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2. The breathing organs include the nasal cavity (nostril), the breathing channel (trachea,
bronchus and bronchiole) and the lungs.
3. Alveolus, bronchiole and a part of the bronchus are situated in the lungs.
4. In the lungs, the bronchus branches to form many smaller channels called bronchiole.
Each bronchiole ends with an alveolus.
5. The function of the nasal cavity is to warm, moisten and filter fine particles like dust from
the air that pass through it.
6. The trachea is a channel which branches into two. Each branch is called bronchus which
enters the lungs.
7. Air is taken into our body through the nose or mouth and then into the trachea.
8. Air is inhaled through the nasal cavity and taken through the trachea, bronchus,
bronchiole and finally to the alveolus.
9. The ribs protect the lungs and internal organs like the heart.
10. The diaphragm is a piece of muscle situated at the bottom of the lungs.
11. The intercostal muscles are situated between the ribs. There are two types of intercostal
muscles, i.e. the internal intercostal muscle and the external intercostal muscle. The
intercostal muscles contract and relax to help the breathing process.
12. Each alveoulus has a very thin wall which is moist and contains a large network of blood
capillaries.
B. Breathing mechanism
1. The human breathing mechanism involves two physical processes, i.e. inhalation
(inspiration) and exhalation (expiration) which happen alternately without stopping.
2. Air from the outside is taken into the lungs through the inhalation process.
3. In contrast, air is expelled from the lungs through the exhalation process.
4. The intercostal muscle raises or lowers the ribs during breathing.
5. The diaphragm changes the air pressure in the thoracic cavity by increasing or
decreasing the volume of the thoracic cavity.
6. During inhalation:
(a) the external intercostal muscle contracts. This causes the ribs to rise and extend
outwards. At the same time, the internal intercostal muscle relaxes
(b) the diaphragm muscle contracts and causes the diaphragm to descend and become
flat
(c) the volume of the thoracic cavity increases. this causes the air pressure in it to
become lower than the atmospheric pressure (air pressure on the outside)
(d) this occurrence causes the air on the outside to be inhaled into the lungs
7. During exhalation:
(a) the internal intercostal muscle contracts. This causes the ribs to descend and fall
inwards. At the same time, the external intercostal muscle relaxes
(b) the diaphragm muscle relaxes and causes the diaphragm to curve upwards
(c) the volume in the thoracic cavity decreases. The air pressure in it becomes higher
than the atmospheric pressure
(d) this occurence causes the air in the lungs to be pushed out
Comparison between inhalation and exhalation mechanisms
1. Apparatus as shown in figure above is prepared.
2. The handle is pulled down. Observation is recorded.
3. The handle is released from the hand. Observation is again recorded
1. The parts in the human respiratory system that is analogous to the simple model in this
activity are as follows:
2. The condition when the handle is pulled down represents inhalation in humans.
3. The condition when the handle is released from the hand represents exhalation in
humans.
4. The condition when the handle is pulled down and released from the hand is summarised
in the following chart.
B. Oxygen Transport
1. (a) Through the breathing process, oxygen from the air flows into our bloodstream.
(b) The heart then pumps the oxygenated blood to supply oxygen to the body cells which
require them constantly.
2. Body cells need oxygen for cell respiration. Cell respiration is the oxidation of food to
release energy.
3. To meet this requirement, a special respiratory carrier is needed
(a) Haemoglobin is the special carrier. It transports oxygen from the lungs to all parts of
the body.
(b) Haemoglobin is a blood pigment. It contains haem (the part which is made up of ferum)
and globin (the protein part).
4. As the oxygen concentration is high in the alveolus, oxygen diffuses into the capillaries.
oxygen then combines with haemoglobin in the red blood cells and forms
oxyhaemoglobin.
5. Blood with oxyhaemoglobin is bright red in colour. It is carried to the heart to be
distributed to all the cells of the body.
1. Oxygenated blood is sent to all the cells in the body by a vast network of blood vessels.
2. (a) When blood reaches the body cells, oxyhaemoglobin is broken down into
haemoglobin and oxygen.
(b) The oxygen then diffuses through the walls of the capillaries into te cells.
3. Oxygen is then used to oxidese food to release oxygen during cell respiration.
4. At the same time, carbon dioxide from the cells diffuses into the capillaries to be carried
back to the lungs.
Oxygen transport in the body
2. The white cotton wool became darkish yellow because of the presence of tobacco tar.
3. The hydrogen carbonate indicator which changed from red to yellow shows that cigarette
smoke is acidic.
Smoking raises the liung temperature, blackens the lungs and corrodes the lung cells.
1. Various illnesses affect the respiratory system as a result of inhaling certain chemical
substances into the lungs.
Lung emphysema
Bronchitis
2. Bronchitis is caused by fine particles that float in the air (air pollutant) or that are found in
cigarette smoke.
Lung cancer
Asthma
2. The breating channel of the patient suddenly becomes narrow causing difficulty in
breathing.
3. This is because the patient's breathing channel is very sensitive to certain allergens.
1. Install tall chimneys in factories that emit dangerous smoke and gas so that such
dangerous substances are kept at a higher level in the atmosphere.
3. Install catalyst convertors on vehicle exhaust pipes to reduce the release of dangerous gases like
carbon monoxide, hydrocarbon and nitrogen oxide.
4. Use air cleaning system to dissolve toxic gases like sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide in the
water before it is released into the atmosphere.
6. Stop smoking to prevent the release of cigarette smoke into the environment.