend to be easier to find with an ohmmeter. The most common type of short
circuit is a short to ground.
To find this type of fault, first lock out the circuit. Next disconnect and remove a wire
at the component you have identified as your most probable cause. Then connect one lead of the
ohmmeter to a ground point and the other lead to the suspected component. If your meter reads
very low, then the fault is below the open point.
Otherwise the fault is above the open point.
Reconnect the wire and disconnect another in the direction of the fault.
Take the readings, Continue this process until the meter no longer sees the fault. The last
component tested is therefore the cause of the fault.
66
Using an Ohmmeter to find Open Circuits
Sometimes you cant energise a device for testing even though the fault is an open circuit. Here,
you have to use an ohmmeter.
To find this type of fault, first lock out the circuit. Next disconnect and remove a wire
at the component you have identified as your most probable cause. Then connect one lead of the
ohmmeter to a ground point and the other lead to the suspected component. If your meter reads
infinity, then the fault is below the open point.
Otherwise the fault is above the open point.
Reconnect the wire and disconnect another in the direction of the fault. Take
the readings. Continue this process until the meter no longer sees the fault. The
last component tested is therefore the cause of the fault.
67
Using an Ammeter
With an ammeter, you can measure the current flowing through a circuit. This can be very useful
when your other test instruments (voltmeter and ohmmeter) are not appropriate. For example,
measuring the current in each phase of a 3 phase motor can provide very important clues as the
motor behaviour.
There are two ways to use an ammeter.
The first way is to connect the meter leads into the appropriate sockets on the meter
and then insert the meter into the circuit. To do this you must first lockout the circuit,
disconnect a terminal where you want to test and then connect the leads between
the terminal and the wire as shown. When using this method you must be sure that the current
you are about to measure will not exceed the maximum value for the meter.
Another option for measuring current (AC current only) is to use a clamp-on probe instead of the
meter leads. One end connects into the appropriate sockets on the meter and the other end
consists of a spring operated circular clamp, which can be clamped around a wirer. The clamp is
really a small transformer that can sense the current flowing through the wire and send this
information to the meter to be displayed.
This type of reading has the advantage that you do not need to disconnect any
wires in the circuit. This type of ammeter is used in Simutechs troubleshooting
simulators.
68
Review Questions (Testing Techniques)
Q1 List the steps required to test for an open circuit between PB2/3 and R1/2 using a voltmeter.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Q2 List the steps required to test for an open circuit between PB2/3 and R1/2 using an
ohmmeter.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Q3 List the steps required to measure the current drawn by L1 using an ammeter.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________
69
Troubleshooting Basic Techniques
Schematic Diagram
Wiring Diagram
70
Induction motors
An induction motor (IM) is a type of alternating current motor where power is supplied to the
rotating device by means of electromagnetic induction.
An electric motor converts electrical power to mechanical power in its rotor (rotating part). There
are several ways to supply power to the rotor. In a DC motor this power is supplied to the
armature directly from a DC source, while in an induction motor this power is induced in the
rotating device.
An induction motor is sometimes called a rotating transformer because the stator (stationary part)
is essentially the primary side of the transformer and the rotor (rotating part) is the secondary
side. Induction motors are widely used, especially polyphase induction motors, which are
frequently used in industrial drives.
Induction motors are now the preferred choice for industrial motors due to their rugged
construction, absence of brushes (which are required in most DC motors) and, thanks to modern
power electronics, the ability to control the speed of the motor.
History
The induction motor with a wrapped rotor was invented by Nikola Tesla in 1882 in France but the
initial patent was issued in 1888 after Tesla had moved to the United States.
In his scientific work,
Tesla laid the foundations for understanding the way the motor operates.
The induction motor with a cage was invented by Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky about a year later in
Europe.
Technological development in the field has improved to where a 100 hp (74.6 kW) motor from
1976 takes the same volume as a 7.5 hp (5.5 kW) motor did in 1897.
Currently, the most common induction motor is the cage rotor motor.
Three-phase induction motors
71
Principle of operation and comparison to synchronous motors

A 3-phase power supply provides a rotating magnetic field in an induction motor.
The basic difference between an induction motor and a synchronous AC motor is that in the latter
a current is supplied onto the rotor.
This then creates a magnetic field which, through magnetic interaction, links to the rotating
magnetic field in the stator which in turn causes the rotor to turn.
It is called synchronous because at steady state the speed of the rotor is the same as the speed
of the rotating magnetic field in the stator.
By way of contrast, the induction motor does not have any direct supply onto the rotor; instead, a
secondary current is induced in the rotor.
To achieve this, stator windings are arranged around the rotor so that when energised with a
polyphase supply they create a rotating magnetic field pattern which sweeps past the rotor.
This changing magnetic field pattern induces current in the rotor conductors.
These currents interact with the rotating magnetic field created by the stator and in effect causes
a rotational motion on the rotor.
However, for these currents to be induced, the speed of the physical rotor and the speed of the
rotating magnetic field in the stator must be different, or else the magnetic field will not be moving
relative to the rotor conductors and no currents will be induced.
If by some chance this happens, the rotor typically slows slightly until a current is re-induced and
then the rotor continues as before.
This difference between the speed of the rotor and speed of the rotating magnetic field in the
stator is called slip.
It is unitless and is the ratio between the relative speed of the magnetic field as seen by the rotor
(the slip speed) to the speed of the rotating stator field.
Due to this an induction motor is sometimes referred to as an asynchronous machine.
A 3-phase power supply provides a rotating magnetic field in an induction motor.
72
Formula
The relationship between the supply frequency, f, the number of poles, p, and the synchronous
speed (speed of rotating field), ns is given by:
From this relationship:
Where
n = Revolutions per minute (rpm)

f = AC power frequency (hertz)
p = Number of poles (an even number)
The rotor speed is:
where s is the slip.
Slip is calculated using:
A synchronous motor always runs at synchronous speed with 0% slip.
Note on the use of p: Some texts refer to number of pole pairs instead of number of poles. For
example a 6 pole motor would have 3 pole pairs.
The equation of synchronous speed then becomes:
where p is the number of pole pairs.
73
Construction
The stator consists of wound 'poles' that carry the supply current to induce a magnetic field that
penetrates the rotor. In a very simple motor, there would be a single projecting piece of the stator
(a salient pole) for each pole, with windings around it; in fact, to optimize the distribution of the
magnetic field, the windings are distributed in many slots located around the stator, but the
magnetic field still has the same number of north-south alternations.
The number of 'poles' can vary between motor types but the poles are always in pairs (i.e. 2, 4, 6,
etc.).
Induction motors are most commonly built to run on single-phase or three-phase power, but two-
phase motors also exist.
In theory, two-phase and more than three phase induction motors are possible; many single-
phase motors having two windings and requiring a capacitor can actually be viewed as two-phase
motors, since the capacitor generates a second power phase 90 degrees from the single-phase
supply and feeds it to a separate motor winding.
Single-phase power is more widely available in residential buildings, but cannot produce a
rotating field in the motor (the field merely oscillates back and forth), so single-phase induction
motors must incorporate some kind of starting mechanism to produce a rotating field.
They would, using the simplified analogy of salient poles, have one salient pole per pole number;
a four-pole motor would have four salient poles.
Three-phase motors have three salient poles per pole number, so a four-pole motor would have
twelve salient poles.
This allows the motor to produce a rotating field, allowing the motor to start with no extra
equipment and run more efficiently than a similar single-phase motor.
There are three types of rotor:
Squirrel-cage rotor The most common rotor is a squirrel-cage rotor. It is made up of bars of
either solid copper (most common) or aluminum that span the length of the rotor, and are
connected through a ring at each end. The rotor bars in squirrel-cage induction motors are not
straight, but have some skew to reduce noise and harmonics.
Slip ring rotor A slip ring rotor replaces the bars of the squirrel-cage rotor with windings that are
connected to slip rings.
When these slip rings are shorted, the rotor behaves similarly to a squirrel-cage rotor; they can
also be connected to resistors to produce a high-resistance rotor circuit, which can be beneficial
in starting
Solid core rotor A rotor can be made from a solid mild steel. The induced current causes the
rotation.
Speed control
The synchronous rotational speed of the rotor (i.e. the theoretical unloaded speed with no slip) is
controlled by the number of pole pairs (number of windings in the stator) and by the frequency of
the supply voltage.
Before the development of cheap power electronics, it was difficult to vary the frequency to the
motor and therefore the uses for the induction motor were limited.
The general term for a power electronic device that controls the speed of a motor as well as other
parameters is inverter.
A typical unit will take the mains AC supply, rectify and smooth it into a "link" DC voltage, and,
then convert it into the desired AC waveform.
In general, a DC-to-AC converter is called an inverter, which is probably where the motor-control
inverter gets its name.
Because the induction motor has no brushes and is easy to control, many older DC motors are
being replaced with induction motors and accompanying inverters in industrial applications.
74
Starting of induction motors

Three Phase
Direct-on-line starting
The simplest way to start a three-phase induction motor is to connect its terminals to the line. This
method is often called "direct on line" and abbreviated DOL.
In an induction motor, the magnitude of the induced emf in the rotor circuit is proportional to the
stator field and the slip speed (the difference between synchronous and rotor speeds) of the
motor, and the rotor current depends on this emf.
When the motor is started, the rotor speed is zero.
The synchronous speed is constant, based on the frequency of the supplied AC voltage.
So the slip speed is equal to the synchronous speed, the slip ratio is 1, and the induced emf in the
rotor is large.
As a result, a very high current flows through the rotor.
This is similar to a transformer with the secondary coil short circuited, which causes the primary
coil to draw a high current from the mains.
When an induction motor starts DOL, a very high current is drawn by the stator, in the order of 5
to 9 times the full load current.
This high current can, in some motors, damage the windings; in addition, because it causes
heavy line voltage drop, other appliances connected to the same line may be affected by the
voltage fluctuation.
To avoid such effects, several other strategies are employed for starting motors.
Star-delta starters
An induction motor's windings can be connected to a 3-phase AC line in two different ways:
wye (star in Europe), where the windings are connected from phases of the supply to the neutral;
delta (sometimes mesh in Europe), where the windings are connected between phases of the
supply.
A delta connection results in a higher voltage to the windings than a wye connection (the voltage
is multiplied by ).
A star-delta starter initially connects the motor in wye, which produces a lower starting current
than delta, then switches to delta when the motor has reached a set speed. Disadvantages of this
method over DOL starting are:
Lower starting torque, which may be a serious issue with pumps or any devices with significant
breakaway torque
Increased complexity, as more contactors and some sort of speed switch or timers are needed
Two shocks to the motor (one for the initial start and another when the motor switches from wye
to delta)
Variable-frequency drives
Variable-frequency drives (VFD) can be of considerable use in starting as well as running motors.
A VFD can easily start a motor at a lower frequency than the AC line, as well as a lower voltage,
so that the motor starts with full rated torque and with no inrush of current.
The rotor circuit's impedance increases with slip frequency, which is equal to supply frequency for
a stationary rotor, so running at a lower frequency actually increases torque.
Resistance starters
This method is used with slip ring motors where the rotor poles can be accessed byway of the slip
rings.
Using brushes, variable power resistors are connected in series with the poles.
During start-up the resistance is large and then reduced to zero at full speed.
At start-up the resistance results in the stator's field strength being weakened less.
As a result, the inrush current is reduced. Another important advantage is higher start-up torque.
As well, the resistors generate a phase shift in the field resulting in the magnetic force acting on
the rotor having a favorable angle.
75
Autotransformer starters
Series Reactor starters
In series reactor starter technology, an impedance in form reactor is introduced in series with the
motor terminals, which as a result reduces the motor terminal voltage resulting in the reduction on
the starting current, the impedance of the reactor being the function of the current passing
through it, it gradually reduces as the motor accelerates, and at 95 % speed the reactors are
bypassed by a suitable bypass method which enables the motor run at full voltage and full speed.
Air core series reactor starters or a series reactor soft starter is the most common and
recommended method for fixed speed motor starting.
Single Phase
In a single phase induction motor, it is necessary to provide a starting circuit to start rotation of the
rotor. If this is not done, rotation may be commenced by manually giving a slight turn to the rotor.
The single phase induction motor may rotate in either direction and it is only the starting circuit
which determines rotational direction.
For small motors of a few watts it is usual to "shade" the stator poles by means of a single turn of
heavy copper wire around one corner of the pole.
The current induced in the single turn is out of phase with the supply current and so causes an
out-of-phase component in the magnetic field, which imparts to the field sufficient rotational
character to start the motor.
Starting torque is very low and efficiency is also reduced.
Such shaded-pole motors are typically used in low-power applications with low or zero starting
torque requirements, such as desk fans and record players.
Larger motors are provided with a second stator winding which is fed with an out-of-phase current
to create a rotating magnetic field. The out-of-phase current may be derived by feeding the
winding through a capacitor, or it may derive from the winding having different values of
inductance and resistance from the main winding.
In some designs the second winding is disconnected once the motor is up to speed, usually either
by means of a switch operated by centrifugal force acting on weights on the motor shaft, or by a
positive temperature coefficient thermistor which after a few seconds of operation heats up and
increases its resistance to a high value, reducing the current through the second winding to an
insignificant level.
Other designs keep the second winding continuously energised during running, which improves
torque.
76

Relay Testing Guide PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Relay Testing Guide PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Electrical, Electronics

Test, repair and calibrate

Chisholm Institute of TAFE

This page intentionally left blank

Required Skills and Knowledge

T2.11.24 Metering devices and principles

T2.11.27 Test equipment B protection

T2.11.23 Locate and rectify faults in electrical equipment

The moving coil M is carried by a spindle S and the

The deflecting torque is due to the interaction of the

Figure 21 Magnetic fields due to fixed and moving coils

Since M is carrying current at right-angles to the magnetic field produced by F:

Figure 23 Wattmeter connections

Instantaneous force on each side of M (instantaneous current through F)

average deflecting force on M

Measurement of Power Factor and Phase Angle

Figure 24 Power Factor Meter, Single-Phase

Figure 25 Frequency meter

Phase Sequence Indicators

Figure 26 Phasor diagram

Neon R2 ENO = EN2 + E2O

The block diagram shown in figure 29 illustrates the basic ADC.

VA Comparator Control unit

The sequence of events when the A/D converter is switched on is:

a) the threshold voltage;

a) From the output characteristic, VOUT saturates at +10 V when V1 V2 1 mV,

Figure 30 Digital ramp A/D converter

Using an example to explain the process will better aid understanding.

a) The digital number obtained from the counter;

2265 x 1 s = 2265 s or 2.265 ms

Originally, frequency measurement would be taken using an electrodynamometer type of

Input Input Signal

Figure 31 Basic block diagram of a frequency counter

Period measurements are preferred over frequency measurements at lower frequencies.

Crystal oscillators can be calibrated against standard frequencies transmitted by a standards

Trigger Level Error

Exercises (Electrodynamic meters)

a) The digital number obtained from the counter;

Electrical Energy Meters

Figure 32 Elements of a single-phase watthour meter

Figure 33 Watthour meter for industrial or domestic application

Measurements of energy in three-phase systems are performed using poly-phase watthour

Security of Watthour Meters

Figure 34 Seal locations on a watthour meter

Figure 35 High voltage potential transformer

The CT secondary winding is usually designed to deliver a secondary current of either 1 A or 5 A.

(a) 600 V bar-type CT (b) High-voltage gas filled CT

A current transformer is a high-precision transformer in which the ratio of primary to secondary

(a) Toroidal Transformer connected to (b) Toroidal transformer surrounding a

a) The secondary current

b) The voltage across the secondary terminals

c) The voltage drop across the primary

(3.5 A, 4.2 V, 52.5 mV)

Exercises (Electrodynamic meters)

2. Why must the secondary of a current transformer never be open-circuited?

3. Explain why the secondary winding of a CT or PT must be grounded.

(0.45 V, 2.25 mV, 250 A/5 A)

The Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

Figure 38 A cathode-ray tube

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

Figure 40 Basic schematic diagram of a CRO

Figure 41 Schematic diagram of cathode ray oscilloscope

(a) Idealized waveform (b) Practical waveform