APPENDIX

C
Graphing Utilities

C.1 The Viewing Rectangle

FIGURE 1 y  2x
All graphing utilities, that is, all graphing calculators and all computer software
graphing packages, graph equations by plotting points on a screen. The screen itself
actually consists of small rectangles, called pixels. The more pixels the screen has, the
better the resolution. Most graphing calculators have 48 pixels per square inch; most
computer screens have 32 to 108 pixels per square inch. When a point to be plotted
lies inside a pixel, the pixel is turned on (lights up). The graph of an equation is a col-
lection of pixels. Figure 1 shows how the graph of y  2x looks on a TI-83 Plus graph-
ing calculator.
The screen of a graphing utility will display the coordinate axes of a rectangular
coordinate system. However, you must set the scale on each axis. You must also include
the smallest and largest values of x and y that you want included in the graph. This is
FIGURE 2 called setting the viewing rectangle or viewing window. Figure 2 illustrates a typical
viewing window.
To select the viewing window, we must give values to the following expressions:

X min: the smallest value of x

X max: the largest value of x
X scl: the number of units per tick mark on the x-axis
Y min: the smallest value of y
Y max: the largest value of y
Y scl: the number of units per tick mark on the y-axis

Figure 3 illustrates these settings and their relation to the Cartesian coordinate
system.
If the scale used on each axis is known, we can determine the minimum and max-
imum values of x and y shown on the screen by counting the tick marks. Look again
at Figure 2. For a scale of 1 on each axis, the minimum and maximum values of x are
10 and 10, respectively; the minimum and maximum values of y are also 10 and
10. If the scale is 2 on each axis, then the minimum and maximum values of x are
20 and 20, respectively; and the minimum and maximum values of y are 20 and
20, respectively.
662 Conversely, if we know the minimum and maximum values of x and y, we can
determine the scales being used by counting the tick marks displayed. We shall follow
 The Viewing Rectangle 663

FIGURE 3
y
Ymax
Yscl

x
Xmin Xmax
Xscl

Ymin

the practice of showing the minimum and maximum values of x and y in our illustra-
tions so that you will know how the viewing window was set. See Figure 4.

FIGURE 4 4

X min  3 Y min  4
–3 3 means X max  3 Y max  4
X scl  1 Y scl  2

–4

EXAMPLE 1 Finding the Coordinates of a Point Shown on a Graphing Utility Screen

Find the coordinates of the point shown in Figure 5. Assume that the coordinates are
integers.
FIGURE 5 SOLUTION First we note that the viewing window used in Figure 5 is
4
X min  3 Y min  4
X max  3 Y max  4
–3 3 X scl  1 Y scl  2
The point shown is 2 tick units to the left on the horizontal axis (scale  1) and 1 tick
up on the vertical axis (scale  2). The coordinates of the point shown are (2, 2). ◗
–4

EXERCISE C.1 Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems Begin on Page AN-00.

In Problems 1 – 4, determine the coordinates of the points shown. Tell in which quadrant each point
lies. Assume that the coordinates are integers.
1. 10 2. 10 3. 5 4. 10

–5 5 –5 5 –5 5 –10 10

–10 –10 –5 –10

664 Appendix C Graphing Utilities

In Problems 5 – 10, determine the viewing window used.

5. 4 6. 2 7. 3

–6 6 –3 3
–6 6

–4 –2 –1

8. 4 9. 10 10. 8

–9 9

3 9 –22 –10
–12 2 4

In Problems 11 – 16, select a setting so that each of the given points will lie within the viewing rectangle.
11. (10, 5), (3, 2), (4, 1) 12. (5, 0), (6, 8), (2, 3) 13. (40, 20), (20, 80), (10, 40)

14. (80, 60), (20, 30), (20, 40) 15. (0, 0), (100, 5), (5, 150) 16. (0, 1), (100, 50), (10, 30)

C.2 Using a Graphing Utility to Graph Equations

The graph of an equation in two variables can usually be obtained by plotting points in
a rectangular coordinate system and connecting them. Graphing utilities perform these
same steps when graphing an equation. For example, the TI-83 Plus determines 95
evenly spaced input values,* uses the equation to determine the output values, plots
these points on the screen, and finally (if in the connected mode) draws a line between
consecutive points.
To graph an equation in two variables x and y using a graphing utility requires that
the equation be written in the form y  {expression in x}. If the original equation is
not in this form, replace it by equivalent equations until the form y {expression in x} is
obtained. In general, there are four ways to obtain equivalent equations.

*These input values depend on the values of X min and X max. For example, if X min  10 and X max  10,
then the first input value will be 10 and the next input value will be 10  (10  (10))/94  9.7872,
and so on.
 Using a Graphing Utility to Graph Equations 665

▲
Procedures That Result in Equivalent Equations

1. Interchange the two sides of the equation:

Replace 3x  5  y by y  3x  5

2. Simplify the sides of the equation by combining like terms, eliminating paren-
theses, and so on:

Replace (2y  2)  6  2x  5(x  1)

by 2y  8  7x  5

3. Add or subtract the same expression on both sides of the equation:

Replace y  3x  5  4
by y  3x  5  5  4  5

4. Multiply or divide both sides of the equation by the same nonzero expression:

Replace 3y  6  2x
1 1
by  3y  (6  2x)
3 3

EXAMPLE 1 Expressing an Equation in the Form y  {expression in x}

Solve for y: 2y  3x  5  4

SOLUTION We replace the original equation by a succession of equivalent equations.

2y  3x  5  4
2y  3x  5  5  4  5 Add 5 to both sides.
2y  3x  9 Simplify.
2y  3x  3x  9  3x Subtract 3x from both sides.
2y  9  3x Simplify.
2y 9  3x
 Divide both sides by 2.
2 2
9  3x
y
2
Simplify. ◗

Now we are ready to graph equations using a graphing utility. Most graphing utili-
ties require the following steps:
666 Appendix C Graphing Utilities

▲
Steps for Graphing an Equation Using a Graphing Utility
STEP 1 Solve the equation for y in terms of x.
STEP 2 Get into the graphing mode of your graphing utility. The screen will
usually display y  , prompting you to enter the expression involving x
that you found in Step 1. (Consult your manual for the correct way to
enter the expression; for example, y  x2 might be entered as x  2 or as
x*x or as x x y 2).
STEP 3 Select the viewing window. Without prior knowledge about the behavior
of the graph of the equation, it is common to select the standard viewing
window* initially. The viewing window is then adjusted based on the
graph that appears. In this text the standard viewing window will be
X min  10 Y min  10
X max  10 Y max  10
X scl  1 Y scl  1
STEP 4 Execute.
STEP 5 Adjust the viewing window until a complete graph is obtained.

EXAMPLE 2 Graphing an Equation on a Graphing Utility

Graph the equation: 6x2  3y  36

SOLUTION STEP 1 We solve for y in terms of x.
6x2  3y  36
3y  6x2  36 Subtract 6x2 from both sides of the equation.
y  2x2  12 Divide both sides of the equation by 3 and simplify.

STEP 2 From the graphing mode, enter the expression 2x2  12 after the prompt
y .
STEP 3 Set the viewing window to the standard viewing window.
STEP 4 Execute. The screen should look like Figure 6.
STEP 5 The graph of y  2x2  12 is not complete. The value of Y max must be
increased so that the top portion of the graph is visible. After increasing the val-
ue of Y max to 12, we obtain the graph in Figure 7. The graph is now complete.
FIGURE 6 FIGURE 7
10 12

–10 10 –10 10

–10 –10 ◗
*Some graphing utilities have a ZOOM-STANDARD feature that automatically sets the viewing window to the
standard viewing window and graphs the equation.
 Using a Graphing Utility to Graph Equations 667

Look again at Figure 7. Although a complete graph is shown, the graph might be
improved by adjusting the values of X min and X max. Figure 8 shows the graph of y 
2x2  12 using X min  4 and X max  4. Do you think this is a better choice for
the viewing window?

FIGURE 8
12

–4 4

–10

EXAMPLE 3 Creating a Table and Graphing an Equation

Create a table and graph the equation: y  x3

SOLUTION Most graphing utilities have the capability of creating a table of values for an equation.
(Check your manual to see if your graphing utility has this capability.) Table 1 illus-
trates a table of values for y  x3 on a TI-83 Plus. See Figure 9 for the graph.

TABLE 1 FIGURE 9
10

–3 3
◗

–10

EXERCISE C.2 Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems Begin on Page AN-00.

In Problems 1 – 16, graph each equation using the following viewing windows:

(a) X min  5 (b) X min  10 (c) X max  10 (d) X max  5
X max  5 X max  10 X max  10 X max  5
X scl  1 X scl  1 X scl  2 X scl  1
Y min  4 Y min  8 Y min  8 Y min  20
Y max  4 Y max  8 Y max  8 Y max  20
Y scl  1 Y scl  1 Y scl  2 Y scl  5
1. y  x  2 2. y  x  2 3. y  x  2 4. y  x  2

5. y  2x  2 6. y  2x  2 7. y  2x  2 8. y  2x  2

9. y  x  2
2
10. y  x  2
2
11. y  x  2
2
12. y  x2  2

13. 3x  2y  6 14. 3x  2y  6 15. 3x  2y  6 16. 3x  2y  6

17.–32. For each of the above equations, create a table, 3  x  3, and list points on the graph.
668 Appendix C Graphing Utilities

C.3 Square Screens

FIGURE 10 Most graphing utilities have a rectangular screen. Because of this, using the same set-
4 (4, 4) tings for both x and y will result in a distorted view. For example, Figure 10 shows the
graph of the line y  x connecting the points (4, 4) and (4, 4).
We expect the line to bisect the first and third quadrants, but it doesn’t. We need to
adjust the selections for X min, X max, Y min, and Y max so that a square screen
–4 4
results On most graphing utilities, this is accomplished by setting the ratio of x to y at
3 : 2.* In other words,

(–4, –4) –4 2(X max  X min)  3(Y max  Y min)

EXAMPLE 1 Examples of Viewing Rectangles That Result in Square Screens

(a) X min  3 (b) X min  6 (c) X min  6

FIGURE 11 X max  3 X max  6 X max  6
X scl  1 X scl  1 X scl  2
4 (4, 4)
Y min  2 Y min  4 Y min  4
Y max  2 Y max  4 Y max  4
Y scl  1 Y scl  1 Y scl  1 ◗
–6 6

Figure 11 shows the graph of the line y  x on a square screen using the viewing
rectangle given in Example 1(b). Notice that the line now bisects the first and third
(–4, –4) –4 quadrants. Compare this illustration to Figure 10.

EXERCISE C.3 Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems Begin on Page AN-00.

In Problems 1 – 8, determine which of the given viewing rectangles result in a square screen.
1. X min  3 2. X min  5 3. X min  0 4. X min  6
X max  3 X max  5 X max  9 X max  6
X scl  2 X scl  1 X scl  3 X scl  1
Y min  2 Y min  4 Y min  2 Y min  4
Y max  2 Y max  4 Y max  4 Y max  4
Y scl  2 Y scl  1 Y scl  2 Y scl  2
5. X min  6 6. X min  6 7. X min  0 8. X min  6
X max  6 X max  6 X max  9 X max  6
X scl  1 X scl  2 X scl  1 X scl  2
Y min  2 Y min  4 Y min  2 Y min  4
Y max  2 Y max  4 Y max  4 Y max  4
Y scl  0.5 Y scl  1 Y scl  1 Y scl  2
9. If Xmin  4, Xmax  8, and Xscl  1, how should 10. If Xmin  6, Xmax  12, and Xscl  2, how should Ymin,
Ymin, Ymax, and Yscl be selected so that the viewing Ymax, and Y scl be selected so that the viewing rectangle
rectangle contains the point (4, 8) and the screen is square? contains the point (4, 8) and the screen is square?

*Some graphing utilities have a built-in function that automatically squares the screen. For example, the TI-85
has a ZSQR function that does this. Some graphing utilities require a ratio other than 3:2 to square the screen.
For example, the HP 48G requires the ratio of x to y to be 2 :1 for a square screen. Consult your manual.
 Using a Graphing Utility to Graph Inequalities 669

C.4 Using a Graphing Utility to Graph Inequalities

It is easiest to begin with an example.

EXAMPLE 1 Graphing an Inequality Using a Graphing Utility

Use a graphing utility to graph: 3x  y  6  0

SOLUTION We begin by graphing the equation 3x  y  6  0 (Y1  3x  6). See Figure 12.

FIGURE 12
10

–2 6
Y1 = –3x + 6

–10

As with graphing by hand, we need to test points selected from each region and
determine whether they satisfy the inequality. To test the point (1, 2), for example,
enter 3(1)  2  6  0. See Figure 13(a). The 1 that appears indicates that the
statement entered (the inequality) is true. When the point (5, 5) is tested, a 0
appears, indicating that the statement entered is false. So, (1, 2) is a part of the
graph of the inequality and (5, 5) is not. Figure 13(b) shows the graph of the
inequality on a TI-83 Plus.*

FIGURE 13 10

–2 6

–10

(a) (b)

The steps to follow to graph an inequality using a graphing utility are given next.

*Consult your owner’s manual for shading techniques.

670 Appendix C Graphing Utilities

▲
Steps for Graphing an Inequality Using a Graphing Utility
STEP 1 Replace the inequality symbol by an equal sign and graph the resulting
equation, y  .
STEP 2 In each of the regions, select a test point P.
(a) Use a graphing utility to determine if the test point P satisfies the
inequality. If the test point satisfies the inequality, then so do all the
points in the region. Indicate this by using the graphing utility to shade
the region.
(b) If the coordinates of P do not satisfy the inequality, then none of the
points in that region do.