Professional Documents
Culture Documents
93050-MM
MYANMAR
NOVEMBER,
2 0 1 4
This report was prepared by a World Bank Group team from the
World Bank IDA, and the International Finance Corporation (IFC)
led by Khwima Nthara (Program Leader & Lead Economist) under
the direct supervision of Mathew Verghis (Practice Manager, MFM)
and Shubham Chaudhuri (Practice Manager, MFM & Poverty). Cath-
erine Martin (Principal Strategy Officer) was the IFCs Task Manag-
er. Overall guidance was provided by Ulrich Zachau (Country Direc-
tor), Abdoulaye Seck (Country Manager), Kanthan Shankar (Former
Country Manager), Sudhir Shetty (Regional Chief Economist), Betty
Hoffman (Former Regional Chief Economist), Constantinee Chikosi
(Portfolio and Operations Manager), Julia Fraser (Practice Manag-
er), Jehan Arulpragasam (Practice Manager), Hoon Sahib Soh (Op-
erations Adviser), Rocio Castro (VP Adviser), Antonella Bassani
(Strategy and Operations Director), Antony Gaeta (Country Program
Coordinator), Maria Ionata (Former Country Program Coordinator),-
Vikram Kumar (IFC Resident Representative), and Simon Andrews
(Senior Manager).
The team would also like to express its appreciation to the Govern-
ment of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar for its support and
cooperation. Special thanks are due to the Minister of Finance, His
Excellency U Win Shein, the Deputy Minister of Finance, His Excel-
lency Lin Aung, the Director General, U Maung Maung Win and the
Deputy Director General Daw Nwe Nwe Win. The team is also grate-
ful to Government Officials from various Regional and State Govern-
ments where consultations were held, other Government officials at
the Union level, Civil Society Organizations, academics, think tanks,
representatives of the private sector and development partner institu-
tions for their inputs during the consultations process.
2 | World Bank Report
10
A. The transformation of
Myanmars polity, economy,
and society
17 E. Conceptual framework
for the Myanmar SCD
21 25
D. Vulnerability to
A. The incidence of poverty
poverty
and the extent of inequality
B. The Governments
reform program 28 51
29 C. Critical next steps
IV. KNOWLEDGE GAPS,
IMPLICATIONS, AND
1. Considerations in identifying priority PROPOSPED ANALYTICAL
intervention areas and sequencing 29 WORK AGENDA
LIST OF BOXES
Box 5: Comparing Myanmars rice yield data with other countries in the region 45
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 8: Conceptual Framework for Ending Poverty and Boosting Shared Prosperity 17
Figure 9: A large fraction of the population is clustered around the poverty line 22
Figure 10: Small changes in the poverty line lead to large changes in poverty rates 22
Figure 13: Poverty rates and number of poor in 2009/2010, by agro-ecological zone 23
Figure 14: Poverty rates and number of poor in 2009/2010, by states and regions 24
Figure 18: Pre-requisites, Pathways, and Key Intervention Areas for Poverty Reduction and
Shared Prosperity 30
Figure 34: Number of borrowers from commercial banks per 1,000 adults 47
LIST OF TABLES
identified by stakeholders 65
EXECUTIVE
SUMMARY
World Bank Report | 7
1. Myanmar is going through a critical transforma- rect investment. As Myanmar has been opening up, the
tion in its development path - from isolation and dominance of the military and groups associated with
fragmentation to openness and integration; and it in the economy has begun receding, yet the shift is a
from pervasive state control, exclusion, and indi- gradual one.
vidual disengagement, to inclusion, participation,
and empowerment.1 This dual shift is happening 5. Myanmar has made some progress in ending armed
against a backdrop of broader political reforms that conflicts in the border areas. Bilateral ceasefires have
started in 2011 when a new administration took office. been signed with several ethnic insurgent groups that
The countrys transition after the planned elections in for decades had been engaged in armed conflict with
2015 will be a major test of the progress on political the central government. However, the situation remains
reforms. There remain risks of political instability, policy fragile and a national ceasefire is still under discussion.
discontinuity, and stalled reforms due to vested interests. An important recent concern is the recurrent outbreaks
of religious violence, primarily targeted at the countrys
2. The countrys history, demography, and geogra- Muslim minorities and particularly at those who identi-
phy create a unique set of development challenges fy themselves as Rohingya in Rakhine State.
and opportunities: (i) emergence from a long peri-
od of international isolation; (ii) widespread poverty, 6. Growth has accelerated since the transition,
despite rich land, water, and mineral resource endow- buoyed by improved macroeconomic manage-
ments; (iii) a strategic location in the fastest-growing ment, increased gas production and exports, and
region in the world, and the only country sharing bor- stronger performance in non-gas sectors due as
ders with both India and China, with prospects for rapid the economy opened up. On average, the Myanmar
economic growth and catch-up improvements in the economy grew at 5.1 percent between 2005/06 and
lives of people; (iv) a dominance, albeit slowly reced- 2009/10, and then at an average of 6.5 percent since
ing, of the military and associated groups in the econo- the transition. One of the key drivers of this growth has
my, and (v) progress towards peace after a long period been the export of natural gas, which is highly capi-
of conflict in border areas. tal intensive and not intrinsically inclusive. Manufac-
turing, construction, and services have also registered
3. Despite its potential, Myanmar today is one of the strong performance due to the opening up. At the same
poorest countries in Southeast Asia. With a popula- time, the contribution of the more labor-intensive agri-
tion of 51.4 million, the country has a per capita GDP culture to growth has been small and variable. Overall,
of $1,105, and the poverty rate is 37.5 percent, one of notwithstanding significant structural change since the
the highest in the region. Among ASEAN countries, mid-1980s, driven by the gas sector, Myanmars cur-
Myanmar has the lowest life expectancy and the sec- rent economic structure resembles that of a lower in-
ond-highest rate of infant and child mortality. Less than come country. In 2012, agriculture still accounted for
one-third of the population has access to the electricity 36.4 percent of GDP (and employed over half of the
grid, road density remains low, at 219.8 kilometers per workforce), compared to 37.3 percent for services and
1,000 square kilometers of land area, and ICT connec- 26.3 percent for industry.
tions are scarce, with mobile phone and internet pene-
tration rates at 1.1 percent and 0.3 percent, respectively. 7. This Systematic Country Diagnostic (SCD) aims to
Myanmars level of development used to be on a par identify priorities for Myanmar to reduce extreme
with countries such as Thailand and Malaysia only a poverty and boost shared prosperity. In line with
few decades ago; today it is much lower, comparable the WBGs new country engagement model, the find-
with Lao PDR and Cambodia. ings of the SCD will provide inputs for the prepara-
tion of the upcoming Country Partnership Framework
4. The low level of development can be traced to (CPF), which will outline the WBGs engagement to
Myanmars long history of isolation, conflict, and help Myanmar achieve these twin goals for its mem-
military control of political and economic life. For ber countries. Significant information gaps make this
most of its post-independence period, Myanmar has exercise a particular challenge. The SCD draws on
been under military dictatorship and has been ravaged data from various sources, including a review of ex-
by conflict in the ethnic minority border areas. State isting reports on Myanmar, a more in-depth analysis of
controls and economic isolation resulted in suppressed the 2009/10 Integrated Household Living Conditions
entrepreneurship and a diminished role of the private Assessment (IHLCA) survey data (the most recent
sector, stagnating infrastructure and technology, un- survey on poverty and living conditions), information
der-developed markets, and low levels of foreign di- from other non-IHLCA surveys such as the Qualitative
Social and Economic Monitoring (QSEM) survey, the
Investment Climate Assessment (ICA) Enterprise Sur-
1 The term triple transition was used to describe the changes in
Myanmar since a new administration took office in 2011 - from a mili- vey recently conducted by the World Bank, and exten-
tary system to democratic governance; from a centrally-directed, closed sive consultations with stakeholders across the country.
economy to a market-oriented one; and from 60 years of conflict to peace Weaknesses in data qualityparticularly with regard to
in the border areas. This SCD focuses on the dual shift toward opening
poverty, national accounts and populationconstrain
and integration, and toward inclusion and empowerment, to highlight the
socio-economic changes associated with the triple transition. the analysis in this SCD (see Box 3).
8 | World Bank Report
8. Conceptually, the framework for the Myanmar 12. Ending the poverty of the working poor, both
SCD has four elements. First, it determines the pro- traditional and transitional, will require in-
file of the poor in Myanmar, in order to understand their creasing returns to their main assettheir labor.
characteristics, where they live, and the drivers of pov- For the majority, the traditional poor, who current-
erty. Second, it identifies the key pathways for ending ly depend on agriculture for their livelihood, this will
poverty and boosting shared prosperity. Third, it deter- mean both raising the returns to agricultural cultivation,
mines the constraints that lie along these pathways and while in parallel facilitating their movement from low-
hence, fourth, the possible areas of intervention for the er value-added agriculture-related activities to higher
country to accelerate progress towards ending poverty. value-added activities off the farm by stimulating pri-
vate-sector job creation. For the transitional poor, the
9. With an estimated poverty rate of 37.5 percent in opportunities for private-sector led off-farm employ-
2010, Myanmars absolute poor overlap with the ment and income generation will be critical.
bottom 40 percent. This poverty rate, based on an in-
ternationally comparable method of analysis, is higher 13. Investments in human capital and better access to
than an earlier estimate of 26 percent using the same quality basic services will be critical to ending the
2009/10 national household survey. Most of the poor poverty of all three groups of the poor both their
live in rural areas (76 percent), and poverty is most income and non-income dimensions of poverty.
heavily concentrated in conflict-affected areas: poverty Better access to primary health care, water and sanita-
rates in Chin State stand at 71 percent and, in Rakhine tion, electricity, and basic education are important, not
at 78 percent, both with substantial numbers of ethnic only to improve well-being, but also to reduce vulner-
minorities. Urban poverty (34.6 percent) is higher than ability to poverty, enhance current income generating
expected. With a Gini coefficient of 0.29, income in- opportunities and lower the inter-generational perpet-
equality in Myanmar is relatively low, compared with uation of poverty.
neighboring countries.
14. Lastly, for the excluded poorcommunities in
10. A range of economic and social factors are respon- remote conflict-affected areas, members of social-
sible for driving people into poverty in Myanmar. ly-marginalized groups, families without anyone
The key drivers include low labor productivity, and in capable of productive worka focus on increa-
a largely rural society, low agricultural productivity sing the returns to labor is unlikely to be sufficient.
(particularly for rice, the countrys main crop), land- By definition, these groups have been or are likely to
lessness, erratic rainfall, lack of access to markets due be excluded from or less connected to opportunities
to poor rural infrastructure, internecine conflict and for productive economic activity. For these groups the
communal violence, and poor government policies. pathways out of poverty will likely have to include spe-
Data also show that many households in Myanmar are cific targeted interventions and programs of assistance.
vulnerable to unanticipated shocks, which cause them
to stay or to fall back into poverty. 15. Grounded in the poverty diagnostic, the SCD iden-
tifies two main pathways for ending poverty and
11. The SCD identifies three groups of poor: tradition- boosting shared prosperity in Myanmar. The first
al, transitional and excluded poor. The traditional pathway entails promoting openness and sustainable
poor are heavily concentrated in rural areas, have very private sector-led growth for more jobs. Growth is
low levels of education and depend on agriculture for expected to come from a combination of investment,
their livelihood, but have limited access to key produc- continued increase in natural resource exports, and
tive assets and factors like land and finance. The tran- increasing productivity. A key over-arching principle
sitional poor often live in urban and peri-urban areas, is ensuring greater participation of the domestic and
have transitioned out of traditional rural livelihoods but foreign private sector in the economy (particularly in
still work as low-skill casual laborers. Finally, the so- the sectors with greater potential for job creation), fos-
cially-marginalized and excluded poor are excluded tering integration with the global economy, enhancing
from opportunities for productive economic activity labor productivity, and adopting an integrated approach
for a range of reasons, including by virtue of ethnicity to the management of its natural resources, particularly
and geography. The causes of poverty for each of these the Ayeyarwaddy river basin. The other pathway entails
groups are many, with some that are common to all of promoting universal access to basic services and em-
them, and some that are specific to each group. powerment for inclusive growth, particularly in rural
areas. This pathway will benefit all groups of poor.
to the expansion of operations by existing investors, have limited access to critical services, extending such
and to domestic, regional, and international market services to currently under-served rural areas and dis-
access. Some of the required policy and institutional advantaged groups (such as the excluded poor) is im-
changes may take time to be carried out or may be po- portant for reducing poverty. Expanding the coverage
litically sensitive but most can be implemented in the of the health system and the quality of health services is
short to medium term. a priority where action can be immediately scaled-up.
Increasing education services and vocational training
17. Increasing agricultural productivity is expected to will also be important although its impact will not be
have a high impact on poverty, with much scope realized in the short-term. Interventions for increasing
for short term gains. Since the majority of the tra- access to water and sanitation are also likely to have a
ditional poor are engaged in agriculture, increasing high impact on poverty reduction. In addition, access to
productivity would have a high impact on poverty re- electricity, better rural road connectivity, microfinance,
duction as it would increase returns to labor. There is and rural telephone services all will empower the poor
huge potential for improvement in Myanmar - wide both by facilitating access to social services and en-
deficiency gaps exist in rice yields, diversification, and hancing opportunities to engage in productive income
value-addition. Increasing access to land and tenure se- generating activities.
curity will support increased agricultural productivity
but great care will need to be taken in carrying out land 20. In addition to the two main pathways, the SCD
reforms. In the short term, the focus should be on fully identifies four critical pre-requisites for Myan-
understanding the nature and scale of the problem, as mars development: facilitating the political tran-
well as carrying out consultations on the way forward. sition, enhancing social inclusion, maintaining mac-
roeconomic stability, and improving public sector
18. Addressing shortages in power, an under-developed capacity and governance for policy making, coordi-
financial sector, shortages in skilled labor, and low nation, and service delivery. Continuous action in all
supply of ICT services will have a significant impact. these areas will be essential for sustained and inclusive
In the short to medium term, it will be important to growth, poverty reduction and shared prosperity.
build on efforts already underway to increase overall
generation, transmission, and distribution of electricity. 21. Finally, the SCD identifies various knowledge gaps
Similarly, significant progress can be made in the short and offers suggestions on future analytical work
term in modernizing and deepening the financial sec- to help fill these gaps. For example, there is need for
tor. Finally, to ensure long-term sustainability of pov- further work to better understand the extent and nature
erty reduction efforts, it will be important for Myanmar of poverty in Myanmar, particularly the situation in the
to adopt an integrated approach to the management of border areas, as well as update the poverty numbers.
the Ayeyarwaddy river basin and develop a nationally The census that was recently conducted is expected to
agreed environmental and social Safeguards frame- provide an updated sampling frame for carrying out a
work that is based on best practices. nationally representative IHLCA, to lay the basis for
have more credible poverty numbers. Some of the
19. Promoting universal access to critical services and knowledge gaps to be filled will help in identifying
extending them to the rural areas and other disad- priorities at a more granular level i.e. priorities within
vantaged groups will have a high impact. Given that priorities.
most poor people in Myanmar live in rural areas and
I. country context
setting the stage
World Bank Report | 11
A. The transformation of Myanmars polity, 4. Some progress has also been made towards ending
economy, and society the countrys armed conflicts in the border areas,
although the situation remains fragile. Ceasefires
1. Myanmar is going through a critical transfor- have been signed with several ethnic insurgent groups
mation in its development path characterized by that for decades had been engaged in armed conflict
a dual shift - from isolation and fragmentation with the central government. However, conflict contin-
to openness and integration; and from pervasive ues with the Kachin Independence Organization (KIO)
state control, exclusion, and individual disengage- in Kachin State, where armed clashes increased in the
ment, to inclusion, participation, and empower- first half of 2014 despite the KIOs participation in dis-
ment.2 For over a quarter of a century, Myanmar was cussions about a national ceasefire. In November 2013,
under self-imposed isolation from the rest of the world, leaders of ethnic armed groups met at a Leaders Sum-
and under economic sanctions by the West. As a result, mit to consider the governments proposal to begin a
Myanmars trade and investment relations have been national ceasefire process (i.e. a roundtable including
limited to a few countries in the region that it consid- all 13 armed groups, rather than a series of bilateral
ered friendly. Similarly, the country has followed a discussions) and formed a National Ceasefire Coordi-
fragmented approach to environmental sustainability, nating Team (NCCT). While subsequent discussions
including the management of its key water resource, between the NCCT and the governments negotiating
the Ayeyarwaddy river. At the same time, there has team underlined remaining differences between the
been pervasive state interference and dominance in two sides, there remains a shared commitment towards
the economic space normally occupied by the private a peaceful solution.
sector in other countries while a majority of the poor,
particularly in rural parts of the country, have not had 5. An important additional dimension of establish-
access to certain critical services and have therefore ing peace and security across the country involves
been disempowered to extricate themselves from pov- finding a sustainable solution to address the sys-
erty through participation in productive income earn- tematic exclusion of the Muslim minority that
ing opportunities. Since the transition started, these identifies itself as Rohingya in Rakhine State. The
patterns are being reversed: the country has been open- government considers members of this Muslim minori-
ing up to and integrating with the outside world in the ty illegal migrants from neighboring Bangladesh and
areas of trade and investment, the state is rolling back does not recognize them as an ethnic group. Following
and encouraging greater private sector participation in outbreaks of violence directed against this minority in
many areas of the economy, while investments in key the summer of 2012 that killed 89 people and displaced
services are being expanded. over 110,000, the government established temporary
camps to separate communities and avoid further vio-
2. These critical socioeconomic shifts are happening lence.3 Subsequent violence took place against Muslim
against a backdrop of political reforms that started minorities in Rakhine in 2013 and 2014, which spilled
in 2011 when a new administration took office. Key over into broader anti-Muslim violence in other parts of
milestones in the political transition include the release Myanmar in 2013 and evolved into widespread protests
of political prisoners and the opening up of space for against international aid workers in Rakhine in early
the opposition through the holding of by-elections in 2014.4 As of January 2014, the number of displaced
2012 that brought in a significant number of opposition persons in Rakhine had reached 140,000.5
MPs into parliament, including the opposition leader,
Aung San Suu Kyi. B. Countrys economic situation and historical context
3. Myanmars elections next year and the transition 6. Myanmar is one of the poorest countries in the
to the next government will be an important test South East Asian region and has certain features
for progress with political reforms. An immediate that are unique to its country context (See Box
challenge is how the country will deal with calls for 1). In 2013/14, the countrys GDP was estimated at
various constitutional amendments, including a provi- US$56.8 billion. Based on the preliminary popula-
sion that makes the opposition leader ineligible to run tion figure of 51.4 million from the census conducted
for president. in March/April 2014, the countrys per capita income
is therefore around US$1,105, one of the lowest in
the East Asian region. Analysis of the last nationwide
2 The term triple transition was used to describe the changes in 4 International Crisis Group, Myanmar Crisis Watch, April 2014.<
Myanmar since a new administration took office in 2011 - from a mili- http://www.crisisgroup.org/en/publication-type/crisiswatch/crisiswatch-da-
tary system to democratic governance; from a centrally-directed, closed tabase.aspx?CountryIDs=%7b7E12FB4D-6C23-449D-AF08-550AD5FD-
economy to a market-oriented one; and from 60 years of conflict to peace 2F2E%7d#results>
in the border areas. This SCD focuses on the dual shift toward opening
and integration, and toward inclusion and empowerment, to highlight the 5 Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human
socio-economic changes associated with the triple transition. Rights in Myanmar, UNOHCHR, September 2014.
12 | World Bank Report
Integrated Household Living Conditions Assessment Myanmars reforms today and its strategic location in
(IHLCA) conducted in 2009/10, found that 26 percent the fastest growing region in the world, between the
of the population was living below the poverty line6. two huge markets of China and India, create important
New calculations by the World Bank that expand the opportunities for economic development, but also some
consumption basket used to determine the poverty line risks. Myanmar is well placed to join the global manu-
by including expenditures on health and durable goods, facturing networks that have propelled growth in Asia.
and also takes into account spatial differentials in cost A young population and access to the sea provide ad-
of living, finds a substantially higher poverty rate of ditional advantages. However, this strategic location,
37.5 percent7 of the population, and a high concentra- along with rich resources, also means that international
tion of households living very near the poverty line and powers and domestic vested interests will compete for
thus vulnerable to falling into poverty. influence in Myanmar.
9 Ibid.
10 UN COMTRADE.
14 | World Bank Report
12. Trade in Myanmar had been limited by both sanc- Table 2: Labor Productivity, Constant 2005 US$ 1
tions and policy. An Asian Development Bank work-
ing paper suggests that Myanmar had been trading at
only 15 percent of its potential through 2010.11 Figure
4 shows that exports in 2012, as a share of GDP, were
far higher in neighboring countries than in Myanmar.12
For example, Vietnam and Thailand both exported
the equivalent of 70 percent of GDP in 2012. Larger
countries typically need to export less, given their large
internal markets. Thus, India exported 20 percent of
GDP while China exported 27 percent of GDP. Figure
4 also shows that the exports from Myanmars neigh-
bors had a much higher manufactured content. Much
of this shortfall was attributed to a lack of trade with 1. Defined as value-added per worker.
industrialized economies. Other constraints included 2. Value-added per worker in agriculture divided by value-added
policies such as import and export licensing require- per worker in industry.
ments, the old dual exchange rate system, and gov- Sources: World Development Indicators and Table 1.
ernment monopolies on trade in certain commodities
13 According to the WTO (2014), several monopolies may still be in
place. See Section 3.1.9 State Trading, and Section 3.2.5 Export Operations
11 Myanmars Trade and its Potential (ADB 2013). of State Enterprises, or State Trading.
12 The data has been adjusted to remove receipts from fuel exports 14 This sector is dominated by manufacturing but also includes
from each country depicted in order to make cross-country comparisons mining and quarrying, construction, and the provision of electricity, gas and
easier. water.
World Bank Report | 15
18. Going forward, a key measure of success of the Although the SCD is expected to help inform the iden-
economic and political reforms under the tran- tification of areas where the WBG can support a coun-
sition will be the extent to which progress can be try and which will be outlined in the CPF, it will not
made towards ending poverty and boosting shared be limited a priori, to areas or sectors where the WBG
prosperity. The President has challenged his cabinet is currently active or where the WBG expects govern-
to reduce poverty in Myanmar from the earlier estimate ment demand. The SCD simply seeks to identify areas
of 26 percent to 15 percent by the end of this Govern- that will have the biggest impact on ending poverty in
ments tenure, with a particular focus on rural pover- a country and boosting shared prosperity, whether the
ty reduction through people-centered development. WBG will be involved or not. By not limiting the scope
While the specific targets are ambitious, the main thrust of the analysis, the SCD can stimulate an open and for-
ward-looking dialogue between the WBG, member
18 Consolidated public sector oil and gas revenues are those col-
governments, and the broader public, with a focus on
lected by the oil and gas SEEs less the income and commercial taxes they what is important for the countrys development agen-
paid to the Union. da rather than the WBGs areas of engagement.
World Bank Report | 17
damentals and available data from key sectors. Public the end of the reference year although this is not unique
sector activities were recorded at significantly over-val- to Myanmar. In addition, only consolidated data for
ued exchange rates. Growth rates from recent years state economic enterprises are available, and some
appear to be more realistic and consistent with other transactions are recorded partly on an accrual basis and
indicators but there remains considerable uncertainty partly on a cash basis. It is difficult to know the true
about the actual level of GDP. The IMF Assessment of size of consolidated government because the full array
Data Adequacy for Surveillance observes several ad- of transactions between the Union government and its
ditional short-comings but also notes good progress in state economic enterprises are not well identified. Fis-
improving the quality of new estimates. cal and monetary data are not consistent. The recording
of government debt statistics is not comprehensive.
Population: Until preliminary results from the most
recent census, conducted in March/April 2014 were Monetary and financial statistics. The monetary
announced, there had been uncertainty around Myan- survey compiled by the CBM covers the central bank
mars population figure, with numbers ranging from 48 and all commercial banks (public and private). Report-
to 61 million, with an estimated 3 million people living ing of monetary data in accord with IMF classification
abroad. Uncertainty about the true population size has principles was established only by January 2012. Pri-
created doubts about estimates of GDP per capita. The or data may have problems associated with the use of
last census was conducted in 1983. the previously overvalued official exchange rate for
valuing foreign currency-denominated balance sheet
Trade: There are substantial flows of jade and timber accounts.
from the border areas which is difficult to capture in
officially produced export statistics. Trade data are re- Sector level data: Quality of data on key sectors in-
corded at the time of entries by customs, causing seri- cluding agriculture, health, and education varies, but is
ous volatility in values and incorrect time records. As generally poor. Administrative data are more credible
in many countries, data recorded by the authorities and than survey data.
data recorded by trading partners are inconsistent. Re-
cent data are, however, fairly well correlated over time. Sources: IMF Assessment of Data Adequacy for Sur-
veillance and World Bank staff assessments.
Balance of payments: According to the IMF Assess-
ment of Data Adequacy for Surveillance, detailed data
on services transactions and financial flows are gener- 22. Taking into account the information gaps, the
ally not available and transactions that are not under- analyses in this SCD have been informed by data
taken through the official banking system are usually from various existing reports and surveys. First,
not estimated. the analyses have benefited from reviewing existing
study reports on Myanmar. A full list of all the reports
External debt: Systems for recording and monitoring reviewed is presented in the bibliography. Second, the
debt exist but are largely manual. Nonetheless, records SCD has also been informed by more in-depth analy-
on external debt and debt service payments in arrears ses of household level data from the 2009/10 Integrated
are comprehensive, up to date, and broadly consistent Household Living Conditions Assessment survey, par-
with records from creditors. The good record keep- ticularly for the poverty diagnostic. The findings from
ing and tracking of debt and arrears was critical in the the analysis of the IHLCA have been complemented by
speedy resolution of arrears. However, a key weakness information from other surveysalbeit smaller scale
is that the evaluation of external obligations which are or more narrowly focused in terms of geographic or
not nominated in U.S. dollars is conducted irregularly. thematic coverage than the IHLCAas well as a num-
Historical data are sometimes distorted by applying the ber of qualitative studies. Third, the SCD has benefited
exchange rate at the evaluation point. from the Investment Climate Assessment (ICA) survey
recently conducted by the World Bank.
Consumer price statistics: Consumption basket
weights represent urban households only. Some con- 23. In addition, the SCD findings have also been in-
struction inputs are included; rentals of owner occupied formed by extensive consultations with key stake-
housing are excluded; missing prices are not imputed; holders in Myanmar. The range of stakeholders con-
and the classification of items is outdated. sulted included Government officials both at central
level as well as sub-national level, members of parlia-
Fiscal data: Myanmars budget classification system, ment at central as well as sub-national level, the pri-
which is the backbone of its fiscal accounts, is not ful- vate sector, civil society organizations, development
ly consistent with modern classification structure such partners, academics, think tanks, and researchers. The
as the Government Financial Statistics (GFS). While purpose of the consultations was to seek inputs from
fiscal data are broadly credible, no comprehensive key external stakeholders on specific issues as part of
monthly or quarterly compilation is done for sharing the systematic and evidence-based identification of
with external stakeholders. Annual comprehensive Myanmars key opportunities and challenges towards
data are compiled with delays of up to 12 months after achieving the twin poverty goals, and subsequently,
World Bank Report | 19
24. The profile of poverty in Myanmar presented in ries per adult equivalent per dayto anchor the pov-
this section is based mainly on analyses of data erty line. But, in keeping with the latest international
from the 2009/2010 IHLCA (IHLCA-2) survey, but practice, the re-estimation used a more comprehensive
draws on other information sources as well, both measure of consumption expenditures, which included
quantitative surveys and qualitative studies. 19 The health costs and expenditures on durable goods. Fur-
IHLCA-2 covered 18,660 households nationwide, and ther, a new approach, also in line with international
was implemented in two rounds December 2009/ practice, was used to capture and adjust for the cost of
January 2010, and May 2010.20 The IHLCA is compre- living differences in different regions of the country in
hensive in its coverage of a wide range of household coming up with the poverty lines.
level activities and outcomes. It thus promises a fertile
source of information on livelihoods needed to under- 26. A direct comparison of the incidence of poverty in
stand the causes and dimensions of poverty in Myan- Myanmar to that in other countries, using a 2005
mar. There are two weaknesses inherent in the survey. PPP $1.25-a-day line, is not possible because there
First, because the last population census was conducted are no reliable price survey-based estimates of the
in 1983 and hence was out-of-date, the sampling frame 2005 PPP conversion factors for Myanmar. Myan-
used for IHLCA-2 was based on administrative data mar was not part of the 2005 round of globally compa-
of unconfirmed reliability. Second, due to conflict, the rable price surveys carried out under the International
survey did not cover some of the border areas. These Comparison Project (ICP).21 Myanmar did participate
weaknesses have called into question the extent to in the 2011 ICP round, and it will therefore be possible
which the IHLCA-2 survey data are representative of to include Myanmar in the global poverty monitoring
the country. Nonetheless, the survey is the only source system once the 2011PPP-based poverty numbers are
of information that comes close to providing a national- finalized.
level and relatively comprehensive picture of the pov-
erty situation in Myanmar. And so the approach taken 27. The new census and the resultant sampling frame
here in constructing a poverty profile for Myanmar is will allow potential biases in the IHLCA-2 pover-
to carefully and selectively use analysis of data from ty estimates to be revisited by reweighting the
the IHLCA, and combine this with insights gleaned IHLCA-2 sample. As indicated in Box 3 under data is-
from the numerous other studies and surveys that are sues for Myanmar, the IHLCA-2 survey was conducted
smaller-scale or more narrowly focused--in terms of using an outdated sampling frame, based on the 1983
geographic scope or thematic coveragebut provide a census. Therefore, the poverty estimates based on the
more granular picture, to both validate and flesh out the IHLCA-2 data are likely to have some bias. However,
IHLCA-based analysis. With the successful completion it is not possible to know ex-ante, which direction the
of the Population Census in March 2014, and with a bias is likely to go.
number of technical assistance and surveys planned in
the next three years, it will be possible, going forward, 28. More importantly, the new census will provide an
to measurably improve the quality and depth of the updated sampling frame for the planned MPLCS
household-level information available in Myanmar for and potential IHLCA-3 that will help provide more
evidence-based policies and programs and to develop up to date poverty numbers. Initially, a Myanmar
an up-to-date information base on poverty and living Poverty and Living Conditions Survey (MPLCS) will
conditions in Myanmar. be conducted as a pilot small-scale (3,500) household
survey to collect information on consumption and in-
A. The incidence of poverty and the extent of inequality come levels as well as additional key welfare and other
indicators of relevance to specific sectors. The MPLCS
25. The analysis of the IHLCA-2 data (see UNDP will aim to quickly generate up-to-date and credible es-
(2011)), found a poverty rate of 25.6 percent in timates of poverty, and to inform the design and imple-
2009-2010, but more recent analysis of the same mentation of the large-scale (18,000 households) na-
data, using a different methodology, suggests that tional survey (IHLCA-3). The IHLCA-3 will provide
the incidence of poverty may have been consider- more comprehensive and updated poverty estimates.
ably higher, at 37.5 percent. The more recent analysis The new census will therefore be critical in providing
used the same cost-of-basic needs approach as earlier, an up to date sampling frame for both surveys.
and retained the same caloric threshold2,300 calo-
29. Key socio-economic indicators also show a high
19 Information sources included, amongst others, the LIFT incidence of non-income poverty. More than a third
(Livelihoods and Food Security Trust Fund) surveys, the Multiple Indicators of children under five years of age in Myanmar are
Cluster Survey (MICS) by UNICEF, and surveys carried out by the Border reported to be stunted while about 23 percent are un-
Consortium, as well as the Qualitative Social and Economic Monitoring
(QSEM) studies. derweight. While these rates lower than in Laos and
Cambodia, they are significantly higher than those
20 The survey was implemented in two rounds so as to cover both
the main harvest season and the main lean season in terms of agricul-
tural cultivation. In Myanmar, as in many other poor agrarian economies, 21 There are some indirect estimates of the PPP conversion factor
consumption levels and household welfare can vary seasonally with the available but these are unlikely to be reliable given the highly distorted dual
seasonality in incomes stemming from the agricultural cycle. exchange rate system in place in Myanmar in 2005.
22 | World Bank Report
prevailing in Vietnam, the Philippines, Thailand and 30. Not unlike in many low income economies, a large
China. Similarly, while the maternal mortality rate in fraction of Myanmars population was clustered
Myanmar (200 deaths per 100,000 live births) is lower around the poverty line, both above and below,
than in Laos and Cambodia, it is more than double than in 2009-2010 (Figure 9). What this implies is that
that in the Philippines and more than 3 times high than the measured incidence of poverty will be sensitive to
in Vietnam. Housing indicators also suggest that stan- slight differences in where the poverty line is set (Fig-
dards of living in Myanmar lag behind in the region. ure 10). If, for instance, a 2,100 calories per day stan-
Several surveys in Myanmar including the LIFT base- dard were used to anchor the poverty line, resulting in a
line survey and the IHLCA 2 indicate that only about poverty line that is 10 percent lower in monetary terms,
half of the households in Myanmar live in houses that the measured poverty would be 28.3 percent, nearly 10
have durable roofing, compared to more than 80 per- percentage points lower. A 10 percent increase in the
cent in neighboring countri Source: World Bank staff poverty line would, analogously, increase the poverty
estimates from new analysis of 2009-2010 IHLCA survey rate by nearly 9 percentage points. The clustering of
data. es such as Cambodia. Myanmars net enrollment households around the poverty line also implies that
rate of 47 percent and gross of 50 percent, at the sec- relatively small changes in circumstancesadverse
ondary level in 2010, while slightly higher than that for shocks or increase in incomescan lead to significant
Laos, was significantly less than the regional average movements into and out of poverty.
of 73 percent for East Asia and the Pacific (UNESCO).
31. With a poverty rate of 37.5 percent, the poor and the
bottom 40 percent are largely synonymous in Myan-
mar. Therefore, for all practical purposes, as of 2010, the
aim of enhancing shared prosperity coincided with the
goal of ending absolute poverty in Myanmar. And both
entail raising the incomes of the poor, and ensuring that
they continue to rise as the economy prospers.
32. Measured consumption inequality in Myanmar is the poor live and so geographic targeting of the
relatively low in comparison with its regional neigh- poor needs to take account of both poverty rates
bors (Figure 11). The initial analysis of the IHLCA-2 and the share of the poor that live in an area. For
(UNDP and GoM, 2011) produced a Gini coefficient instance, using 2009-2010 population and poverty data
of 0.20, which would have been remarkably low by (subject to the significant data quality issues set out in
global standards. The more recent re-examination of Box 3), although the Dry Zone and the Delta have a
the data, which are still subject to wide margins of error lower incidence of poverty than the Coastal zone or the
(see Box 3), yielded an estimated Gini coefficient of Hills, because of the relatively high population share
0.29, higher than the initial estimate but still relatively of the Dry Zone and the Delta, they account for near-
low. Inequality is higher, in some cases considerably ly two-thirds of the poor in Myanmar. Conversely, al-
higher, in all of Myanmars regional neighbors. With- though Chin has the second highest poverty rate (71.5
in Myanmar, inequality is estimated to be much higher percent) amongst all states and regions, it accounts for
in urban areas (0.36) than in rural areas (0.25) (Figure only 1.4 percent of the poor due to its small population.
12). Among Myanmars four agro-ecological zones, in- Rakhine and Ayeyarwaddy stand out in that they both
equality is estimated to be highest in the Delta (0.33), have high poverty rates and account for large shares of
in part because the region includes the city of Yangon the poor. The available 2009-2010 data (subject to wide
(0.36) but likely also due to high levels of inequality in margins of error) indicate that Rakhine has a pover-
access to key assets like agriculture land. ty rate of 78 percent and accounts for 14.9 percent of
Myanmars poor, while Ayeyarwaddy, given its size
B. The spatial distribution of poverty and moderately high poverty rate (45.7 percent), ac-
counts for 18 percent of the poorthe highest of any
33. The incidence of poverty varies substantially across state or region. Geographical targeting to reduce pover-
the different geographic regions of Myanmar. In ty must take account of both the rate of poverty and the
terms of agro-ecological zones, poverty rates are high- population share.
est in the Coastal zone (53.1 percent) and lowest, sur-
prisingly low, in the Dry Zone (29.5 percent), with the 35. At 34 percent, the poverty rate for the Yangon re-
Hills (40.9 percent) and the Delta (40.4 percent) falling gion seems surprisingly high (Figure 14). The 33
in the middle, close to the national rate (Figure 13).22 percent poverty rate for the Mandalay region also seems
Poverty rates vary as well, across the states and regions, high, particularly in light of the important commercial
in many cases even within the agro-ecological zones role that both Yangon city and Mandalay city play in
(Figure 14). Rakhine (in the Coastal zone) and Chin Myanmars economy. These high rates of transition
(in the Hills), on the eastern border with Bangladesh, poverty in part reflect the high and rising cost of living
are by far the poorest states, with poverty rates of 78 in urban areas; although urban areas have much better
percent and 71.5 percent respectively. Ayeyarwaddy (in local infrastructure and basic services, residents pay a
the Delta) and Shan (in the Hills) are next with poverty lot to access these services. Limited access to stable,
rates in mid-40s. The incidence of poverty in the re- well-paid jobs is another contributing factor to urban
gions in the Dry Zone on the other hand are uniformly poverty. In recent years, Yangon has become a mag-
lower than the national rate, as are those in the remain- net for rural migrants seeking new employment oppor-
ing hilly border states, on the north and the east, adjoin- tunities and a chance at a better life. But these new
ing China and Thailand. opportunities have been slow to develop. According
to the 2009/10 IHLCA2, the urban poor are typically
employed in the informal sector, or as casual, unskilled
workers in construction or other service sectors, and
many have limited education and job skills.
ment and income generation will obviously be critical. 48. Lastly, for the excluded poorcommunities in
The specifics of the interventions that will be needed remote conflict-affected areas, members of social-
are discussed in greater detail in later sections. But they ly-marginalized groups, families without anyone
are likely to vary from region to region. For instance, capable of productive worka focus on increasing
securing land titles and improving access to credit may the returns to labor is unlikely to be sufficient. By
be essential for increasing plot-level yield-enhancing definition, these groups have been or are likely to be ex-
investments that are particularly important for raising cluded from or less connected to opportunities for pro-
agricultural incomes and alleviating rural poverty in the ductive economic activity. And so for these groups, the
Delta, further investment in irrigation systems and water pathways out of poverty will likely have to include spe-
basin management may be the most relevant for the Dry cific targeted interventions and programs of assistance.
Zone, and investments in connectivity infrastructure
may be the most critical for the Hills.
III. PATHWAYS OUT OF POVERTY
and intervention areas
28 | World Bank Report
49. This section seeks to identify the most efficient fits and higher vulnerability to lay-offs and accidents.
and effective pathways (strategies) for lifting the
poor out of poverty, the critical pre-requisites, 52. Myanmars location in Southeast Asia, large labor
constraints to be addressed, and the intervention force, membership in ASEAN and excellent coast-
areas for removing the constraints. A major feature line suggest that joining the manufacturing sup-
of the SCD is that it has a sharp focus on intervention ply chains centered in Asia can kickstart growth.
areas that have a strong direct or indirect link to ending Myanmar will likely be among the countries to
poverty and boosting shared prosperity. Ultimately, the gain the most from increased economic integration
aim is to identify priorities for accelerating progress to- through ASEAN Economic Community. Exports
wards the twin goals. It is in this regard that given the make it possible to procure a larger volume and wider
taxonomy of the poor in Myanmar and the countrys variety and good quality capital goods not available lo-
unique context presented in the previous section, key cally. Export demand can also help drive the expansion
pathways out of poverty are identified, based on some of manufacturing and services jobs required for struc-
over-arching principles. Once these pathways have tural transformation. Policies to help Myanmar to take
been determined, intervention areas are identified for full advantage of the gains from trade include those
removing critical constraints within the pathways. promoting access to financing, both domestically and
from abroad, strong macroeconomic policies (includ-
A. Strategic Framework for Inclusive and ing real exchange rate level and stability), conducive
Sustainable Growth tariff and foreign investment regimes. There are risks
for Myanmar too. Opening the economy to more trade
50. A growth strategy for Myanmar has to fit Myan- almost always creates some losses for some individuals
mars circumstances. Myanmar is confronted by and firms that cannot compete with external products
many of the same challenges seen in most poor, rural and services. Growth and poverty reduction will be
and resource based economies. Yet, Myanmar is not aided by policies that help these people transition to in-
typical. It has a potentially powerful advantage with dustries where Myanmar has a competitive advantage
its large internal market (about the same as the Repub- and to provide welfare programs for those who cannot
lic of Korea) surrounded on both sides by two of the make the needed transitions.
worlds largest markets in China and India. It also try-
ing to resolve 60 years of conflict over ethnic and reli- B. The Governments reform program
gious autonomy and deciding how best to complete the
transition away from the old, socialist-military model 53. The Government has launched and begun imple-
adhered to in earlier years. Thus, both the framework menting some key reforms. Initial reforms focused
for growth through structural transformation and open on the political system and national unity, but key mac-
trade and investment, and the conflict, security and roeconomic reforms were put into play early as well.
development framework set out in the World Bank The severely over-valued official exchange rate was
Groups World Development Report 2011 provide sa- unified under a managed float in 2012. The change has
lient elements of a growth framework for Myanmar. been beneficial to government fiscal operations and has
Over the medium-term, other factors will also gain im- put an end to the unfair advantage over private firms
portance, such as diversification through imitation and held by state economic enterprises due to their previous
innovation. access to inexpensive foreign exchange. External ar-
rears were cleared in 2013. The central bank has been
51. Shifting labor from low productivity to high pro- divested from the Ministry of Finance in 2013 with in-
ductivity jobs, typically from agriculture to man- dependent monetary authority. Details have also been
ufacturing and services, will drive growth. Achiev- released on increasing transparency in the national
ing this shift will involve careful sequencing of policy budget. New laws to facilitate foreign direct investment
reforms and investment. Several initial steps have been have been passed. These changes have been followed
taken (see paragraph 53 below). The prioritization in by a large number of new laws for almost every sec-
Section III.C identifies some key factors, such as: (i) tor in the economy many aimed at facilitating more
removal of obstacles to private sector investment aris- public and private investment in human and physical
ing from instability, poor regulation or lack of finance; capital. However, most ministries have been unable
(ii) screening of government investments to encourage to catch up with the sheer speed and volume of these
private investors without crowding them out; (iii) quick changes, creating implementation backlogs and bottle-
and affordable transport of food from rural to urban necks. At the same time, as mentioned in Part I above,
areas; (iv) quick and affordable access to information conflict continues in several parts of the country. These
about new job opportunities and removal of obstacles challenges leave private investors with uncertainty,
to labor mobility; progress toward universal access to divert government resources and attention from more
quality education and training to upgrade skills. The productive uses, and jeopardize the sustainability of
prospects for poverty reduction are greater when newly reforms.
released farm labor can find its way to good, formal
sector jobs rather than those in the informal sector with
its lower wages, lower retirement and healthcare bene-
World Bank Report | 29
C. Critical next steps possible because there is not enough data and analytical
base to support it.
1. Considerations in identifying priority intervention
areas and sequencing 58. Growth can be a powerful driver of poverty reduc-
tion. For Myanmar, returns in agriculture and outside
54. Within each pathway, it is important to identify agriculture have been low due to low productivity. In
priority intervention areas and how action could addition, the country has not been able to create enough
best be sequenced over time. Given Myanmars cur- jobs due to limited participation of the domestic and
rent high poverty rate and low level of development foreign private sector in the economy, and because of
more generally, progress will need to be made in many isolation from the global economy, while sustainability
areas for the country to accelerate progress towards has been at risk because of a fragmented approach to
ending poverty and boosting shared prosperity. At the Myanmars key natural resource the Ayeyarwaddy
same time, it is recognized that there are financial, hu- river basin. Therefore, a key over-arching principle
man, and institutional capacity constraints both in the is ensuring greater openness and participation of the
public and private sectors to adequately deal with all domestic and foreign private sector in the economy
the constraints concurrently, hence the need for prioriti- (particularly in the non-gas sectors which have great-
zation and proper sequencing. er potential for job creation), fostering integration
with the global economy, enhancing productivity, and
55. The main basis for identifying priorities is the like- adopting an integrated approach to the management
ly magnitude of impact on reducing poverty of ac- of the Ayeyarwaddy river basin. Ultimately, this is
tion on an intervention area. In turn, magnitude of about growing the economy in order to increase the pie
impact depends on many factors. A key factor is the and ensuring sustainability. Over a 3-5 year horizon,
current severity of the problem. If Myanmar faces a growth will come from increasing investment,contin-
wide deficiency gap in a particular intervention area ued growth in natural resource exports, and increasing
then action is likely to have a high impact on poverty productivity. These considerations lead to the identifi-
reduction. Similarly, if an intervention area has strong cation of the first key pathway out of poverty in Myan-
linkages or complementarities with other intervention mar: promoting openness and sustainable private-
areas then action would also have a high impact on sector led growth for more jobs.
poverty reduction.
59. All three groups of poor, including the socially mar-
56. Sequencing of intervention areas needs to take into ginalized, will need to have access to basic services
account several considerations. In particular, time and infrastructure networks to reduce non-income
preference need to be first given to those high impact poverty and become empowered to participate
intervention areas whose actions can easily be imple- in income earning opportunities whether in the
mented, where available evidence is strong on the na- form of wage or self-employment. Access to criti-
ture and scale of the problem to be solved and what cal services will also help break the inter-generational-
exactly needs to be done, and where the impact on pov- cycle of poverty. However, as mentioned in the previ-
erty reduction can be realized sooner rather than later. ous sections, access to these services, especially in the
However, the need to have a long-term perspective of rural and remote areas, has been limited due to Myan-
development may require that some action starts now mars past political and economic history. Therefore, a
even if not meeting the above criteria. For instance, al- second key over-arching principle for ending poverty
though impact of action in an area may only be evident in Myanmar is universal access and empowerment.
in the medium to long-term, it may be advisable to start While fighting poverty via the first route above is more
implementing some actions in the short-term since de- about fostering growth, this second route is more about
laying action would only prolong the problem further. making such growth inclusive. This leads to the iden-
tification of a second key pathway out of poverty in
2. Identified areas of intervention Myanmar: promoting universal access to critical ser-
vices and empowerment for inclusive growth, particu-
57. The analysis below identifies two pathways encom- larly in rural areas.
passing 12 priorities, along with four prerequisites
that need urgent attention. The first pathway focus-
es on increasing agricultural productivity and creating
more lucrative job opportunities. The second path-
way focuses on universal access and empowerment for
inclusive growth, particularly in rural areas. Finally,
there are four prerequisites that, if left unaddressed,
will either diminish Myanmars success in poverty re-
duction or risk the sustainability of the reform effort.
Figure 15 provides a broad picture of how the various
interventions can be prioritized and sequenced. A pre-
cise rank-order of relative priorities in Myanmar is not
30 | World Bank Report
Figure 18: Pre-requisites, Pathways, and Key Interven- take full advantage of these opportunities.
tion Areas for Poverty Reduction and Shared Prosper-
ity (a). Facilitating the political transition
62. Uncertainty around the key elements of the politi-
cal transition poses a major challenge to efforts for
creating jobs, increasing returns, and increasing
access to services. In particular, internal and external
actors are unable to take long-term decisions on their
investments and livelihoods. Key to facilitating the
political transition will be attaining lasting peace and
moving out of fragility and consolidating trust and le-
gitimacy between the state and its people.
to accommodate some of the long-standing griev- tic political tensions and instability, and depending on
ances voiced by ethnic armed groups. Following the its resolution impact investment and aid flows to the
signing or renewal of a series of ceasefires (including country.
with the Karen National Union, bringing to an end
Myanmar and the worlds longest-running armed (ii). Consolidating trust and legitimacy between the state and
conflict), a series of leadership meetings between the its people
Government and the groups starting in late 2013 have
made progress and built trust. This process has includ- 69. A long history of poor governance and corruption
ed the Kachin Independence Organization (KIO), even eroded the trust of individuals and firms in the
though conflict continues between Government and State preventing them from responding positively
KIO forces. The renewed conflicts in early 2014, with to opportunities or participating fully in Govern-
armed clashes in both Kachin and parts of northern ment-led development initiatives and programs.
Shan State that displaced over 5,000 people, underlined Before the transition, the governance environment was
the continued fragility of this process and the impor- very poor, with people rarely playing by the rules. In
tance of a successful resolution to establish peace and particular, the system was characterized by high cor-
security across the country. ruption, cronyism, social discrimination, and poor
public services. Therefore, although the Government
66. While peacemaking in the Myanmar context has is taking steps to create a conducive environment for
long been focused on the armed conflicts with eth- doing business, there is a perception, based on past ex-
nic minority groups, the recent opening of political perience, that public procurement has not been fair and
space has brought to the fore other potential fault the private sector has not been able to compete on a
lines and areas of conflict. This most notably includes level playing field with public sector or public linked
recurrent incidents of religious violence over the past entities. Similarly, unresolved issues about ethnic au-
two years, where finding sustainable solutions is im- tonomy as well as a flawed election process have un-
portant not only to address violent conflict and citizen dermined the states legitimacy amongst certain groups
security, but also to address broader issues of social in- of people and geographical areas. In turn, this has ham-
clusion. pered the Governments efforts to operate and deliver
services in such areas.
67. Establishing peace and security across Myanmar
will involve finding a sustainable solution to the 70. The constitutional reform and upcoming elections,
issue of the Muslim minority that identifies as Ro- offer huge opportunities for gaining peoples trust
hingya in Rakhine State. As mentioned in the pre- and achieving state legitimacy. Under democratic
vious section, this Muslim minority is not recognized governance, it has become necessary for the Govern-
as an ethnic group by the Government, but rather seen ment to become more transparent and accountable to
as illegal migrants from neighboring Bangladesh. Fol- its citizens, which is critical to building trust. Govern-
lowing outbreaks of violence directed against this mi- ment now has an opportunity to be more transparent
nority in the summer of 2012 that killed 89 people and in various areas of political and economic governance,
displaced over 140,000, the Government established including procurement, as has been demonstrated in the
temporary camps where most of the displaced continue award of mobile phone licenses, a tender process that
to live today.25 Subsequent violence took place against won widespread praise for its transparency and integ-
Muslim minorities in Rakhine in 2013 and 2014, which rity. Similarly, the on-going constitutional reform and
spilled over into broader anti-Muslim violence in oth- upcoming elections offer an opportunity for Govern-
er parts of Myanmar, including in the countrys second ment to ensure that the concerns of ethnic minorities
largest city Mandalay in 2014.26 are addressed, including through further decentraliza-
tion.
68. General elections are scheduled for end 2015. As
is common in many countries, there is a potential for 71. A key challenge and risk to consolidating trust and
a polarization of politics (and a politicization of devel- state legitimacy lies in the weak capacity of the po-
opment decisions) ahead of the elections, and a peri- lice and judiciary, and likelihood of vested inter-
od of uncertainty will likely follow the elections as a ests frustrating reforms. There have been concerns
new government takes office and establishes its poli- about the capacity of the police and judiciary to ensure
cy priorities. Complicating this situation are ongoing that the rule of law is enforced and upheld. As a legacy
campaigns to change the constitution, including around of the past, there is still skepticism about the ability of
the eligibility for high office of the opposition leader. the police and the judiciary to act with independence,
Beyond uncertainty, this situation could create domes- such as when it comes to punishing corrupt practices.
Further, those who have benefited from the system in
25 Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human the past, both within Government and outside, may not
Rights in Myanmar, UNOHCHR, August 2012 and September 2014.
be happy with reforms that open up the space to com-
26 International Crisis Group, Myanmar Crisis Watch, April 2014.< petition, equity, transparency, and accountability, and
http://www.crisisgroup.org/en/publication-type/crisiswatch/crisiswatch-da- may therefore try to frustrate reform efforts.
tabase.aspx?CountryIDs=%7b7E12FB4D-6C23-449D-AF08-550AD5FD-
2F2E%7d#results>
32 | World Bank Report
(b). Enhancing social inclusion 75. The on-going reforms provide an opportunity for
the Government to promote social inclusion in de-
72. There are patterns of social exclusion in Myan- velopment. This is because it offers a platform for ev-
mar which pose obstacles to groups seeking to lift idence-based policy making and bottom-up approach
themselves out of poverty, gain equitable access to development. Therefore, there is now an opportuni-
to services and share in prosperity. Certain social ty for the government to do development better by
groups face barriers, by virtue of their identity or lo- ensuring that future development programs and poli-
cation, to participating fully in society and sharing in cies are more consultative; include social assessment
prosperity. The main drivers are religion, ethnicity and and social accountability measures; and benefit a wide
citizenship, gender, geography, and conflict. There has cross-section of society, particularly in ethnic minori-
been long-standing discrimination and marginaliza- ty areas. The World Banks Social Impact Monitoring
tion of non-Buddhists, dating back to colonial times (SIM) and Qualitative Social and Economic Monitor-
but which has most recently been directed particular- ing (QSEM) qualitative social research programs have
ly at Muslims, but also historically at Christians and documented the strength of social capital and collec-
other groups. For example, in Rakhine State, people tive action at village level, at least within homogenous
belonging to the Muslim minority that self-identifies groups.
as Rohingya are stateless, poor, and face systematic
discrimination, including restrictions on family size, (c). Maintaining macroeconomic stability
marriage, birth registration, and movement. This se-
verely constrains livelihood opportunities and access 76. Ensuring macroeconomic stability is important be-
to markets and basic services, and prevents integration. cause it offers a more predictable environment in
Elsewhere, anti-Muslim sentiment has grown since the which businesses can plan and operate. Most funda-
reforms began, and since 2012 has spilled over into mentally, there is solid empirical evidence that econom-
violence outside Rakhine State, specifically Meiktila. ic uncertainty reduces private investment. Excessive
Burmese people of Chinese or Indian descent are not fluctuations in prices, interest rates, exchange rates,
recognized as an official ethnic group. An NRC, which wages and output can all cause harm. Macroeconomic
is a citizenship scrutiny card, is needed to access high- stability requires effective monetary management. It is
er education, register a business, buy land, stand for of- therefore important to establish early adequate capac-
fice, move past checkpoints, migrate internally, and to ity in monetary and fiscal institutions. This, by itself,
get jobs outside the informal sector. is not enough in fragile states. Conflict can be source
of price instability when governments find they can fi-
73. The challenge of dealing with social exclusion came nance conflict related spending and other activities only
to the fore in Rakhine during Myanmars census through excessive money creation.29 In the 1990s and
carried out in April 2014. The majority Buddhist Ra- 2000s, inflation rates were quite high in Myanmar, as a
khine residents were concerned about the intent of the result of heavy monetary financing of the large budget
census to allow enumeration and self-identification by deficits that resulted from pursuing development con-
the Muslim minority residents that identify themselves currently with the prosecution of multiple conflicts.
as Rohinghya and led a boycott of the census that led
to mass demonstrations. In the face of demonstrations 77. Although macroeconomic performance has genera-
and threats of violence against government officials lly been strong in Myanmar, there is weak institu-
and international aid workers, enumeration in the area tional capacity for macroeconomic management.
with mostly Muslim minority residents was halted. Fiscal policy has largely been the main macroeconom-
Elsewhere, the census, which was the countrys first ic stabilization tool, but with the CBM playing the role
since 1983, was considered successful. of treasury and no department in the MOF dedicated to
fiscal strategy and policy. The CBM relies heavily on
74. Womens participation in decision making and ac- direct monetary policy instruments, mainly in the form
cess to resources has been limited. The proportion of reserve requirements and prudential limits on the
of women in national parliament is only at 6 percent in structure of commercial bank balance sheets. Interest
2013, starkly lower than the low income countries aver- rates have been administratively set for all instruments
age of 19 percent. A recent study found that ideas about and maturities, and, until recently, rarely changed.
leadership are set in the home, where men are common- There is no formal interbank market and pervasive
ly considered the household head. These ideas are then controls on banks impede the monetary transmission
reinforced in public and religious life, where men domi- mechanism. In the past, a fixed, multiple, and restric-
nate positions of power.27 In addition, customary laws tive exchange rate policy has had damaging effects on
of some ethnic populations have discriminated women the economy while deficit monetization has fueled in-
from land ownership and property inheritance.28 flationary pressures.
Growth accelerated in recent years (see paragraph 8). ipated foreign exchange inflows not materialize soon.
Inflation declined significantly from 22.5 percent in Risks also arise from rapid growth of the financial sec-
2008/09 to 5.7 percent in 2013/14 , due mainly to im- tor, particularly given the lack of reliable data on the
proved fiscal discipline by the new Government, which quality of banks balance sheets, and still nascent su-
has committed to keeping the fiscal deficit below 5 per- pervisory capacity. Finally, as mentioned earlier, a stall-
cent of GDP. In addition, there has been a significant ing of the political transition would have a significant
policy shift in the financing of the fiscal deficit from negative impact on the medium-term macroeconomic
reliance on the printing of money towards greater use prospects.
of treasury bonds. Management of the exchange rate
has also improved significantly following the floatation (d). Strengthening public sector capacity and governance
of the exchange rate on April 1st, 2012. As a result, the
official and parallel market exchange rates have now 80. The effectiveness and efficacy of the various path-
converged (See Table 4). Similarly, with support from ways in ending poverty and boosting shared pros-
the international community, the country has managed perity will depend critically on the capacity of
to clear all external debt arrears. As a result, total ex- Government to design and implement the right in-
ternal debt has declined significantly from 37.7 percent terventions, whether in the form of policy, institu-
of GDP in 2008/09 to 24.6 percent in 2012/13. The last tional reforms, or investments. Each of the identified
three joint World Bank IMF debt sustainability analy- intervention areas will require careful identification and
ses have concluded that Myanmar is at low risk of debt design of more specific policies, programs, and proj-
distress. ects to remove the key constraints as well as effective
and efficient implementation and coordination. This is
79. The medium-term economic outlook is favorable where the technical capacity of the public sector be-
but faces significant downside risks, particular comes critical. In addition, it will require strong institu-
weak institutional capacity for macroeconomic tions of governance to ensure that services are delive-
management and the possibility of a slow down red in a transparent and efficient manner.
or steps back in the transition. Under the baseline
scenario (see Table 4), growth is expected to increase
slightly further, averaging 8.4 percent over the next few
years. The key underlying assumptions are continued
strong performance in the productive sectors, includ-
ing construction and manufacturing in special export
zones, and robust performance in the service sectors.
The nominal and real effective exchange rates have
been depreciating and are projected to continue doing
so in the medium term.30 Inflation is forecast to reach
6.6 percent in 2014/15, fueled by electricity price in-
creases and demand pressures, but should moderate in
following years. The external current account deficit is
projected to be around 4.9 percent of GDP, but is ex-
pected to be more than offset by rising FDI-related in-
flows while the fiscal deficit is projected to rise to 4.5
percent of GDP in 2014/15 mainly due to significant
increases in transfers to state and regional governments
and an increase in civil servants salaries. In spite of a
general positive outlook, the economy faces significant
downside risks. Basic macroeconomic management
tools are still being built and the authorities capacity to
develop and implement policies and absorb technical
assistance is already stretched. Given Myanmars de-
pendence on gas, strong capacity will be needed to deal
with the challenging reforms that can foster inclusive
growth, including growth of the non-resource sectors
which will be needed to diversify the economy. The
CBMs international reserves would be insufficient to
resist short-term exchange rate pressures, should antic-
(i). Improving public sector capacity for policy making, coor- requires that a careful diagnostic be undertaken to iden-
dination, and service delivery tify the binding capacity constraints within each of the
identified intervention areas and at the Center. Howev-
81. Broadly, the Myanmar civil service suffers from a er, progress can be made in the near term in ensuring
deficiency of critical skills. To a large extent, this is a that different sectors come up with sector strategies that
result of decades of under-investment in education and indicate sector priorities, no matter how basic the strat-
brain drain. However, this has been compounded by the egies may be. Through the sector working groups that
fact that existing public sector training programs have have been established, these sector strategies will also
been deficient in equipping civil servants with the crit- provide a forum for coordination of efforts by Govern-
ical skills needed to effectively and efficiently design, ment, development partners, and the private sector. In
implement, coordinate, monitor, and evaluate Govern- addition, the efficiency of Government in making deci-
ment policies and programs. As a result, there is defi- sions, coordination, and delivering of services can be
ciency within Government of certain specialist skills in significantly improved, including by leveraging on ICT
the areas of policy analysis, planning, and formulation, through the introduction of e-governance.
procurement, monitoring, and evaluation. In addition,
current organizational structures do not provide for 85. Sectoral approaches to capacity building have
these specialized functions in most ministries. Finally, been effective in addressing some of the capacity
as a legacy of the past, there is lack of initiative, criti- constraints. Some ministries are formulating and im-
cal thinking, and orientation to conduct policy analysis, plementing reform programs that among other issues,
provide policy advice and implement policy amongst seek to address specific capacity constraints. In partic-
technocrats, both, at central Government level, as well ular, progress has been made in PFM, pensions, health,
as within line ministries and agencies; and government education, energy, safety nets, and telecommunications,
has a pronounced silo character, whereby ministries just to mention a few. Therefore this offers another av-
and agencies do not coordinate well with each other. enue that needs to be explored in dealing with some of
the capacity weaknesses in the public sector.
82. The countrys legacy of excessive bureaucracy and
its opening up have further stretched the already 86. Improving the quality of data by strengthening
weak capacity of the public sector, with a high risk statistical systems will be critical to promoting ev-
of staff attrition. In particular, the workload of regu- idence-based policy making. Even if the authorizing
lations and management that each policy and new law environment and culture becomes more conducive, the
entail further stretch the already limited expertise and capacity of the Government to formulate appropriate
technical capacity of the bureaucracy. In addition, in policies and strategies will be hampered by the poor
spite of the recent increases in the salaries of civil ser- quality of data and knowledge gaps. A key opportunity
vants, pay and compensation of civil servants in Myan- lies from the fact that improving the quality of statis-
mar remain very low. As a result, the increase in foreign tics is one of the four policy priorities identified by the
direct investment in response to the countrys reform new Government. In addition, development partners
drive poses a significant risk to the competiveness of have committed to supporting the Government in the
the public sector and hence, its capacity to retain civil preparation of a National Strategy for the Development
servants with skills that are on high demand. of Statistics (NSDS) that will ensure a more systemat-
ic approach to the strengthening of statistical systems
83. The establishment of Delivery Units (DUs) is aimed as well as funding elements of the strategy once it is
at improving the effectiveness of the public sector finalized.31
to deliver some tangible results in the context of
reforms. Established in August 2013, the DUs are es- 87. Finally, fostering transparency will be key to re-
sentially sub-committees of Cabinet level committees ducing interference of politicians in decisions and
with the overall objective to implement quick wins in processes that are technical in nature. Encouraging
service delivery. However, it is not clear how the DUs technocrats to play a more prominent role in designing
fit within a broader public sector reform framework processes and making decisions that are technical in
that is aimed at dealing with the underlying capacity nature may not be effective unless the system makes
constraints. it difficult for politicians to interfere. In this context,
designing systems and processes that are transparent
84. A key priority will therefore be to strengthen the will be critical.
capacity of Government agencies to come up with
appropriate sector strategies that are consistent
with Government policy priorities and well-coordi-
nated with other sectors; and to improve the Cen-
ter of Governments efficiency in coordination and
delivery of services. In this way, binding constraints
which derive from government systems can be ad- 31 The NSDS sets out the strategic goals of the statistical system
dressed. The development of the necessary specialized over the medium term, usually, 5 years (but could be longer) by assessing
the current situation, identifying needs and gaps and developing action
skills will take time. In addition, a systematic approach plans and budgets.
36 | World Bank Report
ii). Strengthening governance institutions and reducing measures by the Government. In January 2013, an An-
corruption ti-Corruption Committee was formed followed by the
enactment of an Anti-Corruption Law in August 2013.
88. Improving the governance environment will be a In addition, in 2013, the authorities awarded licenses
critical pre-requisite to unlocking Myanmars po- to two foreign mobile companies through an open ten-
tential to grow and reduce poverty. In order to have der process that was widely hailed as very transparent
a good foundation for growth and inclusiveness, inves- by international standards. Going forward, improved
tors and the general population need to have confidence transparency in the management of the extractive in-
in the public sectors capacity to protect stable property dustries will be critical given their role as a major
rights, enforce the rule of law, effectively implement source of public revenues. Having attained EITI can-
anti-corruption policies, promote participation, and didate status, it will be important for the Government
achieve government accountability. to meet its obligations under the initiative of producing
the first audit report within the next 18 months.
89. Progress has been made in improving participatory
development through decentralization. Apart from 92. An apparent lack of capacity of the judiciary to
strengthening the role of parliament in the bourgeoning uphold the rule of law, including the protection
democracy, efforts have been made to devolve politi- of property rights, is widely perceived as a major
cal, administrative, and fiscal powers to sub-national weakness in Myanmars governance environment.
governments. Since 2011, the Government has em- The degree of merit-based appointment within the ju-
phasized people-centered development, by creating dicial system is unclear, as there is no independent pro-
consultative bodies or elected positions at state/regional, cess for appointing even lower court judges. Given the
township, district, and village levels (Nixon & Joelen, history of military rule, there remains a strong percep-
2014). In rural development, the government has begun tion within civil society that judges are susceptible to
to address significant investment needs by providing corruption and bribery. Moreover, judges have seldom
grants to village tracts and shifting decision-making given any explanation or written justification for deci-
(and prioritization) authority to communities themselves sions, leading to the perception that they were largely
as part of the people-centered approach to development. carrying out instructions from the executive rather than
In addition, there has been an increase in the amount of applying and enforcing the rule of law.
resources transferred to states and regions (World Bank
PER, forthcoming). (iii). Mobilizing public financial resources and improving the
quality of expenditure
90. In spite of progress made in the devolution of au-
thority to regional and local governments, weak- 93. Sustaining improvements made so far on improved
nesses remain. First, the functional responsibilities access to information and freedom of the media
that have been devolved to states and regions so far are will be critical to improved governance. The histori-
too limited for meaningful decentralized governance cal dominance of the military has meant that genuine
(World Bank PER, forthcoming). In particular, unlike participation, voice or representation in the broader na-
in most decentralized systems, basic education and tional government were limited, and attempts to voice
health remain under the purview of the central govern- dissent were suppressed harshly. Now, as part of the re-
ment. In addition, the lack of clarity on the division of form process, newspapers and journals are freely pub-
responsibilities in some of the areas represents a tre- lishing information, which was previously not possible.
mendous risk to improving access to required services. Similarly, previously exiled media organizations have
Also, while progress has been made to ensure equity in also been able to establish operations within the coun-
determining inter-governmental fiscal transfers, there try. According to Reporters Without Borders, thanks
remains a lack of clarity on the parameters considered to the Burmese springs unprecedented reforms [on
in determining the specific amounts transferred to each press freedom], it has reached its best-ever position of
individual state or region. In this regard, there is a par- 151 out of 179 countries on the Press Freedom Index
ticular concern that states and regions from which nat- in 2013. Government transparency with information
ural resource revenues are derived do not yet receive has increased considerably, although a key limitation
shares that reflect their respective contributions and is the unreliability of some data, particularly from sur-
burdens. veys. Building on these improvements will be critical
to improved governance, including the fight against
91. Corruption in Myanmar is perceived and reported corruption.
to be high. A major feature of corruption in Myanmar
has been a phenomenon known as cronyism where
a few people with connections to the military govern-
ment benefitted from business contracts and public ap-
pointments. In 2012, Myanmar ranked 172 out of 175
countries on the Corruption Perceptions Index In 2013,
its rank improved to 157 out of 177 countries. The im-
provement may reflect in part some anti-corruption
World Bank Report | 37
104. Increasing access to basic quality health would allow them to benefit from additional training, includ-
have a high impact on poverty reduction and some ing vocational training. However, the impact on pover-
key actions can be scaled up relatively quickly. Ba- ty reduction of improving access to quality basic educa-
sic health has strong complementarities and linkages tion is not likely to be seen in the short-term since edu-
with basic education, sanitation, and agriculture pro- cation has a relatively longer gestation period. But this
ductivity. Further, the opportunity cost of ill health in may also be the reason why action needs to start now
a household is very high in terms of lost opportunities. so that the impact can be seen sooner rather than later.
Therefore, in light of the high deficiency gap compared
to other countries, action on improving access to health 108. The picture on access to water and sanitation is
would have a high impact on poverty reduction. In ad- mixed and is hampered by the fact that data on
dition, the impact on poverty reduction can be realized service coverage and functionality are unreliable.
relatively quickly, with key additional areas of action The government has not published an annual statistical
relatively easier to implement - they mainly entail in- review since 1997-832, while the last water sector re-
creasing budgetary allocation to health and scaling up view was in 199333. Latest Joint Monitoring Program
existing programs such as provision of free essential (JMP) data suggest a broadly positive state of affairs,
drugs at primary health care facilities and township with levels of access to improved water supply and san-
hospitals, and provision of free health care services for itation that are high and compare well to regional aver-
children under 5, pregnant mothers, and free hospital ages for both rural and urban areas. However, the data
admission on the first day for patients needing emer- also shows significant disparities in access to safe water
gency surgery. in selected parts of the country, indicating large areas in
which the population depends on surface water, such as
105. In basic education, although enrollment rates in open ponds and shallow wells, for drinking water. Fur-
Myanmar are respectable (Figure 24) by inter- thermore, township data indicate that diarrhea is still
national comparison, completion rates indicate a major killer of children under the age of five which
a significant problem and quality has been poor. suggests that sanitation is still a problem in the country.
Only about 11 percent of a cohort graduates from high
school, around 30 percent of the students reach to the 109. Interventions for increasing access to water and
end of high school and about 25 percent of a cohort sanitation would have a high impact on poverty re-
leaves basic education after primary school. duction but the focus in the short-term would need
to be on getting a handle of the data situation. Giv-
106. Private costs associated with attending education en that water and sanitation are basic needs, improving
represent an important reason why poor house- access can therefore be expected to have a high and
holds have been excluded in Myanmar. Although direct impact on poverty reduction. In addition, there
the economic burden faced by parents does not seem are strong complementarities with health better ac-
excessive compared to neighboring countries, there is cess to water and sanitation is critical to the prevention
evidence that the high costs to households (both direct of many diseases. However, in the absence of credible
and lose of childs labor) is a barrier for households in data, initial work would need to focus on filling data
which children are not in school. When these house- gaps on the size of the deficiency gap.
holds are asked why their children are not in schools,
over half (55.5 percent) of the main reasons identified (b). Expanding rural infrastructure networks
for never attending school related to economic and cost
factors (World Bank, Forthcoming). Since both the di- 110. Expanding critical rural infrastructure will be key
rect and indirect costs of education increase as a child to reducing poverty since it will integrate the ru-
progresses through the education system, cost related ral with the peri-urban and urban economy and
factors are particularly an issue at the lower and up- empower the rural poor to access social services
per-secondary levels. and participate in income earning opportunities.
Like with social services, access to critical rural infra-
107. Action on increasing access to education and voca- structure such as ICT, electricity, and roads has been
tional training would have a high impact on poverty significantly low in rural areas. Greater emphasis on
reduction although its impact will not be realized in expanding coverage to rural areas can have a signifi-
the short-term. Although the deficiency gap in terms cant impact in reducing poverty.
of overall access to education does not appear wide na-
tionally compared to health, quality basic education has
strong complementarities and linkages with a number of
other areas particularly health, water and sanitation, ICT,
financial services, all of which are critical for empow-
ering people to take full advantage of income earning 32 Meehan, P. (2010) The WASH Sector in Myanmar: Addressing
the Challenge of Building Sustainable WASH Services. WaterAid.
opportunities. Ensuring that students have foundational
skills such as functional literacy as basic numeracy is 33 Cowater International in association with Thant Syn Co. Ltd., and
especially critical for empowering people to benefit General Administration Department, Urban Water Supply Division, United
Nations Development Programme and The World Bank (1993) Water Supply
from opportunities for wage and self-employment, and and Sanitation Sector Review, Myanmar. UNDP, MYA/86/012
World Bank Report | 41
111. While there is low access to ICT broadly in the and Rakhine State) have access to grid-based electric-
country, most rural areas do not have access even ity below 10 percent, which is on par with only few
to the most basic of ICT - telephone services. Tele- very poor countries in Africa. Therefore, low level of
communications related infrastructure has been biased rural electrification is a key constraint to inclusiveness
towards the urban areas in Myanmar, even though of growth in Myanmar.
7580 percent of the population lives in the rural areas.
Rural and remote areas continue to have poor coverage 116. Also, although Myanmar has made significant
which has limited the usage of mobile, fixed line or in- progress in developing rural roads, most parts of
ternet when travelling to the rural areas. the country remain difficult to reach. In 1988, there
were 7,850 kilometers of rural roads. Significant im-
112. The advent of wireless technology is an op- provements have been made since. Under the rural de-
portunity for increasing telecommunication velopment program the road network reached 57,700
access to people who live in the rural areas. kilometers in 2010. Rural bridges also increased to 10,
Wireless technology can cover a wide range of areas 997 kilometers from 3,663 kilometers in 1988. None-
without the use of physical cables, and its equipment theless, half of the rural roads in Myanmar remain im-
is relatively easy to install (ADB, 2014). Fixed lines passable during the monsoon season. Therefore, greater
are expensive to install and deployment requires more attention needs to be paid to improving the condition of
time. Nonetheless, although wireless technology is rural roads.
relatively cheaper, access of sparsely populated and
remote areas remain an issue as these are not commer- (c). Increasing access to safety nets and reducing vulnerability
cially viable activities.
117. Given the high levels of vulnerability for house-
113. Expanding the rural telephone network can re- holds to fall into poverty, increasing access to safety
duce poverty substantially, by empowering the nets and reducing vulnerability can also contribute
rural poor to benefit from opportunities for pro- to reducing poverty. This is particularly important in
ductive economic activities and service delivery. the rural areas where most households rely on agricul-
Through improved telephone access, the poor will be ture for their livelihoods, which is in turn susceptible to
able to have access to information that would be useful weather related shocks. Without any form of safety net,
in making production and trading decisions, but also in natural disasters such as floods or draughts can easily
facilitating access to microfinance and critical services plunge many people into poverty or deeper poverty.
such as health. Experience from other countries has
shown that the benefits of using mobile phone tech- 118. At present, Myanmars formal social protection
nology in health care systems in developing countries system does not adequately address the needs of its
are diverse, and include improved reporting in health population. The only SP sector review to date suggests
information systems, telemedicine providing care to that over 95 percent of the population has no access
populations otherwise deprived, and texting to improve to predictable social protection, relying instead on in-
adherence to treatment therapy. formal and community-based coping mechanisms and
ad hoc assistance from donor-financed programs. The
114. Similarly, rural electrification is critical to enhancing Government SP spending is almost entirely focused
the inclusiveness of growth through empowerment. on social security provisions that benefit a small and
Reliable access to electricity will be key to the creation relatively privileged section of the population. In 2012-
of a conducive business environment for small and mi- 13, the expenditure on civil service pensions and social
cro-enterprises in rural areas. In addition, electricity is security provisions amounted to about 0.5 percent of
critical to improving the delivery of other services such GDP and constituted 2.3 percent of the national budget.
as health, education, security, and finance. Lack of elec- However, these old age pensions and health insurance
tricity in an area can act as a disincentive for qualified provide inadequate protection due to low pension lev-
staff in health and education to locate in rural areas. els (a function of low civil service wages) and weak de-
Similarly, lack of electricity makes it difficult for rural livery mechanisms. In addition, these programs cover
hospitals and clinics to preserve drugs through refrig- only the small group of formal sector workers, leaving
eration. households vulnerable to health, weather-related and
other shocks. Myanmar also in effect does not have
115. At the same time, the proportion of people with- a publicly financed safety net program; government
out access to electricity in Myanmar is significant- spending on safety nets was less than 0.01 percent of
ly higher in the rural areas than in urban areas. GDP in 2012-13. This is well below the 1-2 percent of
While the electrification rate in urban areas is about 75 GDP being spent on safety nets in much of East and
percent (e.g. Yangon and Mandalay), the rural areas South Asia, and even in poorer Sub-Saharan African
have an extremely low electrification rate of only 16 countries (World Bank 2014). At present, the biggest
percent. In fact, most of rural communities in border financers of SP provision in Myanmar are development
areas have no access to the grid-based electricity at all, partners engaged predominantly in emergency and hu-
and some regions and states with a high share of rural manitarian relief with parallel, non-government deliv-
population (e.g. Ayeyarwaddy and Magway Regions ery mechanisms.
42 | World Bank Report
119. Opportunities exist for expanding safety net pro- 121. At the same time, climate change also represents
grams that would need to be leveraged. These in- a major challenge for Myanmar. The country is al-
clude the emerging political and fiscal space for redis- ready experiencing increased climate variability (nota-
tributive policies, increased desire from Government bly with regard to rainfall), is significantly exposed to
for a transition from emergency-relief related and extreme events (notably destructive cyclones), and is
donor-funded programs towards a sustainable govern- expected to experience increased temperatures, heavier
ment-led social protection system and increased focus rains but also longer dry spells with fast growing impact
on delivering benefits and services effectively to the in the coming decades. Myanmar has experienced dev-
poor. Myanmar also has a latecomers advantage to ben- astating cyclones Mala, Nargis and Giri in 2006, 2008
efit from international experience in developing build- and 2010 respectively, claiming thousands of lives. Cy-
ing blocks for a robust SP system, including new tech- clone Nargis was the worst, claiming 130,000 lives. Ten
nology-based solutions. There is compelling evidence percent of the country is projected be further affected
that SP programs have contributed to reducing poverty by a sea-level rise of between one and five meters. The
and inequality in both low and middle income coun- country therefore ranks among the worlds top countries
tries, and countries such as Ethiopia, India, Bangladesh, most at risk from the combined effects of climate change.
Pakistan, Rwanda, Nepal, and Ghana, have invested in
SP programs at various scales, depending on the specif- 122. Currently, Myanmar faces many challenges to ef-
ic needs and fiscal sustainability.34 Countries at an early fective management of the environment and mit-
stage of development with emerging natural resource igation of climate change impacts. At present, the
wealth are also investing in SP systems (as in the case countrys legislation covering natural resources does
of many African countries such as Mozambique). In not define the licensing process, the role of government
many cases, SP programs in both LICs and MICs lever- authorities, or the fiscal system for extractives revenues.
age human capital acquisition and livelihoods, and IMF Environmental disturbances by mining industry are in-
analysis has demonstrated both benign growth effects creasing but have not yet been accompanied by sub-
and positive distributional impacts of such policies. stantive regulatory responses. In addition, there is limi-
ted information on the management of the extractive
120. Apart from expanding safety nets, reducing vul- sector. The country has no freedom of information law
nerability to poverty will require focusing on ef- and there is no requirement to prepare or implement
fective disaster risk management. It is the poor and environmental and social impact assessments (ESIA).
vulnerable women, children, the elderly, marginal- The legal formulation and implementation of the ESIA
ized groups, and those recovering from conict who rules and regulations, relevant pollution control rules
often are most exposed to hazards, with their homes in and regulation for solid and hazardous waste manage-
fragile and often low-lying environment are most af- ment have been just recently launched for development
fected, and their lives feel the greatest pressure when in line with best international practices.
droughts increase the food prices. Myanmar is exposed
to multiple natural hazards which include cyclone, 3. Promoting openness and sustainable private sector led
storm surge, floods, landslide, earthquake, Tsunami, growth for more jobs
drought, and forest fire. The rainfall-induced flooding
is a recurring phenomenon across the country while 123. In order to sustainably reduce poverty for the tran-
some parts of the country are exposed to landslide and sitional and traditional poor in Myanmar, there is
drought risks. As per the data from 1998 to 2007, fires need to create jobs outside agriculture and to in-
constituted about 71 percent of reported disaster events, crease returns to agriculture. Given that the gas sec-
followed by floods (10 percent), storms (11 percent) tor is not labor intensive while the agricultural sector
and others (8 percent) including earthquakes, tsunami will not be able to create enough jobs to absorb all the
and landslides.35 Cyclone Nargis (2008) was the worst transitional poor while returns in the sector are low for
natural disaster in the living memory of Myanmar, the traditional poor, efforts need to be focused on pro-
with over 130,000 people killed, and millions affected moting greater private sector investment in the non-gas
by losses of homes and livelihoods. The Post-Nargis sectors and increased productivity in agriculture. Sectors
Social Impact Monitoring indicates that women were outside the agriculture and gas sectors with potential for
more likely than men to be killed by Nargis research creating jobs in Myanmar include manufacturing, min-
in 40 townships shows that at least 396 women and 338 ing, tourism, ICT, the financial sector, and construction.
men died. The study found that women typically had
more limited access to information with regard to early 124. Myanmar can start tapping opportunities in the
disaster warning36. context of regional and global production/value
chain networks. Sophisticated production and distri-
34 See for example Fiszbein et al 2011, Subbarao et al 2013, butional networks in East Asia have been developed
Velarde and Fernndez 2011, Andrews et al 2013, World Bank 2013b, through fragmentation of production activities across
Himanshu and Sen (2013).
borders (Kudo, 2009). In particular, multinational cor-
35 Government of Myanmar (2009), page 1 porations divide their manufacturing processes into sep-
36 Finding from QSEM II presented corresponds with World Bank
led research findings from the EAP region on the impact of natural disas- ters on women.
World Bank Report | 43
arate production blocks and locate them across borders over which results on poverty reduction can be expected.
so that they can exploit the non-integrated elements of
location advantages such as wage differences. Due to
sanctions, poor policies, infrastructure and connectivity,
Myanmar has been the missing link in the region.
in areas that do not justify public sector involvement. low and in terms of road density (219.8 kilometers per
In addition, SEEs have an unfair advantage over the 1,000 square kilometers), it is the second lowest among
private sector because they enjoy significant subsidies ASEAN countries. The road network had expanded at
from Government. Government mandates requiring a rate of about 8,600 kilometers of new roads per year
purchasing from state producers where possible has between 2005-2008. This slowed down to 5,800 kilo-
severely restricted the scale of public procurement and meters of additional roads per year from 2009 to 2012.
sharply constrained an important driver of private sec- Similarly, Myanmars port infrastructure lags behind
tor growth. Finally, due to the countrys past isolationist its peers. The countrys Liner Shipping Connectivity
policies and international sanctions, Myanmar has not Index37 is at par with Cambodia but lower than other
fully benefited from high levels of FDI as other coun- Southeast Asian countries. Railway and river transport
tries in the region. To date, FDI has mainly been con- networks also are relatively underdeveloped compared
centrated in the extractive industries. to peers in the region.
133. Poor rice yields are the main reason behind low
agricultural productivity in Myanmar. This is be- Box 5: Comparing Myanmars rice yield data
cause rice is the main agricultural product in Myanmar, with other countries in the region
covering about 60 percent of the countrys total culti-
vated land area. Rice also accounts for 97 percent of The official statistics of the Ministry of Agriculture and
total food grain production by weight and is one of the Irrigation (MOAI) place average paddy yields at 4.0
countrys major exports. Although official data seem to tons per hectare, yet this results in an estimated lev-
suggest that rice yields in Myanmar are comparable to el of rice production far in excess of what is consid-
other countries in the region, a closer scrutiny shows a ered to be consumed in or traded from Myanmar. The
much larger gap (Box 5). The most acute problems be- United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) has
hind low rice productivity are at the farm level, mainly estimated that average paddy yields were 2.5 tons per
inefficient irrigation, lack of access to extension ser- hectare over the 2010-2012 period. This would place
vices, and poor production practices. productivity levels near the bottom for Southeast Asia,
above only Cambodia (Figure 26). The recent large
sample farm survey conducted by the World Bank and
LIFT found the average 2013 wet season yields to be
2.4 tons per hectare in Sagaing, 2.8 tons per hectare in
Ayeyarwaddy, and 3.0 tons per hectare in Bago. Those
three areas account for the bulk of Myanmars rice pro-
duction.
134. At the same time, over-dependence on rice means and weaknesses in the institutional framework for
that Myanmar has been unable to increase overall handling disputes. Since the transition began, two
agricultural productivity through diversification land laws have been enacted which aim to improve
or alternative patterns of specialization. The Gov- land property rights. These are the Farm Land Law
ernment has over the years emphasized food self-suffi- (2012) and the Vacant, Fallow, and Virgin (VFV) Lands
ciency through rice production, and, for considerable Management Law (2012). Together, the two laws en-
periods, actually directed farmers to grow rice in order able farmers to acquire formal land use rights and in-
to meet fixed production targets. Opportunities to grow clude provisions that recognize and respect existing use
other cereals, for food or feed, were generally neglected. of land by farmers, even if there has previously been no
As can be seen from Figure 30, Myanmar, rice has ac- recognition of the use by the Government. However,
counted for nearly 94 percent of total cereals produc- in spite of these new laws, acquisitions and compensa-
tion value, a much higher proportion than for several tions are still being governed by the 1894 Land Acqui-
comparator countries. Significant growth opportunities sition Act. Lack of clarity in procedures and provisions
also exist for higher value agro-food commodities, as in this Law has led to arbitrariness in decisions, result-
evidenced by the recent emergence of a very substan- ing in conflicts. To compound the situation, there are
tial regional trade in beans, pulses and horticultural significant weaknesses in the institutional framework
products. Domestic consumption of animal products for handling land disputes. Recently, Government has
is expected to increase, sharply, with rising incomes. set up a Land Loss Enquiry Commission of Parliament
Myanmar will therefore need to diversify away from to investigate claims of land confiscation by the mili-
rice if the countrys agricultural potential is to be fully tary during 2008 and 2011.
realized.
138. Given the critical nature of land in investment de-
135. In addition, an inefficient milling industry produc- cisions on and off-farm, improved access to land
es low quality processed rice. The majority of rice and improved land tenure security will have a
mills in Myanmar employ antiquated technology, re- significant impact on job creation and increased
sulting in lower technical efficiency, higher levels of returns to investment in Myanmar, and hence,
product loss, and a low quality milled rice product. It on poverty reduction. There are opportunities for
is estimated that less than one-fourth of the mills are Myanmar to learn from the experiences of other
capable of producing medium-to-high quality rice. This countries in moving forward with land reforms. For
situation limits the market segments which Myanmar example, land consolidation38 and land acquisition
can supply abroad, leads to relatively low unit values processes in Myanmar have so far been practiced
for rice exports, and results in low prices paid to farm- as land readjustment procedures of technical nature
ers. Historical factorsincluding periodic or sustained and not as land right altering processes according to
bans on rice exports and heavy state enterprise involve- international practices. The experience from other
ment in the tradeinhibited private investment in the countries shows that such reforms can be successful
sector. Policy uncertainties continue to deter some po- if they are anchored in proper and enforceable legal
tential investors. frameworks, and are based on inclusive and trans-
parent processes, which include community aware-
136. Finally, lack of access to land and tenure security ness raising and consultations at various stages of
are also a critical constraint to agriculture produc- the process.
tivity, and private sector investment more broadly.
Myanmar has the highest rate of landlessness in East (c). Improving Myanmars overall productive efficiency and
Asia, estimated at between one-third and forty percent competiveness
of the rural population. At the same time, most people
with land are unsure of long term tenure security due to 139. For Myanmars products to be competitive inter-
a history of widespread land grabs. Evidence in other nationally, there is need to deal with constraints
countries has shown that secure land tenure can be crit- currently hampering the economys overall pro-
ical to increased agriculture investment, and therefore ductive efficiency, mainly critical shortages in pow-
increased incomes. More broadly, lack of access to land er, under-developed financial sector, shortages in
and tenure security has also been identified as a critical skilled labor, and low supply of ICT services. Poor
constraint to businesses. According to the findings of polices and long period of isolation have led to criti-
the ICA enterprise survey, this is particularly a prob- cal shortages of these key factors of production, lead-
lem amongst medium, small, and micro enterprises but ing to high costs of opening and operating businesses.
not so much amongst large enterprises (Refer to earlier Unless these constraints are removed, the potential of
Figure 25 and 26). The ICA further finds that access to the countrys dual shift to create more jobs through in-
land is a key obstacle across all sectors manufactur-
ing, retail, and services. 38 Land consolidation has been a process where farmers with ad-
jacent plots have been asked to combine them in order to make the farms
137. Some progress has been made recently to improve amenable to mechanized commercial agriculture. Once combined, the land
tenure security but land conflicts persist due to un- has usually been operated by large corporations on a concession basis, with
the owners of the land supplying labor. Such arrangements have resulted in
clear rules for land acquisition and compensation disputes due to lack of clarity about the terms of the agreement.
World Bank Report | 47
creased private sector investment and trade will not be 141. Similarly, the countrys financial sector has large-
fully maximized. ly been underdeveloped, with less than 20 percent
of the population having access to formal financial
140. Inadequate power is a particularly critical con- services (See Figures 33 and 34). Not surprising, ac-
straint to existing and potential business activities cess to finance was mentioned as a major obstacle to
in Myanmar (See Figures 31 and 32). Due to ad- doing business in Myanmar by most firms during the
vances in technology, most production and non-pro- ICA Enterprise Survey (Refer to earlier Figures 25 and
duction processes depend heavily on power, whether 26). The banking industry is beset with cumbersome
in the manufacturing or service industries. But as men- banking requirements and high transactions costs, and
tioned earlier, Myanmar has one of the lowest rates of lacks depth in the provision of financial services. For
electrification in Southeast Asia with connectivity to example, it is currently not easy to transfer funds into
the public grid at less than 30 percent while overall ac- or out of Myanmar. Migrants do not have access to ap-
cess to electricity (including private generators) at 48.8 propriate financial services for them to remit foreign
percent. earnings back to their families. Access to loans is ham-
pered by stringent collateral requirements while most
banks do not offer credit card services. In addition, in-
terest rates are administratively controlled which limits
profitability of banks and hence their ability to extend
credit.
country will now need to build on the progress it has most promising for Myanmars growth relate directly
made of opening up the ICT market to competition. In to water, and particularly the Ayeyarwaddy, such as en-
particular, there is need to provide an enabling regu- hanced production and trade in agricultural products,
latory and policy environment for the country to start hydropower generation,40 and the expansion of nation-
participating in the global online/virtual work opportu- al and regional green transport systems via rivers and
nity. In addition, mobile and e-Government platforms ports.
and services need to be developed in order to improve
efficiency and reach in the delivery of services. 149. A fragmented approach to the management of the
river basin has been a major risk to sustainable
(d). Ensuring sustainability through improved and more inte- growth and development in Myanmar, but efforts
grated environmental and natural resource management are now underway to address this problem. Due
to institutional weaknesses in the public sector, eco-
146. Myanmars ability to sustainably reduce poverty nomic activities in the river basin have proceeded in
will depend on its capacity to properly manage the a fragmented manner and without taking into account
environment and its vast natural resource endow- their long-term impact on sustainability. To address
ments. The country relies heavily on natural resources the broad inter-related risks and opportunities of the
for its productive economic activities that are critical Ayeyarwaddy River, as well as to address the fragmen-
to job creation including agriculture, mining, tourism, tations among the national water resources agencies, a
transportation, and power generation. Therefore, to en- National Water Resources Committee (NWRC) was
sure sustainability in the reduction of poverty, the coun- established by Presidential decree in July 2013. In ad-
try needs to build effective institutions and implement dition, the World Bank plans to provide financial and
reforms that are integrated into Myanmars environ- technical assistance to the Government of Myanmar
ment and natural resource sector. that will help rationalize and strengthen public sector
institutions for an integrated approach to the manage-
147. Hydropower is a major natural resource for Myan- ment of economic activities and projects in the river ba-
mar. Hydropower investments carry a great potential sin, particularly large-scale infrastructure investments
to contribute to poverty reduction and shared prosper- in agriculture, hydropower, navigation, municipal and
ity if they are well executed, with benefits accruing to industrial water supply and wastewater treatment.
the population at large, but they also carry huge risks if
environmental and social considerations are not prop- 150. More broadly, sound management of natural re-
erly integrated in an optimal hydropower development sources and the broader environment will be im-
program. Currently, hydropower accounts for about portant to sustain economic growth and reduce
75% of electricity production in the country. Many poverty rates in Myanmar. Apart from the Ayeyar-
new projects are at different stages of development waddy river, Myanmar is also rich in natural gas, has
(58 projects totaling about 45GW, according to ADB sizeable oil reserves, and significant mineral resources
and JICA draft master plans for the power sector), only (ADB, 2012a). These have been among Myanmars
some of which are likely to be developed in the next growth sectors, registering an annual growth rate of
5-10 years. To realize the potential benefits of hydro- 15.5 percent during 2001-2006 (ADB, 2012b). At the
power, Myanmar will depend on substantially strength- same time, without adequate safeguards, policies and
ened government capacity for sustainable hydropower regulations in place and capacity to implement them,
planning, in order to identify and prioritize the projects these activities can lead to irreversible eco-system deg-
with the highest impact for development and poverty radation, deforestation, and water and air pollution.
reduction. Donors support for institutional develop- Poor communities that depend on forests for wood
ment and capacity building (currently led by the Gov- and non-wood forest products and use drinking wa-
ernment of Norway) and participation of experienced ter from contaminated wells would be affected most
private sector developers are essential for sustainable by such environmental impacts. A significant propor-
development of hydropower in Myanmar. tion of natural resource extraction has taken place in
ethnic minority areas and poor sector governance has
148. Critical to ensuring environmental sustainability fueled conflicts between armed groups and the central
is the integrated management of the Ayeyarwad- Government, contributing to long-term poverty and un-
dy river basin, which is central to Myanmars ca- der-development.
pacity to exploit its full growth and development
potential. The Ayeyarwaddy river basin has been de-
scribed as the heart of the nation, accounting for about
60 percent of Myanmars landmass, and home to some
70 percent of its population. It is a river of global pro- River Commission, respectively. Recent literature (Robinson et al. 2007)
portions, with an average annual flow of over 400 bil- suggests the Ayeyarwaddys volume may be even higher, in the range of 420
to 440 billion cubic meters (+/- 48 bcm).
lion cubic meters, equivalent to roughly 85 percent of
the Mekong.39 Many of the opportunities considered 40 In total, Myanmar has an estimated 100,000 MW of total
hydropower resources. Of this, the Ayeyarwaddy River alone is believed to
39 Annual volumes of the Ayeyarwaddy (410 bcm) and the Mekong account for 38,000 MW of potential installed capacity. The total installed
(475 bcm) are as reported by the Government of Myanmar and the Mekong capacity of existing hydropower plants is 2,660 MW.
50 | World Bank Report
151. The development of a nationally agreed Environ- recently been made to improve transparency and ac-
mental and Social Safeguards framework that is countability through the EITI process - Myanmar re-
based on best practices will be critical to ensuring cently attained EITI candidacy status,41 but more work
that investments in the various intervention areas remains especially in ensuring that states and regions
proceed in a manner that is consistent with long- from which resources are extracted feel that there is
term environmental sustainability. A key opportu- fairness in the manner in which natural resource reve-
nity arises from the fact that there is wide awareness nues are allocated across the country.
amongst stakeholders in Myanmar, within and outside
Government, about the need for environmentally res- 154. Given the growing rate of urbanization and high
ponsible investments. At the same time, there is a risk levels of urban poverty in Myanmar, it will also
that planned investments could face significant delays be important to ensure that urban development
unless there is evidence that they have passed environ- proceeds in a sustainable manner. In response to the
mental and social impact assessments that are based on reforms, most new investments coming into the coun-
a nationally agreed framework. Therefore, a key pri- try are locating in the countrys main cities and other
ority going forward is the preparation of a nationally urban areas since infrastructure and services are rela-
agreed framework for Environmental and Social Safe- tively better than in rural areas. Similarly, most people
guards. looking for jobs are flocking to towns and cities. Rapid
industrialization and urban population growth are
152. Similarly, Myanmar does not have a well-functioning therefore putting pressure on the countrys cities and
framework for the management of natural resource its environment. Data on the rate of urbanization are
revenues that ensures long-term sustainability of not available although anecdotal evidence suggests that
development. As already mentioned, natural resource it is high.
revenues are the dominant source of public revenues
in Myanmar, and are set to increase with new gas 155. Promoting sustainable urban development will be
field coming on stream and significant scale up of oil a complex and long-term agenda, but some critical
production planned. Experience from other countries first steps could be taken to lay the foundation for
shows that these natural resource revenues can be the future. In particular, it is important for Myanmar
volatile, as demand and prices are subject to global to start investing in proper urban planning and strength-
political and economic events. In addition, given that ening policies and institutions for sustainable urban de-
natural resources are finite, there is need to ensure velopment. The goal should be to ensure that cities and
that the management of natural resources also caters other urban areas continue to function at levels of quality
for future generations. Unless there is an appropriate of life desired by the community without restricting the
framework, volatility in natural resource revenues can options available to the present and future generations
lead to unwarranted volatility in expenditure. Similarly, and causing adverse impacts inside and outside the ur-
imprudent use of natural resource revenues threatens ban boundaries. In the medium-term, the development
the sustainability of development beyond the current of Special Economic Zones will ensure that industriali-
generation. Currently, Myanmar does not have any zation proceeds in a more systematic manner and without
framework for managing the volatility of natural re- putting pressure on cities and towns.
source revenues that promotes the build-up of fiscal
buffers through saving in good years that can then be
spent prudently over the medium term, or for ensuring
savings for future generations.
156. In spite of best efforts, knowledge and data gaps lenge. Similarly, while it is generally understood that
have imposed limitations on some of the analyses more broadly, there are weaknesses in the capacity of
in the SCD. Going forward, a number of knowledge the public sector to design, coordinate, and deliver ser-
gaps have been identified in various areas, together vices, there is need for a more in-depth understanding
with current plans and future options for filling these of the critical capacity constraints within each sector. It
gaps (See Table A.1 in the Annex). This list is by no would also be useful to understand the impact of poli-
means exhaustive but provides pointers to critical areas tics in decision making within the countrys bureaucra-
where future analytical work may need to focus on. cy. To fill these gaps, there is need to conduct a compre-
hensive public-sector assessment.
157. Data constraints have limited the poverty analytics
in this SCD. In particular, it has not been possible to 160. On service delivery, knowledge gaps exist in the
assess how poverty has changed in Myanmar since the area of outcomes and government performance,
2009/10 IHLCA survey was conducted. In addition, particularly in hard-to-reach areas; and potential
there is still no clear understanding of some aspects of of private sector participation in the provision of
poverty and of local context in conflict affected areas. public goods. For example, in education, there is cur-
Going forward, the Bank plans to undertake a Myan- rently no national assessment of learning outcomes at
mar Poverty and Living Conditions Survey (MPLCS) the lower levels of basic education. As a result, no one
in 2014/15 that will aim to quickly provide up-to-date knows how much learning actually occurs at differ-
and credible estimates of poverty, and to inform the ent levels of basic education. Going forward, there is
design and implementation of the large-scale (18,000 need to conduct an assessment of students learning
households) national survey that the government is outcomes at key stages of the education cycle, starting
planning to undertake in 2015. It is hoped that the next with Early Grade Reading and Math Assessments. In
surveys will be able to cover the border areas that have health, there is lack of robust information at community
not been properly represented in previous surveys. This level, particularly in hard to reach areas. Conducting
will need to be complemented by targeted studies to un- service delivery satisfaction surveys would also pro-
derstand better the local context of the social, political, vide invaluable information on Government perfor-
and economic issues in the conflict-affected minority mance in the delivery of services, particularly in hard to
areas. reach areas. Finally, it also not been possible to assess
the potential of private sector participation in the pro-
158. Similarly, lack of data has hampered analyses of vision of public goods. The Bank recently conducted
unemployment and the job market in Myanmar. such an assessment in the power sector as part of the
There are currently no recent and credible unemploy- PER. Going forward, there is need to extend this type
ment figures, labor income trends, migration patterns of assessment to other sectors with potential for private
within and beyond Myanmar, and returns to education. sector participation in the provision of services.
The last labor force survey was conducted in 1990.
The Ministry of Labor recently signed an agreement 161. While the on-going PER has started filling some
with the International Labor Organization to conduct of the gaps on revenue and expenditure patterns
a new labor force survey. In addition, there has not in Myanmar, additional work will be warranted.
been a comprehensive analysis of the labor intensity of It has not been possible to conduct a more comprehen-
various sectors. As a result, it has not been possible to sive assessment of the level of Government revenues
assess in empirical terms the potential contribution of due to limited knowledge on revenue levels from Gems
various sectors to job creation. On the demand side, trade and the mining sector. This gap will be filled by
there is also lack of more comprehensive information a comprehensive analysis of revenues from the mining
on the type of skills on demand in the market or by sector and other extractives currently planned under the
potential entrants to the market would be useful to help EITI support program. Similarly, while the PER shows
in the design of programs aimed at filling the skills gap. that SEEs contribute significantly to public sector rev-
The design of such program would need to be informed enues, a more detailed analysis is warranted in order to
by an assessment of the effectiveness of existing pro- understand the different contributions of various SEEs.
grams for increasing the supply of skills in the market. This will help determine the potential implications on
Finally, due to the expected role that ICT is likely to Government revenues, of the various types of SEE re-
play in creating jobs in Myanmar, an in-depth study on forms being envisaged by the Government, including
ICT and the jobs agenda would be warranted beyond corporatization and privatization. Finally, the sector
the Ericsson Study on the potential economic impact of level PERs on health, education, and energy should be
mobile communications in Myanmar. expended to other sectors as well, particularly agricul-
ture and transportation. This will help determine priori-
159. In addition, it has not been possible in some cases ties for public expenditure in these sectors.
to fully understand the scale of certain develop-
ment challenges. Detailed and more robust macroeco- 162. As mentioned earlier, knowledge gaps have made
nomic analysis has not been possible due to the lack it difficult to identify priorities at a more granu-
of credible national accounts data. Planned support by lar level or make specific recommendations within
the ADB to update the SNA will help address this chal- sectors or thematic areas. For example, the SCD has
World Bank Report | 53
highlighted the importance of increasing productivity, need for a comprehensive assessment of the political
diversification, and value addition. However, yield data economy of land in Myanmar and an analysis of op-
is unreliable and there is little information on the status tions for land reform that draws on lessons from the
of diversification in the country. Therefore, a compre- experiences of other countries with various types of
hensive and in-depth study on agriculture diversifica- land reform.
tion would be useful. A farm production economics
study is planned by the World Bank. The study seeks 164. Similarly, without robust information, specific
to determine farm production costs in Myanmar which and prioritized recommendations have not been
will be used to compare the likely costs and benefits of possible in the areas of safety nets, financial sec-
various policy interventions. tor, and access to microfinance. In the area of safety
nets, it will be important to conduct an assessment of
163. A key area where additional analytical work is government-led safety net pilots (such as stipends and
necessary before undertaking significant addition- maternal and child health vouchers) as well as selected
al public action is land reform. First, there is limit- safety net programs being implemented by develop-
ed knowledge on the relationship between land tenure ment partners. It would also be useful to conduct a
security and agriculture investment in Myanmar. An feasibility assessment for making benefit payments
in-depth study would therefore be warranted. Second, through financial institutions. In the financial sector, the
there is need to understand the full scale of the current finalization of the Financial Sector Master Plan current-
land problems including the extent to which complaints ly under preparation with help from the World Bank
on land are related to past injustices or new land laws, will be helpful. However, beyond preparation of the
the transition, and other policies and institutions. More plan, a Financial Sector Assessment Program will be
fundamentally, there is need to understand the binding warranted in order to gauge the stability of Myanmars
constraints to secure land tenure in Myanmar. Land financial sector and assess its potential contribution to
governance is about power and the political economy growth and development. In microfinance, there is also
of land. To understand the land-related problems that need for a comprehensive assessment of the industry in
challenge Myanmar, and to appreciate the challenges order to understand its dynamics including the scale of
facing land-sector reforms, it is therefore necessary to demand for microfinance from micro enterprises and
understand lands role in the countrys historic political households.
economy and the history of land-related legislation and
ownership. Land tenure arrangements involve social
relations and social institutions and have complex his-
able to help conduct a thorough assessment of land governance such as the
tories, and are multi-dimensional.42 Therefore there is World Banks Land Governance Assessment Framework (LGAF), the UNs
Voluntary Guidelines on Land Governance, and the WB-UN global initiative
42 A range of frameworks, guidelines, and initiatives are now avail- on the Principles of Responsible Agricultural Investment
54 | World Bank Report
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ANNEX
Table A. 1: List of knowledge and data gaps that need to be filled
62 | World Bank Report
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64 | World Bank Report
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Table A. 2: Summary of SCD consultation meetings and key focus areas identified by stakeholders
66 | World Bank Report
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Photo by: Ni Ni Myint/World Bank, 2014